political relations essay

Essay on Politics: Topics, Tips, and Examples for Students

Defining What is Politics Essay

The process of decision-making that applies to members of a group or society is called politics. Arguably, political activities are the backbone of human society, and everything in our daily life is a form of it.

Understanding the essence of politics, reflecting on its internal elements, and critically analyzing them make society more politically aware and let them make more educated decisions. Constantly thinking and analyzing politics is critical for societal evolution.

Political thinkers often write academic papers that explore different political concepts, policies, and events. The essay about politics may examine a wide range of topics such as government systems, political ideologies, social justice, public policies, international relations, etc.

After selecting a specific research topic, a writer should conduct extensive research, gather relevant information, and prepare a logical and well-supported argument. The paper should be clear and organized, complying with academic language and standards. A writer should demonstrate a deep understanding of the subject, an ability to evaluate and remain non-biased to different viewpoints, and a capacity to draw conclusions.

Now that we are on the same page about the question 'what is politics essay' and understand its importance, let's take a deeper dive into how to build a compelling political essay, explore the most relevant political argumentative essay topics, and finally, examine the political essay examples written by the best essay writing service team.

Politics Essay Example for Students

If you are still unsure how to structure your essay or how to present your statement, don't worry. Our team of experts has prepared an excellent essay example for you. Feel free to explore and examine it. Use it to guide you through the writing process and help you understand what a successful essay looks like.

How to Write a Political Essay: Tips + Guide

A well-written essay is easy to read and digest. You probably remember reading papers full of big words and complex ideas that no one bothered to explain. We all agree that such essays are easily forgotten and not influential, even though they might contain a very important message.

If you are writing an essay on politics, acknowledge that you are on a critical mission to easily convey complicated concepts. Hence, what you are trying to say should be your main goal. Our guide on how to write a political essay will help you succeed.

Conduct Research for Your Politics Essay

After choosing a topic for the essay, take enough time for preparation. Even if you are familiar with the matter, conducting thorough research is wiser. Political issues are complex and multifaceted; comprehensive research will help you understand the topic better and offer a more nuanced analysis.

Research can help you identify different viewpoints and arguments around the topic, which can be beneficial for building more impartial and persuasive essays on politics. Sometimes in the hit of the moment, opposing sides are not able to see the common ground; your goal is to remain rational, speak to diverse audiences, and help them see the core of the problem and the ways to solve it.

In political papers, accuracy and credibility are vital. Researching the topic deeply will help you avoid factual errors or misrepresentations from any standpoint. It will allow you to gather reliable sources of information and create a trustworthy foundation for the entire paper.

If you want to stand out from the other students, get inspired by the list of hottest essay ideas and check out our political essay examples.

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Brainstorm Political Essay Topics

The next step to writing a compelling politics essay is to polish your thoughts and find the right angle to the chosen topic.

Before you start writing, generate fresh ideas and organize your thoughts. There are different techniques to systematize the mess going on in your head, such as freewriting, mind mapping, or even as simple as listing ideas. This will open the doors to new angles and approaches to the topic.

When writing an essay about politics, ensure the topic is not too general. It's always better to narrow it down. It will simplify your job and help the audience better understand the core of the problem. Brainstorming can help you identify key points and arguments, which you can use to find a specific angle on the topic.

Brainstorming can also help you detect informational gaps that must be covered before the writing process. Ultimately, the brainstorming phase can bring a lot more clarity and structure to your essay.

We know how exhausting it is to come up with comparative politics essay topics. Let our research paper writing service team do all the hard work for you.

Create Your Politics Essay Thesis Statement

Thesis statements, in general, serve as a starting point of the roadmap for the reader. A political essay thesis statement outlines the main ideas and arguments presented in the body paragraphs and creates a general sense of the content of the paper.

Creating a thesis statement for essays about politics in the initial stages of writing can help you stay focused and on track throughout the working process. You can use it as an aim and constantly check your arguments and evidence against it. The question is whether they are relevant and supportive of the statement.

Get creative when creating a statement. This is the first sentence readers will see, and it should be compelling and clear.

The following is a great example of a clear and persuasive thesis statement:

 'The lack of transparency and accountability has made the World Trade Organization one of the most controversial economic entities. Despite the influence, its effectiveness in promoting free trade and economic growth in developing countries has decreased.'

Provide Facts in Your Essay about Politic

It's a no-brainer that everything you will write in your essay should be supported by strong evidence. The credibility of your argument will be questioned every step of the way, especially when you are writing about sensitive subjects such as essays on government influence on economic troubles. 

Provide facts and use them as supporting evidence in your politics essay. They will help you establish credibility and accuracy and take your paper out of the realm of speculation and mere opinions.

Facts will make your essay on political parties more persuasive, unbiased, and targeted to larger audiences. Remember, the goal is to bring the light to the core of the issue and find a solution, not to bring people even farther apart.

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Structure Your Political Essay

Your main goal is to communicate your ideas to many people. To succeed, you need to write an essay that is easy to read and understand. Creating a structure will help you present your ideas logically and lead the readers in the right direction.

Sometimes when writing about political essay topics, we get carried away. These issues can be very emotional and sensitive, and writers are not protected from becoming victims of their own writings. Having a structure will keep you on track, only focusing on providing supported arguments and relevant information.

Start with introducing the thesis statement and provide background information. Followed by the body paragraphs and discuss all the relevant facts and standpoints. Finish it up with a comprehensive conclusion, and state the main points of your essay once again.

The structure will also save you time. In the beginning, creating an outline for essays on politics will give you a general idea of what should be written, and you can track your progress against it.

Revise and Proofread Your Final Politics Essay

Once every opinion is on the paper and every argument is well-constructed, one final step should be taken. Revision!

We know nothing is better than finishing the homework and quickly submitting it, but we aim for an A+. Our political essay must be reviewed. You need to check if there is any error such as grammatical, spelling, or contextual.

Take some time off, relax, and start proofreading after a few minutes or hours. Having a fresh mind will help you review not only grammar but also the arguments. Check if something is missing from your essays about politics, and if you find gaps, provide additional information.

You had to spend a lot of time on them, don't give up now. Make sure they are in perfect condition.

Effective Political Essay Topics

We would be happy if our guide on how to write political essays helped you, but we are not stopping there. Below you will find a list of advanced and relevant political essay topics. Whether you are interested in global political topics or political science essay topics, we got you covered.

Once you select a topic, don't forget to check out our politics essay example! It will bring even more clarity, and you will be all ready to start writing your own paper.

Political Argumentative Essay Topics

Now that we know how to write a political analysis essay let's explore political argumentative essay topics:

• Should a political party take a stance on food politics and support policies promoting sustainable food systems?
• Should we label Winston Churchill as the most influential political figure of World War II?
• Does the focus on GDP growth in the political economy hinder the human development index?
• Is foreign influence a threat to national security?
• Is foreign aid the best practice for political campaigning?
• Does the electoral college work for an ideal political system?
• Are social movements making a real difference, or are they politically active for temporary change?
• Can global politics effectively address political conflicts in the modern world?
• Are opposing political parties playing positive roles in US international relations?
• To what extent should political influence be allowed in addressing economic concerns?
• Can representative democracy prevent civil wars in ethnically diverse countries?
• Should nuclear weapons be abolished for the sake of global relations?
• Is economic development more important than ethical issues for Caribbean politics?
• What role should neighboring nations play in preventing human rights abuse in totalitarian regimes?
• Should political decisions guide the resolution of conflicts in the South China Sea?

Political Socialization Essay Topics

Knowing how to write a political issue essay is one thing, but have you explored our list of political socialization essay topics?

• To what extent does a political party or an influential political figure shape the beliefs of young people?
• Does political influence shape attitudes toward environmental politics?
• How can individuals use their own learning process to navigate political conflicts in a polarized society?
• How do political strategies shape cultural globalization?
• Is gender bias used as a political instrument in political socialization?
• How can paying attention to rural communities improve political engagement?
• What is the role of Amnesty International in preventing the death penalty?
• What is the role of politically involved citizens in shaping minimum wage policies?
• How does a political party shape attitudes toward global warming?
• How does the federal system influence urban planning and attitudes toward urban development?
• What is the role of public opinion in shaping foreign policy, and how does it affect political decision making
• Did other countries' experiences affect policies on restricting immigration in the US?
• How can note-taking skills and practice tests improve political engagement? 
• How do the cultural values of an independent country shape the attitudes toward national security?
• Does public opinion influence international intervention in helping countries reconcile after conflicts?

Political Science Essay Topics

If you are searching for political science essay topics, check our list below and write the most compelling essay about politic:

• Is environmental education a powerful political instrument? 
• Can anarchist societies provide a viable alternative to traditional forms of governance?
• Pros and cons of deterrence theory in contemporary international relations
• Comparing the impact of the French Revolution and World War II on the political landscape of Europe
• The role of the ruling political party in shaping national policies on nuclear weapons
• Exploring the roots of where politics originate
• The impact of civil wars on the processes of democratization of the third-world countries
• The role of international organizations in promoting global health
• Does using the death penalty in the justice system affect international relations?
• Assessing the role of the World Trade Organization in shaping global trade policies
• The political and environmental implications of conventional agriculture
• The impact of the international court on political decision making
• Is philosophical anarchism relevant to contemporary political discourse?
• The emergence of global citizenship and its relationship with social movements
• The impact of other countries on international relations between the US and China

Final Words

See? Writing an essay about politic seems like a super challenging job, but in reality, all it takes is excellent guidance, a well-structured outline, and an eye for credible information.

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Political Realism in International Relations

In the discipline of international relations there are contending general theories or theoretical perspectives. Realism, also known as political realism, is a view of international politics that stresses its competitive and conflictual side. It is usually contrasted with idealism or liberalism, which tends to emphasize cooperation. Realists consider the principal actors in the international arena to be states, which are concerned with their own security, act in pursuit of their own national interests, and struggle for power. The negative side of the realists’ emphasis on power and self-interest is often their skepticism regarding the relevance of ethical norms to relations among states. National politics is the realm of authority and law, whereas international politics, they sometimes claim, is a sphere without justice, characterized by active or potential conflict among states, where ethical standards do not apply.

Not all realists, however, deny the presence of prescriptive ethics in international relations. The distinction should be drawn between classical realism—represented by such twentieth-century theorists as Reinhold Niebuhr and Hans Morgenthau—and radical or extreme realism. While classical realism emphasizes the concept of national interest, it is not the Machiavellian doctrine “that anything is justified by reason of state” (Bull 1995, 189). Nor does it involve the glorification of war or conflict. The classical realists do not reject the possibility of moral judgment in international politics. Rather, they are critical of moralism—abstract moral discourse that does not take into account political realities. They assign ethical value to successful political action based on prudence: the ability to judge the rightness of a given action from among possible alternatives on the basis of its likely political consequences.

Realism encompasses a variety of approaches and claims a long theoretical tradition. Among its founding fathers, Thucydides, Machiavelli and Hobbes are the names most usually mentioned. Twentieth-century classical realism has today been largely replaced by neorealism, which is an attempt to construct a more scientific approach to the study of international relations. Both classical realism and neorealism have been subjected to criticism from IR theorists representing liberal, critical, and post-modern perspectives. The growing tensions among superpowers have revived the realist-idealist debate in the twenty-first century and have led to a resurgence of interest in the realist tradition.

1.1 Thucydides and the Importance of Power

1.2 machiavelli’s critique of the moral tradition, 1.3 hobbes’s anarchic state of nature, 2.1 e. h. carr’s challenge to utopian idealism, 2.2 hans morgenthau’s realist principles, 3.1 kenneth waltz’s international system, 3.2 objections to neorealism, 4. conclusion: the cautionary and changing character of realism, other internet resources, related entries, 1. the roots of the realist tradition.

Like other classical political theorists, Thucydides (c. 460–c. 400 B.C.E.) saw politics as involving moral questions. Most importantly, he asks whether relations among states to which power is crucial can also be guided by the norms of justice. His History of the Peloponnesian War is in fact neither a work of political philosophy nor a sustained theory of international relations. Much of this work, which presents a partial account of the armed conflict between Athens and Sparta that took place from 431 to 404 B.C.E., consists of paired speeches by personages who argue opposing sides of an issue. Nevertheless, if the History is described as the only acknowledged classical text in international relations, and if it inspires theorists from Hobbes to contemporary international relations scholars, this is because it is more than a chronicle of events, and a theoretical position can be extrapolated from it. Realism is expressed in the very first speech of the Athenians recorded in the History —a speech given at the debate that took place in Sparta just before the war. Moreover, a realist perspective is implied in the way Thucydides explains the cause of the Peloponnesian War, and also in the famous “Melian Dialogue,” in the statements made by the Athenian envoys.

1.1.1 General Features of Realism in International Relations

International relations realists emphasize the constraints imposed on politics by the nature of human beings, whom they consider egoistic, and by the absence of international government. Together these factors contribute to a conflict-based paradigm of international relations, in which the key actors are states, in which power and security become the main issues, and in which there is little place for ethical norms. The set of premises concerning state actors, egoism, anarchy, power, security, and ethics that define the realist tradition are all present in Thucydides.

(1) Human nature is a starting point for classical political realism. Realists view human beings as inherently egoistic and self-interested to the extent that self-interest overcomes moral principles. At the debate in Sparta, described in Book I of Thucydides’ History , the Athenians affirm the priority of self-interest over morality. They say that considerations of right and wrong have “never turned people aside from the opportunities of aggrandizement offered by superior strength” (chap. 1 par. 76).

(2) Realists, and especially today’s neorealists, consider the absence of government, literally anarchy , to be the primary determinant of international political outcomes. The lack of a common rule-making and enforcing authority means, they argue, that the international arena is essentially a self-help system. Each state is responsible for its own survival and is free to define its own interests and to pursue power. Anarchy thus leads to a situation in which power has the overriding role in shaping interstate relations. In the words of the Athenian envoys at Melos, without any common authority that can enforce order, “the independent states survive [only] when they are powerful” (5.97).

(3) Insofar as realists envision the world of states as anarchic, they likewise view security as a central issue. To attain security, states try to increase their power and engage in power-balancing for the purpose of deterring potential aggressors. Wars are fought to prevent competing nations from becoming militarily stronger. Thucydides, while distinguishing between the immediate and underlying causes of the Peloponnesian War, does not see its real cause in any of the particular events that immediately preceded its outbreak. He instead locates the cause of the war in the changing distribution of power between the two blocs of Greek city-states: the Delian League, under the leadership of Athens, and the Peloponnesian League, under the leadership of Sparta. According to him, the growth of Athenian power made the Spartans afraid for their security, and thus propelled them into war (1.23). Referring to this situation, Graham Allison has popularized the expression “Thucydides trap” to describe the danger which occurs when a rising power rivals an established one (2017).

(4) Realists are generally skeptical about the relevance of ethics to international politics. This can lead them to claim that there is no place for morality in the prescriptive sense in international relations, or that there is a tension between demands of morality and requirements of successful political action, or that states have their own morality that is different from customary morality, or that morality, if employed at all, is merely used instrumentally to justify states’ conduct. A clear case of the rejection of ethical norms in relations among states can be found in the “Melian Dialogue” (5.85–113). This dialogue relates to the events of 416 B.C.E., when Athens invaded the island of Melos. The Athenian envoys presented the Melians with a choice, destruction or surrender, and from the outset asked them not to appeal to justice, but to think only about their survival. In the envoys’ words, “We both know that the decisions about justice are made in human discussions only when both sides are under equal compulsion, but when one side is stronger, it gets as much as it can, and the weak must accept that” (5.89). To be “under equal compulsion” means to be under the force of law, and thus to be subjected to a common lawgiving authority (Korab-Karpowicz 2006, 234). Since such an authority above states does not exist, the Athenians argue that in this lawless condition of international anarchy, the only right is the right of the stronger to dominate the weaker. They explicitly equate right with might, and exclude considerations of justice from foreign affairs.

1.1.2 The “Melian Dialogue”—The First Realist-Idealist Debate

We can thus find strong support for a realist perspective in the statements of the Athenians. The question remains, however, to what extent their realism coincides with Thucydides’ own viewpoint. Although substantial passages of the “Melian Dialogue,” as well as other parts of the History support a realistic reading, Thucydides’ position cannot be deduced from such selected fragments, but rather must be assessed on the basis of the wider context of his book. In fact, even the “Melian Dialogue” itself provides us with a number of contending views.

Political realism is usually contrasted by IR scholars with idealism or liberalism, a theoretical perspective that emphasizes international norms, interdependence among states, and international cooperation. The “Melian Dialogue,” which is one of the most frequently commented-upon parts of Thucydides’ History , presents the classic debate between the idealist and realist views: Can international politics be based on a moral order derived from the principles of justice, or will it forever remain the arena of conflicting national interests and power?

For the Melians, who employ idealistic arguments, the choice is between war and subjection (5.86). They are courageous and love their country. They do not wish to lose their freedom, and in spite of the fact that they are militarily weaker than the Athenians, they are prepared to defend themselves (5.100; 5.112). They base their arguments on an appeal to justice, which they associate with fairness, and regard the Athenians as unjust (5.90; 5.104). They are pious, believing that gods will support their just cause and compensate for their weakness, and trust in alliances, thinking that their allies, the Spartans, who are also related to them, will help them (5.104; 5.112). Hence, one can identify in the speech of the Melians elements of the idealistic or liberal world view: the belief that nations have the right to exercise political independence, that they have mutual obligations to one another and will carry out such obligations, and that a war of aggression is unjust. What the Melians nevertheless lack are resources and foresight. In their decision to defend themselves, they are guided more by their hopes than by the evidence at hand or by prudent calculations.

The Athenian argument is based on key realist concepts such as security and power, and is informed not by what the world should be, but by what it is. The Athenians disregard any moral talk and urge the Melians to look at the facts—that is, to recognize their military inferiority, to consider the potential consequences of their decision, and to think about their own survival (5.87; 5.101). There appears to be a powerful realist logic behind the Athenian arguments. Their position, based on security concerns and self-interest, seemingly involves reliance on rationality, intelligence, and foresight. However, upon close examination, their logic proves to be seriously flawed. Melos, a relatively weak state, does not pose any real security threat to them. The eventual destruction of Melos does not change the course of the Peloponnesian War, which Athens will lose a few years later.

In the History , Thucydides shows that power, if it is unrestrained by moderation and a sense of justice, brings about the uncontrolled desire for more power. There are no logical limits to the size of an empire. Drunk with the prospect of glory and gain, after conquering Melos, the Athenians engage in a war against Sicily. They pay no attention to the Melian argument that considerations of justice are useful to all in the longer run (5.90). And, as the Athenians overestimate their strength and in the end lose the war, their self-interested logic proves to be very shortsighted indeed.

It is utopian to ignore the reality of power in international relations, but it is equally blind to rely on power alone. Thucydides appears to support neither the naive idealism of the Melians nor the cynicism of their Athenian opponents. He teaches us to be on guard “against naïve-dreaming on international politics,” on the one hand, and “against the other pernicious extreme: unrestrained cynicism,” on the other (Donnelly 2000, 193). If he can be regarded as a political realist, his realism nonetheless prefigures neither realpolitik , in which prescriptive ethics is rejected, nor today’s scientific neorealism, in which moral questions are largely ignored. Thucydides’ realism, neither immoral nor amoral, can rather be compared to that of Hans Morgenthau, Raymond Aron, and other twentieth-century classical realists, who, although sensible to the demands of national interest, would not deny that political actors on the international scene are subject to moral judgment.

Idealism in international relations, like realism, can lay claim to a long tradition. Unsatisfied with the world as they have found it, idealists have always tried to answer the question of “what ought to be” in politics. Plato, Aristotle, and Cicero were all political idealists who believed that there were some universal moral values on which political life could be based. Building on the work of his predecessors, Cicero developed the idea of a natural moral law that was applicable to both domestic and international politics. His ideas concerning righteousness in war were carried further in the writings of the Christian thinkers St. Augustine and St. Thomas Aquinas. In the late fifteenth century, when Niccolò Machiavelli was born, the idea that politics, including the relations among states, should be virtuous, and that the methods of warfare should remain subordinated to ethical standards, still predominated in political literature.

Machiavelli (1469–1527) challenged this well-established moral tradition, thus positioning himself as a political innovator. The novelty of his approach lies in his critique of classical Western political thought as unrealistic, aiming too high, and in his separation of politics from ethics. He thereby lays the foundations for modern politics focussed on self-interest. In chapter XV of The Prince , Machiavelli announces that in departing from the teachings of earlier thinkers, he seeks “the effectual truth of the matter rather than the imagined one.” The “effectual truth” is for him the only truth worth seeking. It represents the sum of the practical conditions that he believes are required to make both the individual and the country prosperous and strong. Machiavelli replaces the ancient virtue (a moral quality of the individual, such as justice or self-restraint) with virtù , ability or vigor. As a prophet of virtù , he promises to lead both nations and individuals to earthly glory and power.

Machiavellianism is a radical type of political realism that is applied to both domestic and international affairs. It is sometimes called realpolitik , and is a doctrine which denies the relevance of ethics in politics, and claims that all means (moral and immoral) are justified to achieve certain political ends. Although Machiavelli never uses the phrase ragione di stato or its French equivalent, raison d’état , what ultimately counts for him is precisely that: whatever is good for the state, rather than ethical scruples or norms

Machiavelli justified immoral actions in politics, but never refused to admit that they are evil. He operated within the single framework of traditional morality. It became a specific task of his nineteenth-century followers to develop the doctrine of a double ethics: one public and one private, to push Machiavellian realism to even further extremes, and to apply it to international relations. By asserting that “the state has no higher duty than of maintaining itself,” Hegel gave an ethical sanction to the state’s promotion of its own interest and advantage against other states (Meinecke 357). Thus he overturned the traditional beliefs about morality. The good of the state was perversely interpreted by him as the highest moral value, with the extension of national power regarded as a nation’s right and duty. Then, referring to Machiavelli, Heinrich von Treitschke declared that the state was power, precisely in order to assert itself as against other equally independent powers, and that the supreme moral duty of the state was to foster this power. He considered international agreements to be binding only insofar as it was expedient for the state. The idea of an autonomous ethics of state behavior and the concept of realpolitik were thus introduced. Traditional, customary ethics was denied and power politics was associated with a “higher” type of morality. These concepts, along with the belief in the superiority of Germanic culture, served as weapons with which German statesmen, from the eighteenth century to the end of the Second World War, justified their policies of conquest and extermination.

Machiavelli is often praised for his prudential advice to leaders (which has caused him to be regarded as a founding master of modern political strategy) and for his defense of the republican form of government. There are certainly many aspects of his thought that merit such praise. Nevertheless, it is also possible to see him as the thinker who bears foremost responsibility for the de-moralization of Europe. The argument of the Athenian envoys presented in Thucydides’ “Melian Dialogue,” that of Thrasymachus in Plato’s Republic , or that of Carneades, to whom Cicero refers—all of these challenge the ancient and Christian views of the unity of politics and ethics. However, before Machiavelli, this amoral or immoral mode of thinking had never prevailed in the mainstream of Western political thought. It was the force and timeliness of his justification of resorting to evil as a legitimate means of achieving political ends that persuaded so many of the thinkers and political practitioners who followed him. The effects of Machiavellian ideas, such as the notion that the employment of all possible means was permissible in war, would be seen on the battlefields of modern Europe, as mass citizen armies fought against each other to the bitter end without regard for the rules of justice. The tension between expediency and morality lost its validity in the sphere of politics. The concept of a double ethics that created a further damage to traditional morality, was invented. The doctrine of raison d’état ultimately led to the politics of Lebensraum , two world wars, and the Holocaust.

Perhaps the greatest problem with realism in international relations is that it has a tendency to slip into its extreme version, which accepts any policy that can benefit the state at the expense of other states, no matter how morally problematic the policy is. Even if they do not explicitly raise ethical questions, in the works of Waltz and of many other of today’s neorealists, a double ethics, public and private, is presupposed, and words such realpolitik no longer have the negative connotations that they had for classical realists, such as Hans Morgenthau.

Thomas Hobbes (1588–1683) was part of an intellectual movement whose goal was to free the emerging modern science from the constraints of the classical and scholastic heritage. According to classical political philosophy, on which the idealist perspective is based, human beings can control their desires through reason and can work for the benefit of others, even at the expense of their own benefit. They are thus both rational and moral agents, capable of distinguishing between right and wrong, and of making moral choices. They are also naturally social. With great skill Hobbes attacks these views. His human beings, extremely individualistic rather than moral or social, are subject to “a perpetual and restless desire of power after power, that ceases only in death” ( Leviathan XI 2). They therefore inevitably struggle for power. In setting out such ideas, Hobbes contributes to some of the basic conceptions fundamental to the realist tradition in international relations, and especially to neorealism. These include the characterization of human nature as egoistic, the concept of international anarchy, and the view that politics, rooted in the struggle for power, can be rationalized and studied scientifically.

One of the most widely known Hobbesian concepts is that of the anarchic state of nature, seen as entailing a state of war—and “such a war as is of every man against every man” (XII 8). He derives his notion of the state of war from his views of both human nature and the condition in which individuals exist. Since in the state of nature there is no government and everyone enjoys equal status, every individual has a right to everything; that is, there are no constraints on an individual’s behavior. Anyone may at any time use force, and all must constantly be ready to counter such force with force. Hence, driven by acquisitiveness, having no moral restraints, and motivated to compete for scarce goods, individuals are apt to “invade” one another for gain. Being suspicious of one another and driven by fear, they are also likely to engage in preemptive actions and invade one another to ensure their own safety. Finally, individuals are also driven by pride and a desire for glory. Whether for gain, safety, or reputation, power-seeking individuals will thus “endeavor to destroy or subdue one another” (XIII 3). In such uncertain conditions where everyone is a potential aggressor, making war on others is a more advantageous strategy than peaceable behavior, and one needs to learn that domination over others is necessary for one’s own continued survival.

Hobbes is primarily concerned with the relationship between individuals and the state, and his comments about relations among states are scarce. Nevertheless, what he says about the lives of individuals in the state of nature can also be interpreted as a description of how states exist in relation to one another. Once states are established, the individual drive for power becomes the basis for the states’ behavior, which often manifests itself in their efforts to dominate other states and peoples. States, “for their own security,” writes Hobbes, “enlarge their dominions upon all pretences of danger and fear of invasion or assistance that may be given to invaders, [and] endeavour as much as they can, to subdue and weaken their neighbors” (XIX 4). Accordingly, the quest and struggle for power lies at the core of the Hobbesian vision of relations among states. The same would later be true of the model of international relations developed by Hans Morgenthau, who was deeply influenced by Hobbes and adopted the same view of human nature. Similarly, the neorealist Kenneth Waltz would follow Hobbes’ lead regarding international anarchy (the fact that sovereign states are not subject to any higher common sovereign) as the essential element of international relations.

By subjecting themselves to a sovereign, individuals escape the war of all against all which Hobbes associates with the state of nature; however, this war continues to dominate relations among states. This does not mean that states are always fighting, but rather that they have a disposition to fight (XIII 8). With each state deciding for itself whether or not to use force, war may break out at any time. The achievement of domestic security through the creation of a state is then paralleled by a condition of inter-state insecurity. One can argue that if Hobbes were fully consistent, he would agree with the notion that, to escape this condition, states should also enter into a contract and submit themselves to a world sovereign. Although the idea of a world state would find support among some of today’s realists, this is not a position taken by Hobbes himself. He does not propose that a social contract among nations be implemented to bring international anarchy to an end. This is because the condition of insecurity in which states are placed does not necessarily lead to insecurity for their citizens. As long as an armed conflict or other type of hostility between states does not actually break out, individuals within a state can feel relatively secure.

The denial of the existence of universal moral principles and norms in the relations among states brings Hobbes close to the Machiavellians and the followers of the doctrine of raison d’état . His theory of international relations, which assumes that independent states, like independent individuals, are enemies by nature, asocial and selfish, and that there is no moral limitation on their behavior, is a great challenge to the idealist political vision based on human sociability and to the concept of the international jurisprudence that is built on this vision. However, what separates Hobbes from Machiavelli and associates him more with classical realism is his insistence on the defensive character of foreign policy. His political theory does not put forward the invitation to do whatever may be advantageous for the state. His approach to international relations is prudential and pacific: sovereign states, like individuals, should be disposed towards peace which is commended by reason.

What Waltz and other neorealist readers of Hobbes’s works sometimes overlook is that he does not perceive international anarchy as an environment without any rules. By suggesting that certain dictates of reason apply even in the state of nature, he affirms that more peaceful and cooperative international relations are possible. Neither does he deny the existence of international law. Sovereign states can sign treaties with one another to provide a legal basis for their relations. At the same time, however, Hobbes seems aware that international rules will often prove ineffective in restraining the struggle for power. States will interpret them to their own advantage, and so international law will be obeyed or ignored according to the interests of the states affected. Hence, international relations will always tend to be a precarious affair. This grim view of global politics lies at the core of Hobbes’s realism.

2. Twentieth Century Classical Realism

Twentieth-century realism was born in response to the idealist perspective that dominated international relations scholarship in the aftermath of the First World War. The idealists of the 1920s and 1930s (also called liberal internationalists or utopians) had the goal of building peace in order to prevent another world conflict. They saw the solution to inter-state problems as being the creation of a respected system of international law, backed by international organizations. This interwar idealism resulted in the founding of the League of Nations in 1920 and in the Kellogg-Briand Pact of 1928 outlawing war and providing for the peaceful settlements of disputes. U.S. President Woodrow Wilson, scholars such as Norman Angell, Alfred Zimmern, and Raymond B. Fosdick, and other prominent idealists of the era, gave their intellectual support to the League of Nations. Instead of focusing on what some might see as the inevitability of conflict between states and peoples, they chose to emphasize the common interests that could unite humanity, and attempted to appeal to rationality and morality. For them, war did not originate in an egoistic human nature, but rather in imperfect social conditions and political arrangements, which could be improved. Yet their ideas were already being criticized in the early 1930s by Reinhold Niebuhr and within a few years by E. H. Carr. The League of Nations, which the United States never joined, and from which Japan and Germany withdrew, could not prevent the outbreak of the Second World War. This fact, perhaps more than any theoretical argument, contributed to the development of the realist theory. Although the United Nations, founded in 1945, can still be regarded as a product of idealist political thinking, the discipline of international relations was profoundly influenced in the initial years of the post-war period by the works of “classical” realists such as John H. Herz, Hans Morgenthau, George Kennan, and Raymond Aron. Then, during the 1950s and 1960s, classical realism came under challenge of scholars who tried to introduce a more scientific approach to the study of international politics. During the 1980s it gave way to another trend in international relations theory—neorealism.

Since it is impossible within the scope of this article to introduce all of the thinkers who contributed to the development of twentieth-century classical realism, E. H. Carr and Hans Morgenthau, as perhaps the most influential among them, have been selected for discussion here.

In his main work on international relations, The Twenty Years’ Crisis , first published in July 1939, Edward Hallett Carr (1892–1982) attacks the idealist position, which he describes as “utopianism.” He characterizes this position as encompassing faith in reason, confidence in progress, a sense of moral rectitude, and a belief in an underlying harmony of interests. According to the idealists, war is an aberration in the course of normal life and the way to prevent it is to educate people for peace, and to build systems of collective security such as the League of Nations or today’s United Nations. Carr challenges idealism by questioning its claim to moral universalism and its idea of the harmony of interests. He declares that “morality can only be relative, not universal” (19), and states that the doctrine of the harmony of interests is invoked by privileged groups “to justify and maintain their dominant position” (75).

Carr uses the concept of the relativity of thought, which he traces to Marx and other modern theorists, to show that standards by which policies are judged are the products of circumstances and interests. His central idea is that the interests of a given party always determine what this party regards as moral principles, and hence, these principles are not universal. Carr observes that politicians, for example, often use the language of justice to cloak the particular interests of their own countries, or to create negative images of other people to justify acts of aggression. The existence of such instances of morally discrediting a potential enemy or morally justifying one’s own position shows, he argues, that moral ideas are derived from actual policies. Policies are not, as the idealists would have it, based on some universal norms, independent of interests of the parties involved.

If specific ethical standards are de facto founded on interests, Carr’s argument goes, there are also interests underlying what are regarded as absolute principles or universal moral values. While the idealists tend to regard such values, such as peace or justice, as universal and claim that upholding them is in the interest of all, Carr argues against this view. According to him, there are neither universal values nor universal interests. He claims that those who refer to universal interests are in fact acting in their own interests (71). They think that what is best for them is best for everyone, and identify their own interests with the universal interest of the world at large.

The idealist concept of the harmony of interests is based on the notion that human beings can rationally recognize that they have some interests in common, and that cooperation is therefore possible. Carr contrasts this idea with the reality of conflict of interests . According to him, the world is torn apart by the particular interests of different individuals and groups. In such a conflictual environment, order is based on power, not on morality. Further, morality itself is the product of power (61). Like Hobbes, Carr regards morality as constructed by the particular legal system that is enforced by a coercive power. International ethical norms are imposed on other countries by dominant nations or groups of nations that present themselves as the international community as a whole. They are invented to perpetuate those nations’ dominance.

Values that idealists view as good for all, such as peace, social justice, prosperity, and international order, are regarded by Carr as mere status quo notions. The powers that are satisfied with the status quo regard the arrangement in place as just and therefore preach peace. They try to rally everyone around their idea of what is good. “Just as the ruling class in a community prays for domestic peace, which guarantees its own security and predominance, … so international peace becomes a special vested interest of predominant powers” (76). On the other hand, the unsatisfied powers consider the same arrangement as unjust, and so prepare for war. Hence, the way to obtain peace, if it cannot be simply enforced, is to satisfy the unsatisfied powers. “Those who profit most by [international] order can in the longer run only hope to maintain it by making sufficient concessions to make it tolerable to those who profit by it least” (152). The logical conclusion to be drawn by the reader of Carr’s book is the policy of appeasement.

Carr was a sophisticated thinker. He recognized himself that the logic of “pure realism can offer nothing but a naked struggle for power which makes any kind of international society impossible” (87). Although he demolishes what he calls “the current utopia” of idealism, he at the same time attempts to build “a new utopia,” a realist world order ( ibid .). Thus, he acknowledges that human beings need certain fundamental principles or beliefs that are shared across different cultures, and contradicts his own earlier argument by which he tries to deny universality to any norms or values. To make further objections to his position, the fact, as he claims, that the language of universal values can be misused in politics for the benefit of one party or another, and that such values can only be imperfectly implemented in political institutions, does not mean that such values do not exist. There is a deep yearning in many human beings, both privileged and unprivileged, for peace, order, prosperity, and justice. The legitimacy of idealism consists in the constant attempt to reflect upon and uphold these values. Idealists fail if in their attempt they do not pay enough attention to the reality of power. On the other hand, in the world of “pure realism,” in which all values are made relative to interests, life turns into nothing more than a power game and is unbearable.

The Twenty Years’ Crisis touches on a number of universal ideas, but it also reflects the spirit of its time. While we can fault the interwar idealists for their inability to construct international institutions strong enough to prevent the outbreak of the Second World War, this book indicates that interwar realists were likewise unprepared to meet the challenge. Carr frequently refers to Germany under Nazi rule as if it were a country like any other. He says that should Germany cease to be an unsatisfied power and “become supreme in Europe,” it would adopt a language of international solidarity similar to that of other Western powers (79). The inability of Carr and other realists to recognize the perilous nature of Nazism, and their belief that Germany could be satisfied by territorial concessions, helped to foster a political environment in which the latter was to grow in power, annex Czechoslovakia at will, and be militarily opposed in September 1939 by Poland alone.

A theory of international relations is not just an intellectual enterprise; it has practical consequences. It influences our thinking and political practice. On the practical side, the realists of the 1930s, to whom Carr gave intellectual support, were people opposed to the system of collective security embodied in the League of Nations. Working within the foreign policy establishments of the day, they contributed to its weakness. Once they had weakened the League, they pursued a policy of appeasement and accommodation with Germany as an alternative to collective security (Ashworth 46). After the annexation of Czechoslovakia, when the failure of the anti-League realist conservatives gathered around Neville Chamberlain and of this policy became clear, they tried to rebuild the very security system they had earlier demolished. Those who supported collective security were labeled idealists.

Hans J. Morgenthau (1904–1980) developed realism into a comprehensive international relations theory. Influenced by the Protestant theologian and political writer Reinhold Niebuhr, as well as by Hobbes, he places selfishness and power-lust at the center of his picture of human existence. The insatiable human lust for power, timeless and universal, which he identifies with animus dominandi , the desire to dominate, is for him the main cause of conflict. As he asserts in his main work, Politics among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace , first published in 1948, “international politics, like all politics, is a struggle for power” (25).

Morgenthau systematizes realism in international relations on the basis of six principles that he includes in the second edition of Politics among Nations . As a traditionalist, he opposes the so-called scientists (the scholars who, especially in the 1950s, tried to reduce the discipline of international relations to a branch of behavioral science). Nevertheless, in the first principle he states that realism is based on objective laws that have their roots in unchanging human nature (4). He wants to develop realism into both a theory of international politics and a political art, a useful tool of foreign policy.

The keystone of Morgenthau’s realist theory is the concept of power or “of interest defined in terms of power,” which informs his second principle: the assumption that political leaders “think and act in terms of interest defined as power” (5). This concept defines the autonomy of politics, and allows for the analysis of foreign policy regardless of the different motives, preferences, and intellectual and moral qualities of individual politicians. Furthermore, it is the foundation of a rational picture of politics.

Although, as Morgenthau explains in the third principle, interest defined as power is a universally valid category, and indeed an essential element of politics, various things can be associated with interest or power at different times and in different circumstances. Its content and the manner of its use are determined by the political and cultural environment.

In the fourth principle, Morgenthau considers the relationship between realism and ethics. He says that while realists are aware of the moral significance of political action, they are also aware of the tension between morality and the requirements of successful political action. “Universal moral principles,” he asserts, “cannot be applied to the actions of states in their abstract universal formulation, but …they must be filtered through the concrete circumstances of time and place” (9). These principles must be accompanied by prudence for as he cautions “there can be no political morality without prudence; that is, without consideration of the political consequences of seemingly moral action” ( ibid .).

Prudence, the ability to judge the rightness of a given action from among possible alternatives on the basis of its likely political consequences, and not conviction of one’s own moral or ideological superiority, should guide political decisions. This is stressed in the fifth principle, where Morgenthau again emphasizes the idea that all state actors, including our own, must be looked at solely as political entities pursuing their respective interests defined in terms of power. By taking this point of view vis-à-vis its counterparts and thus avoiding ideological confrontation, a state would then be able to pursue policies that respected the interests of other states, while protecting and promoting its own.

Insofar as power, or interest defined as power, is the concept that defines politics, politics is an autonomous sphere, as Morgenthau says in his sixth principle of realism. It cannot be subordinated to ethics. However, ethics does still play a role in politics. “A man who was nothing but ‘political man’ would be a beast, for he would be completely lacking in moral restraints. A man who was nothing but ‘moral man’ would be a fool, for he would be completely lacking in prudence” (12). Political art requires that these two dimensions of human life, power and morality, be taken into consideration.

While Morgenthau’s six principles of realism contain repetitions and inconsistencies, we can nonetheless obtain from them the following picture: Power or interest is the central concept that makes politics into an autonomous discipline. Rational state actors pursue their national interests. Therefore, a rational theory of international politics can be constructed. Such a theory is not concerned with the morality, religious beliefs, motives or ideological preferences of individual political leaders. It also indicates that in order to avoid conflicts, states should avoid moral crusades or ideological confrontations, and look for compromise based solely on satisfaction of their mutual interests.

Although he defines politics as an autonomous sphere, Morgenthau does not separate ethics from politics. The act of protecting one’s country has for him a deep moral significance. Ultimately directed toward the objective of national survival, it involves prudence that is related to choosing the best course of action. The effective protection of citizens’ lives from harm in case of an international armed conflict is not merely a forceful physical action; it also has prudential and moral dimensions.

Morgenthau regards realism as a way of thinking about international relations and a useful tool for devising policies. However, some of the basic conceptions of his theory, and especially the idea of conflict as stemming from human nature, as well as the concept of power itself, have provoked criticism.

International politics, like all politics, is for Morgenthau a struggle for power because of the basic human lust for power. But regarding every individual as being engaged in a perpetual quest for power—the view that he shares with Hobbes—is a questionable premise. Human nature cannot be revealed by observation and experiment. It cannot be proved by any empirical research, but only disclosed by philosophy, imposed on us as a matter of belief, and inculcated by education.

Morgenthau himself reinforces the belief in the human drive for power by introducing a normative aspect of his theory, which is rationality. A rational foreign policy is considered “to be a good foreign policy” (7). But he defines rationality as a process of calculating the costs and benefits of all alternative policies in order to determine their relative utility, i.e. their ability to maximize power. Statesmen “think and act in terms of interest defined as power” (5). Only intellectual weakness of policy makers can result in foreign policies that deviate from a rational course aimed at minimizing risks and maximizing benefits. Hence, rather than presenting an actual portrait of human affairs, Morgenthau emphasizes the pursuit of power and the rationality of this pursuit, and sets it up as a norm.

As Raymond Aron and other scholars have noticed, power, the fundamental concept of Morgenthau’s realism, is ambiguous. It can be either a means or an end in politics. But if power is only a means for gaining something else, it does not define the nature of international politics in the way Morgenthau claims. It does not allow us to understand the actions of states independently from the motives and ideological preferences of their political leaders. It cannot serve as the basis for defining politics as an autonomous sphere. Morgenthau’s principles of realism are thus open to doubt. “Is this true,” Aron asks, “that states, whatever their regime, pursue the same kind of foreign policy” (597) and that the foreign policies of Napoleon or Stalin are essentially identical to those of Hitler, Louis XVI or Nicholas II, amounting to no more than the struggle for power? “If one answers yes, then the proposition is incontestable, but not very instructive” (598). Accordingly, it is useless to define actions of states by exclusive reference to power, security or national interest. International politics cannot be studied independently of the wider historical and cultural context.

Carr and Morgenthau concentrate primarily on international relations. However, their political realism can also be applied to domestic politics. To be a classical realist is in general to perceive politics as a conflict of interests and a struggle for power, and to seek peace by recognizing common interests and trying to satisfy them, rather than by moralizing. Bernard Williams and Raymond Geuss, influential representatives of the new political realism, a movement in contemporary political theory, criticize what they describe as “political moralism” and stress the autonomy of politics against ethics. However, political theory realism and international relations realism seem like two separate research programs. As noted by several scholars (William Scheuerman, Alison McQueen, Terry Nardin. Duncan Bell), those who contribute to realism in political theory give little attention to those who work on realism in international politics.

3. Neorealism

In spite of its ambiguities and weaknesses, Morgenthau’s Politics among Nations became a standard textbook and influenced thinking about international politics for a generation or so. At the same time, there was an attempt to develop a more methodologically rigorous approach to theorizing about international affairs. In the 1950s and 1960s a large influx of scientists from different fields entered the discipline of International Relations and attempted to replace the “wisdom literature” of classical realists with scientific concepts and reasoning (Brown 35). This in turn provoked a counterattack by Morgenthau and scholars associated with the so-called English School, especially Hedley Bull, who defended a traditional approach (Bull 1966).

As a result, the discipline of international relations has been divided into two main strands: traditional or non-positivist and scientific or positivist (neo-positivist). At a later stage the third strand: post-positivism has been added. The traditionalists raise normative questions and engage with history, philosophy and law. The scientists or positivists stress a descriptive and explanatory form of inquiry, rather than a normative one. They have established a strong presence in the field. Already by the mid-1960s, the majority of American students in international relations were trained in quantitative research, game theory, and other new research techniques of the social sciences. This, along with the changing international environment, had a significant effect on the discipline.

Notwithstanding their methodological differences, realists’ assumption is that the state is the key actor in international politics, and that competitive and conflictual relations among states are the core of actual international relations. However, with the receding of the Cold War during the 1970s, one could witness the growing importance of other actors: international and non-governmental organizations, as well as of multinational corporations. This development led to a revival of idealist thinking, which became known as neoliberalism or pluralism. While accepting some basic assumptions of realism, the leading pluralists, Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye, have proposed the concept of complex interdependence to describe this more sophisticated picture of global politics. They would argue that states could effectively cooperate with each other for mutual benefit and there can be progress in international relations, and that the future does not need to look like the past.

The realist retort came most prominently from Kenneth N. Waltz, who reformulated realism in international relations in a new and distinctive way. In his book Theory of International Politics , first published in 1979, he responded to the liberal challenge and attempted to cure the defects of the classical realism of Hans Morgenthau with his more scientific approach, which has become known as structural realism or neorealism. Whereas Morgenthau rooted his theory in the struggle for power, which he related to human nature, Waltz made an effort to avoid any philosophical discussion of human nature, and set out instead to build a theory of international politics using microeconomics as a model. In his works, he argues that states in the international system are like firms in a domestic economy and have the same fundamental interest: to survive. “Internationally, the environment of states’ actions, or the structure of their system, is set by the fact that some states prefer survival over other ends obtainable in the short run and act with relative efficiency to achieve that end” (93).

Waltz maintains that by paying attention to the individual state, and to ideological, moral and economic issues, both traditional liberals and classical realists make the same mistake. They fail to develop a serious account of the international system—one that can be abstracted from the wider socio-political domain. Waltz acknowledges that such an abstraction distorts reality and omits many of the factors that were important for classical realism. It does not allow for the analysis of the development of specific foreign policies. However, it also has utility. Notably, it assists in understanding the primary determinants of international politics. To be sure, Waltz’s neorealist theory cannot be applied to domestic politics. It cannot serve to develop policies of states concerning their international or domestic affairs. His theory helps only to explain why states behave in similar ways despite their different forms of government and diverse political ideologies, and why, despite their growing interdependence, the overall picture of international relations is unlikely to change.

According to Waltz, the uniform behavior of states over centuries can be explained by the constraints on their behavior that are imposed by the structure of the international system. A system’s structure is defined first by the principle by which it is organized, then by the differentiation of its units, and finally by the distribution of capabilities (power) across units. Anarchy, or the absence of central authority, is for Waltz the ordering principle of the international system. The units of the international system are states. Waltz recognizes the existence of non-state actors, but dismisses them as relatively unimportant. Since all states want to survive, and anarchy presupposes a self-help system in which each state has to take care of itself, there is no division of labor or functional differentiation among them. While functionally similar, they are nonetheless distinguished by their relative capabilities (the power each of them represents) to perform the same function.

Consequently, Waltz sees power and state behavior in a different way from the classical realists. For Morgenthau power was both a means and an end, and rational state behavior was understood as simply the course of action that would accumulate the most power. In contrast, neorealists assume that the fundamental interest of each state is security and would therefore concentrate on the distribution of power. What also sets neorealism apart from classical realism is methodological rigor and scientific self-conception (Guzinni 1998, 127–128). Waltz insists on empirical testability of knowledge and on falsificationism as a methodological ideal, which, as he himself admits, can have only a limited application in international relations.

The distribution of capabilities among states can vary; however, anarchy, the ordering principle of international relations, remains unchanged. This has a lasting effect on the behavior of states that become socialized into the logic of self-help. Trying to refute neoliberal ideas concerning the effects of interdependence, Waltz identifies two reasons why the anarchic international system limits cooperation: insecurity and unequal gains. In the context of anarchy, each state is uncertain about the intentions of others and is afraid that the possible gains resulting from cooperation may favor other states more than itself, and thus lead it to dependence on others. “States do not willingly place themselves in situations of increased dependence. In a self-help system, considerations of security subordinate economic gain to political interest.” (Waltz 1979, 107).

Because of its theoretical elegance and methodological rigor, neorealism has become very influential within the discipline of international relations. In the eyes of many scholars, Morgenthau’s realism has come to be seen as anachronistic—“an interesting and important episode in the history of thinking about the subject, no doubt, but one scarcely to be seen as a serious contribution of the rigorously scientific theory” (Williams 2007, 1). However, while initially gaining more acceptance than classical realism, neorealism has also provoked strong critiques on a number of fronts.

In 1979 Waltz wrote that in the nuclear age the international bipolar system, based on two superpowers—the United States and the Soviet Union—was not only stable but likely to persist (176–7). With the fall of the Berlin Wall and the subsequent disintegration of the USSR this prediction was proven wrong. The bipolar world turned out to have been more precarious than most realist analysts had supposed. Its end opened new possibilities and challenges related to globalization. This has led many critics to argue that neorealism, like classical realism, cannot adequately account for changes in world politics.

The new debate between international (neo)realists and (neo)liberals is no longer concerned with the questions of morality and human nature, but with the extent to which state behavior is influenced by the anarchic structure of the international system rather than by institutions, learning and other factors that are conductive to cooperation. In his 1989 book International Institutions and State Power , Robert Keohane accepts Waltz’s emphasis on system-level theory and his general assumption that states are self-interested actors that rationally pursue their goals. However, by employing game theory he shows that states can widen the perception of their self-interest through economic cooperation and involvement in international institutions. Patterns of interdependence can thus affect world politics. Keohane calls for systemic theories that would be able to deal better with factors affecting state interaction, and with change.

Critical theorists, such as Robert W. Cox, also focus on the alleged inability of neorealism to deal with change. In their view, neorealists take a particular, historically determined state-based structure of international relations and assume it to be universally valid. In contrast, critical theorists believe that by analyzing the interplay of ideas, material factors, and social forces, one can understand how this structure has come about, and how it may eventually change (Cox 1986). They contend that neorealism ignores both the historical process during which identities and interests are formed, and the diverse methodological possibilities. It legitimates the existing status quo of strategic relations among states and considers the scientific method as the only way of obtaining knowledge. It represents an exclusionary practice, an interest in domination and control.

While realists are concerned with relations among states and national security, the focus for critical theorists is human security and social emancipation. They focus on social, economic and environmental security for the individual and the group. Despite their differences, critical theory, postmodernism and feminism all take issue with the notion of state sovereignty and envision new political communities that would be less exclusionary vis-à-vis marginal and disenfranchised groups. Critical theory argues against state-based exclusion and denies that the interests of a country’s citizens take precedence over those of outsiders. It insists that politicians should give as much weight to the interests of foreigners as they give to those of their compatriots and envisions political structures beyond the “fortress” nation-state. Postmodernism questions the state’s claim to be a legitimate focus of human loyalties and its right to impose social and political boundaries. It supports cultural diversity and stresses the interests of minorities. Feminism argues that the realist theory exhibits a masculine bias and advocates the inclusion of woman and alternative values into public life.

Since critical theories and other alternative theoretical perspectives question the existing status quo, make knowledge dependent on power, and emphasize identity formation and social change, they are not traditional or non-positivist. They are sometimes called “reflectivist” or “post-positivist” (Weaver 165) and represent a radical departure from the neorealist and neoliberal “rationalist” or “positivist” international relation theories. For critical security theorists, security is not an objective phenomenon. It is essentially social, socially constructed and serves a political agenda. It legitimizes and imposes a political program on society that serves the dominant group. According to the critical securitization theory, the securitizing actor, who could be a politician or the governing party, “encodes a subject or a group as an existential threat to the reference object” (Ari 147). The object could be a state or a non-state group. Such a discursive practice defines threat and danger.

Constructivists, such as Alexander Wendt, try to build a bridge between these two approaches, positivist and post-positivist, by on the one hand, taking the present state system and anarchy seriously, and on the other hand, by focusing on the formation of identities and interests. Countering neorealist ideas, Wendt argues that self-help does not follow logically or casually from the principle of anarchy. It is socially constructed. Wendt’s idea that states’ identities and interests are socially constructed has earned his position the label “constructivism”. Consequently, in his view,“self-help and power politics are institutions, and not essential features of anarchy. Anarchy is what states make of it” (Wendt 1987 395). There is no single logic of anarchy but rather several, depending on the roles with which states identify themselves and each other. Power and interests are constituted by ideas and norms. Wendt claims that neorealism cannot account for change in world politics, but his norm-based constructivism can.

A similar conclusion, although derived in a traditional way, comes from the non-positivist theorists of the English school (International Society approach) who emphasize both systemic and normative constraints on the behavior of states. Referring to the classical view of the human being as an individual that is basically social and rational, capable of cooperating and learning from past experiences, these theorists emphasize that states, like individuals, have legitimate interests that others can recognize and respect, and that they can recognize the general advantages of observing a principle of reciprocity in their mutual relations (Jackson and Sørensen 167). Therefore, states can bind themselves to other states by treaties and develop some common values with other states. Hence, the structure of the international system is not unchangeable as the neorealists claim. It is not a permanent Hobbesian anarchy, permeated by the danger of war. An anarchic international system based on pure power relations among actors can evolve into a more cooperative and peaceful international society, in which state behavior is shaped by commonly shared values and norms. A practical expression of international society are international organizations that uphold the rule of law in international relations, especially the UN.

An unintended and unfortunate consequence of the debate about neorealism is that neorealism and a large part of its critique (with the notable exception of the English School) has been expressed in abstract scientific and philosophical terms. This has made the theory of international politics almost inaccessible to a layperson and has divided the discipline of international relations into incompatible parts. Whereas classical realism was a theory aimed at supporting diplomatic practice and providing a guide to be followed by those seeking to understand and deal with potential threats, today’s theories, concerned with various grand pictures and projects, are ill-suited to perform this task. This is perhaps the main reason why there has been a renewed interest in classical realism, and particularly in the ideas of Morgenthau. Rather than being seen as an obsolete form of pre-scientific realist thought, superseded by neorealist theory, his thinking is now considered to be more complex and of greater contemporary relevance than was earlier recognized (Williams 2007, 1–9). It fits uneasily in the orthodox picture of realism he is usually associated with.

In recent years, scholars have questioned prevailing narratives about clear theoretical traditions in the discipline of international relations. Thucydides, Machiavelli, Hobbes and other thinkers have become subject to re-examination as a means of challenging prevailing uses of their legacies in the discipline and exploring other lineages and orientations. Morgenthau has undergone a similar process of reinterpretation. A number of scholars (Hartmut Behr, Muriel Cozette, Amelia Heath, Sean Molloy) have endorsed the importance of his thought as a source of change for the standard interpretation of realism. Murielle Cozette stresses Morgenthau’s critical dimension of realism expressed in his commitment to “speak truth to power” and to “unmask power’s claims to truth and morality,” and in his tendency to assert different claims at different times (Cozette 10–12). She writes: “The protection of human life and freedom are given central importance by Morgenthau, and constitute a ‘transcendent standard of ethics’ which should always animate scientific enquiries” (19). This shows the flexibility of his classical realism and reveals his normative assumptions based on the promotion of universal moral values. While Morgenthau assumes that states are power-oriented actors, he at the same time acknowledges that international politics would be more pernicious than it actually is were it not for moral restraints and the work of international law(Behr and Heath 333).

Another avenue for the development of a realist theory of international relations is offered by Robert Gilpin’s seminal work War and Change in World Politics . If this work were to gain greater prominence in IR scholarship, instead of engaging in fruitless theoretical debates, we would be better prepared today “for rapid power shifts and geopolitical change ”(Wohlforth, 2011 505). We would be able to explain the causes of great wars and long periods of peace, and the creation and waning of international orders. Still another avenue is provided by the application of the new scientific discoveries to social sciences. The evidence for this is, for example, the recent work of Alexander Wendt, Quantum Mind and Social Science . A new realist approach to international politics could be based on the organic and holistic world view emerging from quantum theory, the idea of human evolution, and the growing awareness of the role of human beings in the evolutionary process (Korab-Karpowicz 2017).

Realism is thus more than a static, amoral theory, and cannot be accommodated solely within a positivist interpretation of international relations. It is a practical and evolving theory that depends on the actual historical and political conditions, and is ultimately judged by its ethical standards and by its relevance in making prudent political decisions (Morgenthau 1962). In place of the twentieth-century Cold War ideological rivalry, the main competition in the twenty-first-century is between the ideologies justifying the expansion of the US-dominated unipolar world and those supporting the reestablishment of a multipolar one (Müllerson 2017). Consequently, the growing tensions among superpowers have contributed to the revival of the idealist-realist debate and have caused a resurgence of interest in realism. John Mearsheimer is an important thinker in this respect, known for his pessimistic concept of offensive realism, which assumes that powerful states, such as the United States, would aim at the maximization of power and domination over others (Mearsheimer 2001). His late work, The Liberal Delusion (Mearsheimer 2019), in which he presents realist arguments against a liberal position, can already be considered a classic of the theory of international relations.

As the current revival of interest proves, realism is a theory for difficult times, when security becomes a real issue. This happens when countries face the danger of an armed conflict. In such situations, realism performs a useful cautionary role. It warns us against progressivism, moralism, legalism and other orientations that lose touch with the reality of self-interest and power. It is a necessary corrective to an overoptimistic liberal belief in international cooperation and change resulting from interdependence, as well as to a critical theory claim that our insecurity is merely a result of securitization.

Nevertheless, when it becomes a dogmatic enterprise, by focusing on conflict alone, realism fails to perform its proper function as a theory of international relations. By remaining stuck in a state-centric and excessively simplified “paradigm” such as neorealism and by denying the possibility of any progress in interstate relations, it turns into an ideology. Its emphasis on power politics and national interest can be misused to justify aggression. It has therefore to be supplanted by theories that take better account of the dramatically changing picture of global politics. To its merely negative, cautionary function, positive norms must be added. These norms extend from the rationality and prudence stressed by classical realists; through the vision of multilateralism, international law, and an international society emphasized by liberals and members of the English School; to the cosmopolitanism and global solidarity advocated by many of today’s writers.

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How to cite this entry . Preview the PDF version of this entry at the Friends of the SEP Society . Look up topics and thinkers related to this entry at the Internet Philosophy Ontology Project (InPhO). Enhanced bibliography for this entry at PhilPapers , with links to its database.

• Political Realism , entry the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy .
• Political Realism , entry in Wikipedia .
• Melian Dialogue , by Thucydides.
• The Prince , by Machiavelli.
• The Twenty Years’ Crisis (Chapter 4: The Harmony of Interests), by E.H. Carr.
• Principles of Realism , by H. Morgenthau.
• Peace and War , by Raymond Aron.
• Globalization and Governance , by Kenneth Waltz.

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Throughout your college applications process, there are many different types of essays you’ll be asked to write. Some of the most popular essay questions you’ll see might include writing about an extracurricular, why you want to matriculate at a school, and what you want to study.

Increasingly, you might also see a supplemental college essay asking you to discuss a political or global issue that you’re passionate about. Asking this type of question helps colleges understand what you care about outside of your personal life and how you will be an active global citizen.

Some examples from the 2019-2020 cycle include:

Georgetown University’s Walsh School of Foreign Service : Briefly discuss a current global issue, indicating why you consider it important and what you suggest should be done to deal with it.

Yeshiva University Honors Programs : What is one issue about which you are passionate?

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Tips for Writing the Political and Global Issues College Essay

Pick an issue close to your life.

When you first see a political and global issues prompt, your gut reaction might be to go with a big-picture topic that’s all over the news, like poverty or racism. The problem with these topics is that you usually have a page or less to talk about the issue and why it matters to you. Students also might not have a direct personal connection to such a broad topic. The goal of this essay is to reveal your critical thinking skills, but the higher-level goal of every college essay is to learn more about who you are.

Rather than go with a broad issue that you’re not personally connected to, see if there’s just one facet of it that you  can  contend with. This is especially important if the prompt simply asks for “an issue,” and not necessarily a “global issue.” While some essay prompts will specifically ask that you address a  global  issue (like Georgetown’s School of Foreign Service), there are still ways to approach it from a more focused perspective.

For example, if you were to talk about world hunger, you could start with the hunger you see in your community, which is a food desert. For your solution, you can discuss your plan to build a community garden, so the town is able to access fresh produce. Food deserts, of course, aren’t the only reason world hunger exists; so, you should also explore some other reasons, and other solutions. Maybe there is a better way to prevent and recuperate produce currently being wasted, for instance. If the prompt doesn’t specifically ask for a global issue, however, you could simply focus on food deserts.

For another example, maybe you want to talk about climate change. A more personal and focused approach would deal with happenings in your community, or a community you’ve had contact with. For instance, perhaps your local river was polluted because of textile industry waste; in this case, it would be fitting to address fast fashion specifically (which is still a global issue).

Remember your audience

As you’re approaching this essay, take care to understand the political ramifications of what you’re suggesting and how the school you’re addressing might react to it. Make sure you understand the school’s political viewpoints, and keep in mind that schools are hoping to see how you might fit on their campus based on your response.

So, if you’re applying to a school known for being progressive, like Oberlin or Amherst, you might not want to write an essay arguing that religious freedom is under threat in America. Or, if you’re applying to Liberty University, you should probably avoid writing an essay with a strong pro-LGBTQ stance. You don’t have to take the opposite position, but try picking a different issue that won’t raise the same concerns.

If you have no political alignment, choose economics

If you find yourself applying to a school with which you share no political viewpoints, you might want to consider if the school would even be a good fit for you. Why do you really want to go there? Are those reasons worth it? If you think so, consider writing about an economic issue, which tend to be less contentious than social issues.

For instance, you could write about the impact of monopolies because your parents own an independent bookstore that has been affected by Amazon. Or you could discuss tax breaks for companies that keep or move their production domestically, after seeing how your town changed when factories were moved abroad. Maybe tax filing is a cause you’re really passionate about, and you think the government should institute a free electronic system for all. No matter what you write about here, the key is to keep it close to home however you can.

Pick the best possible framing

When you’re writing an essay that doesn’t fully align with the political views of the school you’re applying to, you’ll want to minimize the gap between your viewpoint and that of the school. While they still might disagree with your views, this will give your essay (and therefore you) the best possible chance. Let’s say you’re applying to a school with progressive economic views, while you firmly believe in free markets. Consider these two essay options:

Option 1:  You believe in free markets because they have pulled billions out of terrible poverty in the developing world.

Option 2:  “Greed is good,” baby! Nothing wrong with the rich getting richer.

Even if you believe equally in the two reasons above personally, essay option 1 would be more likely to resonate with an admissions committee at a progressive school.

Let’s look at another, more subtle example:

Option 1:  Adding 500 police officers to the New York City public transit system to catch fare evaders allows officers to unfairly and systematically profile individuals based on their race.

Option 2:  The cost of hiring 500 additional police officers in the New York City public transit system is higher than the money that would be recouped by fare evasion.

While you might believe both of these things, a school that places a lower priority on race issues may respond better to the second option’s focus on the fallible economics of the issue.

Structuring the Essay

Depending on how long the essay prompt is, you’ll want to use your time and word count slightly differently. For shorter essays (under 250 words), focus on your personal connection rather than the issue itself. You don’t have much space and you need to make it count. For standard essays (250-500 words), you can spend about half the time on the issue and half the time on your personal connection. This should allow you to get more into the nuance. For longer essays, you can write more on the issue itself. But remember, no matter how long the essay is, they ultimately want to learn about you–don’t spend so much time on the issue that you don’t bring it back to yourself.

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Tips for writing Politics essays

15 February 2023 by Kitty

Hiya! I’m Kitty, and I study Politics with International Relations at the University of York! In my blog post, I share the methods I’ve developed to write a good Politics essay. Academic writing is very different to anything I had done before, and it took me a while to understand how to go about developing the correct skills.

Expectations vs reality

When I started university, I felt confident that I’d have no issues with writing essays, as it was something I was well practised in thanks to my A levels. When I received feedback suggesting that my approach to academic essays and writing wasn’t quite right, I felt my confidence waver and I was unsure how to adapt my skills. Through a bit of trial and error, I have developed an approach to essays which has drastically improved my confidence and skill.

Essay preparation

Throughout first year, I noticed that my skills improved as I read more academic articles. These exposed me to academic writing, and just through reading them for seminar work, I noticed that I was becoming more accustomed to the style. When I first started writing essays, I found looking back at articles an easy way to remind myself of the style and format.

I also started putting more effort into the formative assessments, as this is the main opportunity to receive feedback on your essay style. If the feedback is ever unclear or leaves me with questions, I make sure to go to the tutor’s feedback and guidance hours. I often find verbal discussions more useful than written feedback, so I try to make a note of any important information. This way, I am able to remind myself of what was said while I’m writing the essay.

Do some wider reading

When I plan an essay, I like to start by reading some of the key resources on the topic to ensure that I have a good understanding of the central debates. I usually look through the reading list on the VLE, as this tends to have the most relevant resources. As I’m reading these, I will make a note of the resources they reference, as this is another quick way to find the relevant texts. While reading, I make notes of any nuggets of information or quotes that I think could be useful to include in my essay. I always try to note the page numbers as I go, to save myself from having to search through again later.

Give your essay some structure

Once I feel that I have read enough resources to give me a good overview of the topic, I think of how I want to structure my essay, using the existing literature to develop my own argument. I start by creating a rough structure of the essay using bullet points and brief notes of what will be said where. I then start to expand the bullet points by adding in references to resources and my own opinion. Slowly the bullet points transform into sentences, paragraphs, sections, and eventually an essay.

Often, I find that I need to adapt the essay as I write, and I always try to leave enough time to have a few days break from it. This allows me to re-read the essay with fresh eyes. Having some distance from my work helps me identify any errors in the writing or overall structure, and gives me time to make any changes I see necessary. I also try to get a friend or family member to read over the essay to ensure it’s understandable to someone who’s not as close to the topic. This is important, as sometimes I phrase something in a way which I think is digestible, but actually isn’t very clear.

I have developed this approach to essays through a lot of trial and error, but find that a methodical and steady style works best for me.

Best of luck in your future essays!

Read more student experiences of studying Politics at York.

About Kitty

I’m Kitty, and I study Politics with International Relations at the University of York! I’m in my final year, and have found the course incredibly engaging and enjoyable!

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16 August 2023 at 2.00 pm

this is really helpful thank you 🙂

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Power, the State, and Sovereignty: Essays on International Relations

Stephen D. Krasner

Stephen Krasner has been one of the most influential theorists within international relations and international political economy over the past few decades.  Power, the State, and Sovereignty  is a collection of his key scholarly works. The book includes both a framing introduction written for this volume, and a concluding essay examining the relationship between academic research and the actual making of foreign policy.

 Drawing on both his extensive academic work and his experiences during his recent role within the Bush administration (as Director for Policy Planning at the US State department) Krasner has revised and updated all of the essays in the collection to provide a coherent discussion of the importance of power, ideas, and domestic structures in world politics.

Progressing through a carefully structured evaluation of US domestic politics and foreign policy, international politics and finally sovereignty, this volume is essential reading for all serious scholars of international politics.

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A Brief History of the Political Essay

From swift to woolf, david bromwich considers an evolving genre.

The political essay has never been a clearly defined genre. David Hume may have legitimated it in 1758 when he classified under a collective rubric his own Essays, Moral, Political, and Literary. “Political,” however, should have come last in order, since Hume took a speculative and detached view of politics, and seems to have been incapable of feeling passion for a political cause. We commonly associate political thought with full-scale treatises by philosophers of a different sort, whose understanding of politics was central to their account of human nature. Hobbes’s Leviathan , Montesquieu’s Spirit of the Laws , Rousseau’s Social Contract , Mill’s Representative Government , and, closer to our time, Rawls’s Theory of Justice , all satisfy that expectation. What, then, is a political essay? By the late 18th century, the periodical writings of Steele, Swift, Goldsmith, and Johnson had broadened the scope of the English essay for serious purposes. The field of politics, as much as culture, appeared to their successors well suited to arguments on society and government.

A public act of praise, dissent, or original description may take on permanent value when it implicates concerns beyond the present moment. Where the issue is momentous, the commitment stirred by passion, and the writing strong enough, an essay may sink deep roots in the language of politics. An essay is an attempt , as the word implies—a trial of sense and persuasion, which any citizen may hazard in a society where people are free to speak their minds. A more restrictive idea of political argument—one that would confer special legitimacy on an elite caste of managers, consultants, and symbolic analysts—presumes an environment in which state papers justify decisions arrived at from a region above politics. By contrast, the absence of formal constraints or a settled audience for the essay means that the daily experience of the writer counts as evidence. A season of crisis tempts people to think politically; in the process, they sometimes discover reasons to back their convictions.

The experience of civic freedom and its discontents may lead the essayist to think beyond politics. In 1940, Virginia Woolf recalled the sound of German bombers circling overhead the night before; the insect-like irritant, with its promise of aggression, frightened her into thought: “It is a queer experience, lying in the dark and listening to the zoom of a hornet which may at any moment sting you to death.” The ugly noise, for Woolf, signaled the prerogative of the fighting half of the species: Englishwomen “must lie weaponless tonight.” Yet Englishmen would be called upon to destroy the menace; and she was not sorry for their help. The mood of the writer is poised between gratitude and a bewildered frustration. Woolf ’s essay, “Thoughts on Peace in an Air Raid,” declines to exhibit the patriotic sentiment by which most reporters in her position would have felt drawn. At the same time, its personal emphasis keeps the author honest through the awareness of her own dependency.

Begin with an incident— I could have been killed last night —and you may end with speculations on human nature. Start with a national policy that you deplore, and it may take you back to the question, “Who are my neighbors?” In 1846, Henry David Thoreau was arrested for having refused to pay a poll tax; he made a lesson of his resistance two years later, when he saw the greed and dishonesty of the Mexican War: “Under a government which imprisons any unjustly, the true place for a just man is also a prison.” But to Thoreau’s surprise, the window of the prison had opened onto the life of the town he lived in, with its everyday errands and duties, its compromises and arrangements, and for him that glimpse was a revelation:

They were the voices of old burghers that I heard in the streets. I was an involuntary spectator and auditor of whatever was done and said in the kitchen of the adjacent village inn,—a wholly new and rare experience to me. It was a closer view of my native town. I was fairly inside of it. I had never seen its institutions before. This is one of its peculiar institutions; for it is a shire town. I began to comprehend what its inhabitants were about.

Slavery, at that time, was nicknamed “the peculiar institution,” and by calling the prison itself a peculiar institution, and maybe having in mind the adjacent inn as well, Thoreau prods his reader to think about the constraints that are a tacit condition of social life.

The risk of political writing may lure the citizen to write—a fact Hazlitt seems to acknowledge in his essay “On the Regal Character,” where his second sentence wonders if the essay will expose him to prosecution: “In writing a criticism, we hope we shall not be accused of intending a libel.” (His friend Leigh Hunt had recently served two years in prison for “seditious libel” of the Prince Regent—having characterized him as a dandy notorious for his ostentation and obesity.) The writer’s consciousness of provocative intent may indeed be inseparable from the wish to persuade; though the tone of commitment will vary with the zeal and composition of the audience, whether that means a political party, a movement, a vanguard of the enlightened, or “the people” at large.

Edmund Burke, for example, writes to the sheriffs of Bristol (and through them to the city’s electors) in order to warn against the suspension of habeas corpus by the British war ministry in 1777. The sudden introduction of the repressive act, he tells the electors, has imperiled their liberty even if they are for the moment individually exempt. In response to the charge that the Americans fighting for independence are an unrepresentative minority, he warns: “ General rebellions and revolts of an whole people never were encouraged , now or at any time. They are always provoked. ” So too, Mahatma Gandhi addresses his movement of resistance against British rule, as well as others who can be attracted to the cause, when he explains why nonviolent protest requires courage of a higher degree than the warrior’s: “Non-violence is infinitely superior to violence, forgiveness is more manly than punishment.” In both cases, the writer treats the immediate injustice as an occasion for broader strictures on the nature of justice. There are certain duties that governors owe to the governed, and duties hardly less compulsory that the people owe to themselves.

Apparently diverse topics connect the essays in Writing Politics ; but, taken loosely to illustrate a historical continuity, they show the changing face of oppression and violence, and the invention of new paths for improving justice. Arbitrary power is the enemy throughout—power that, by the nature of its asserted scope and authority, makes itself the judge of its own cause. King George III, whose reign spanned sixty years beginning in 1760, from the first was thought to have overextended monarchical power and prerogative, and by doing so to have reversed an understanding of parliamentary sovereignty that was tacitly recognized by his predecessors. Writing against the king, “Junius” (the pen name of Philip Francis) traced the monarch’s errors to a poor education; and he gave an edge of deliberate effrontery to the attack on arbitrary power by addressing the king as you. “It is the misfortune of your life, and originally the cause of every reproach and distress, which has attended your government, that you should never have been acquainted with the language of truth, until you heard it in the complaints of your people.”

A similar frankness, without the ad hominem spur, can be felt in Burke’s attack on the monarchical distrust of liberty at home as well as abroad: “If any ask me what a free Government is, I answer, that, for any practical purpose, it is what the people think so; and that they, and not I, are the natural, lawful, and competent judges of this matter.” Writing in the same key from America, Thomas Paine, in his seventh number of The Crisis , gave a new description to the British attempt to preserve the unity of the empire by force of arms. He called it a war of conquest; and by addressing his warning directly “to the people of England,” he reminded the king’s subjects that war is always a social evil, for it sponsors a violence that does not terminate in itself. War enlarges every opportunity of vainglory—a malady familiar to monarchies.

The coming of democracy marks a turning point in modern discussions of sovereignty and the necessary protections of liberty. Confronted by the American annexation of parts of Mexico, in 1846–48, Thoreau saw to his disgust that a war of conquest could also be a popular war, the will of the people directed to the oppression of persons. It follows that the state apparatus built by democracy is at best an equivocal ally of individual rights. Yet as Emerson would recognize in his lecture “The Fugitive Slave Law,” and Frederick Douglass would confirm in “The Mission of the War,” the massed power of the state is likewise the only vehicle powerful enough to destroy a system of oppression as inveterate as American slavery had become by the 1850s.

Acceptance of political evil—a moral inertia that can corrupt the ablest of lawmakers—goes easily with the comforts of a society at peace where many are satisfied. “Here was the question,” writes Emerson: “Are you for man and for the good of man; or are you for the hurt and harm of man? It was question whether man shall be treated as leather? whether the Negroes shall be as the Indians were in Spanish America, a piece of money?” Emerson wondered at the apostasy of Daniel Webster, How came he there? The answer was that Webster had deluded himself by projecting a possible right from serial compromise with wrong.

Two ways lie open to correct the popular will without a relapse into docile assent and the rule of oligarchy. You may widen the terms of discourse and action by enlarging the community of participants. Alternatively, you may strengthen the opportunities of dissent through acts of exemplary protest—protest in speech, in action, or both. Gandhi and Martin Luther King, Jr. remain the commanding instances in this regard. Both led movements that demanded of every adherent that the protest serve as an express image of the society it means to bring about. Nonviolent resistance accordingly involves a public disclosure of the work of conscience—a demonstrated willingness to make oneself an exemplary warrior without war. Because they were practical reformers, Gandhi and King, within the societies they sought to reform, were engaged in what Michael Oakeshott calls “the pursuit of intimations.” They did not start from a model of the good society generated from outside. They built on existing practices of toleration, friendship, neighborly care, and respect for the dignity of strangers.

Nonviolent resistance, as a tactic of persuasion, aims to arouse an audience of the uncommitted by its show of discipline and civic responsibility. Well, but why not simply resist? Why show respect for the laws of a government you mean to change radically? Nonviolence, for Gandhi and King, was never merely a tactic, and there were moral as well as rhetorical reasons for their ethic of communal self-respect and self-command. Gandhi looked on the British empire as a commonwealth that had proved its ability to reform. King spoke with the authority of a native American, claiming the rights due to all Americans, and he evoked the ideals his countrymen often said they wished to live by. The stories the nation loved to tell of itself took pride in emancipation much more than pride in conquest and domination. “So,” wrote King from the Birmingham City Jail, “I can urge men to obey the 1954 decision of the Supreme Court because it is morally right, and I can urge them to disobey segregation ordinances because they are morally wrong.”

A subtler enemy of liberty than outright prejudice and violent oppression is the psychological push toward conformity. This internalized docility inhabits and may be said to dictate the costume of manners in a democracy. Because the rule of mass opinion serves as a practical substitute for the absolute authority that is no longer available, it exerts an enormous and hidden pressure. This dangerous “omnipotence of the majority,” as Tocqueville called it, knows no power greater than itself; it resembles an absolute monarch in possessing neither the equipment nor the motive to render a judgment against itself. Toleration thus becomes a political value that requires as vigilant a defense as liberty. Minorities are marked not only by race, religion, and habits of association, but also by opinion.

“It is easy to see,” writes Walter Bagehot in “The Metaphysical Basis of Toleration,” “that very many believers would persecute sceptics” if they were given the means, “and that very many sceptics would persecute believers.” Bagehot has in mind religious belief, in particular, but the same intolerance operates when it is a question of penalizing a word, a gesture, a wrongly sympathetic or unsympathetic show of feeling by which a fellow citizen might claim to be offended. The more divided the society, the more it will crave implicit assurances of unity; the more unified it is, the more it wants an even greater show of unity—an unmistakable signal of membership and belonging that can be read as proof of collective solidarity. The “guilty fear of criticism,” Mary McCarthy remarked of the domestic fear of Communism in the 1950s, “the sense of being surrounded by an unappreciative world,” brought to American life a regimen of tests, codes, and loyalty oaths that were calculated to confirm rather than subdue the anxiety.

Proscribed and persecuted groups naturally seek a fortified community of their own, which should be proof against insult; and by 1870 or so, the sure method of creating such a community was to found a new nation. George Eliot took this remedy to be prudent and inevitable, in her sympathetic early account of the Zionist quest for a Jewish state, yet her unsparing portrait of English anti-Semitism seems to recognize the nation-remedy as a carrier of the same exclusion it hopes to abolish. Perhaps the greatest obstacle to a widened sense of community is the apparently intuitive—but in fact regularly inculcated—intellectual habit by which we divide people into racial, religious, and ethnic identities. The idea of an international confederation for peace was tried twice, without success, in the 20th century, with the League of Nations and the United Nations; but some such goal, first formulated in the political writings of Kant, has found memorable popular expression again and again.

W. E. B. Du Bois’s essay “Of the Ruling of Men” affords a prospect of international liberty that seems to the author simply the next necessary advance of common sense in the cause of humanity. Du Bois noticed in 1920 how late the expansion of rights had arrived at the rights of women. Always, the last hiding places of arbitrary power are the trusted arenas of privilege a society has come to accept as customary, and to which it has accorded the spurious honor of supposing it part of the natural order: men over women; the strong nations over the weak; corporate heads over employees. The pattern had come under scrutiny already in Harriet Taylor Mill’s “Enfranchisement of Women,” and its application to the hierarchies of ownership and labor would be affirmed in William Morris’s lecture “Useful Work Versus Useless Toil.” The commercial and manufacturing class, wrote Morris, “ force the genuine workers to provide for them”; no better (only more recondite in their procedures) are “the parasites” whose function is to defend the cause of property, “sometimes, as in the case of lawyers, undisguisedly so.” The socialists Morris and Du Bois regard the ultimate aim of a democratic world as the replacement of useless by useful work. With that change must also come the invention of a shared experience of leisure that is neither wasteful nor thoughtless.

A necessary bulwark of personal freedom is property, and in the commercial democracies for the past three centuries a usual means of agreement for the defense of property has been the contract. In challenging the sacredness of contract, in certain cases of conflict with a common good, T. H. Green moved the idea of “freedom of contract” from the domain of nature to that of social arrangements that are settled by convention and therefore subject to revision. The freedom of contract must be susceptible of modification when it fails to meet a standard of public well-being. The right of a factory owner, for example, to employ child labor if the child agrees, should not be protected. “No contract,” Green argues, “is valid in which human persons, willingly or unwillingly, are dealt with as commodities”; for when we speak of freedom, “we mean a positive power or capacity of doing or enjoying something worth doing or enjoying.” And again:

When we measure the progress of a society by its growth in freedom, we measure it by the increasing development and exercise on the whole of those powers of contributing to social good with which we believe the members of the society to be endowed; in short, by the greater power on the part of the citizens as a body to make the most and best of themselves.

Legislation in the public interest may still be consistent with the principles of free society when it parts from a leading maxim of contractual individualism.

The very idea of a social contract has usually been taken to imply an obligation to die for the state. Though Hobbes and Locke offered reservations on this point, the classical theorists agree that the state yields the prospect of “commodious living” without which human life would be unsocial and greatly impoverished; and there are times when the state can survive only through the sacrifice of citizens. May there also be a duty of self-sacrifice against a state whose whole direction and momentum has bent it toward injustice? Hannah Arendt, in “Personal Responsibility Under Dictatorship,” asked that question regarding the conduct of state officials as well as ordinary people under the encroaching tyranny of Nazi Germany in the 1930s. Citizens then, Arendt observes, had live options of political conduct besides passive obedience and open revolt. Conscientious opposition could show itself in public indications of nonsupport . This is a fact that the pervasiveness of conformism and careerism in mass societies makes harder to see than it should be.

Jonathan Swift, a writer as temperamentally diverse from Arendt as possible, shows in “A Modest Proposal” how the human creature goes about rationalizing any act or any policy, however atrocious. Our propensity to make-normal, to approve whatever renders life more orderly, can lead by the lightest of expedient steps to a plan for marketing the babies of the Irish poor as flesh suitable for eating. It is, after all—so Swift’s fictional narrator argues—a plausible design to alleviate poverty and distress among a large sector of the population, and to eliminate the filth and crowding that disgusts persons of a more elevated sort. The justification is purely utilitarian, and the proposer cites the most disinterested of motives: he has no financial or personal stake in the design. Civility has often been praised as a necessity of political argument, but Swift’s proposal is at once civil and, in itself, atrocious.

An absorbing concern of Arendt’s, as of several of the other essay writers gathered here, was the difficulty of thinking. We measure, we compute, we calculate, we weigh advantages and disadvantages—that much is only sensible, only logical—but we give reasons that are often blind to our motives, we rationalize and we normalize in order to justify ourselves. It is supremely difficult to use the equipment we learn from parents and teachers, which instructs us how to deal fairly with persons, and apply it to the relationship between persons and society, and between the manners of society and the laws of a nation. The 21st century has saddled persons of all nations with a catastrophic possibility, the destruction of a planetary environment for organized human life; and in facing the predicament directly, and formulating answers to the question it poses, the political thinkers of the past may help us chiefly by intimations. The idea of a good or tolerable society now encompasses relations between people at the widest imaginable distance apart. It must also cover a new relation of stewardship between humankind and nature.

Having made the present selection with the abovementioned topics in view—the republican defense against arbitrary power; the progress of liberty; the coming of mass-suffrage democracy and its peculiar dangers; justifications for political dissent and disobedience; war, as chosen for the purpose of domination or as necessary to destroy a greater evil; the responsibilities of the citizen; the political meaning of work and the conditions of work—an anthology of writings all in English seemed warranted by the subject matter. For in the past three centuries, these issues have been discussed most searchingly by political critics and theorists in Britain and the United States.

The span covers the Glorious Revolution and its achievement of parliamentary sovereignty; the American Revolution, and the civil war that has rightly been called the second American revolution; the expansion of the franchise under the two great reform bills in England and the 15th amendment to the US constitution; the two world wars and the Holocaust; and the mass movements of nonviolent resistance that brought national independence to India and broadened the terms of citizenship of black Americans. The sequence gives adequate evidence of thinkers engaged in a single conversation. Many of these authors were reading the essayists who came before them; and in many cases (Burke and Paine, Lincoln and Douglass, Churchill and Orwell), they were reading each other.

Writing Politics contains no example of the half-political, half-commercial genre of “leadership” writing. Certain other principles that guided the editor will be obvious at a glance, but may as well be stated. Only complete essays are included, no extracts. This has meant excluding great writers—Hobbes, Locke, Wollstonecraft, and John Stuart Mill, among others—whose definitive political writing came in the shape of full-length books. There are likewise no chapters of books; no party manifestos or statements of creed; nothing that was first published posthumously. All of these essays were written at the time noted, were meant for an audience of the time, and were published with an eye to their immediate effect. This is so even in cases (as with Morris and Du Bois) where the author had in view the reformation of a whole way of thinking. Some lectures have been included—the printed lecture was an indispensable medium for political ideas in the 19th century—but there are no party speeches delivered by an official to advance a cause of the moment.

Two exceptions to the principles may prove the rule. Abraham Lincoln’s letter to James C. Conkling was a public letter, written to defend the Emancipation Proclamation, in which, a few months earlier, President Lincoln had declared the freedom of all slaves in the rebelling states; he now extended the order to cover black soldiers who fought for the Union: “If they stake their lives for us, they must be prompted by the strongest motive—even the promise of freedom. And the promise being made, must be kept.” Lincoln was risking his presidency when he published this extraordinary appeal and admonition, and his view was shared by Frederick Douglass in “The Mission of the War”: “No war but an Abolition war, no peace but an Abolition peace.” The other exception is “The Roots of Honour,” John Ruskin’s attack on the mercenary morality of 19th-century capitalism . He called the chapter “Essay I” in Unto This Last , and his nomenclature seemed a fair excuse for reprinting an ineradicable prophecy.

__________________________________

From Writing Politics , edited by David Bromwich. Copyright © 2020 by David Bromwich; courtesy of NYRB Classics.

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Home — Essay Samples — Government & Politics — International Politics — Understanding Political Science: Systems, Behavior, and Relations

Understanding Political Science: Systems, Behavior, and Relations

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Published: Jan 31, 2024

Words: 723 | Pages: 2 | 4 min read

Table of contents

Body paragraph 1: definition and scope of political science, body paragraph 2: theoretical approaches in political science, body paragraph 3: comparative politics, body paragraph 4: international relations, body paragraph 5: political institutions and systems, body paragraph 6: public policy and political behavior.

• American Political Science Association. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.apsanet.org/
• International Studies Association. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.isanet.org/

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International Relations and Political Issues Essay

Introduction, works cited.

Political issues always have more than one aspect to consider when it comes to making vital decisions. In that sense, political issues in the context of international relations is more sensitive, as the image of the international relations is shaped by the political affairs, and military actions which often involves the participation of more than one party.

This paper analyzes a political issue on the basis of the aforementioned that I do believe is affecting the international relations arena, which is the withdrawal of US troops from Iraq.

The withdrawal of troops is not only a logical stop in military actions, where soldiers will be able to return safe to their homes. Not only a discontinuance of enormous financial expenditures that can have a better usage. It’s a return to the language of diplomacy which is the essence of politics. The relations among countries all over the history of civilizations were dependent on the art of diplomacy, while the contemporary situation is featured by the fact that the essential part of these relations depend on mass media and the populations of the countries.

Starting from the congress passing the withdrawal bill (Cnn.com) and the President-elect Barack Obama’s approach to scheduled troop reductions in Iraq (Julian E. Barnes), it can be seen that the direction of implementing pure diplomatic decisions is starting to take place.

This issue is of special significance to my generation, because we believe that words, i.e. diplomacy are capable of solving political issues. This is not addressed to situations of high alerts, rather than a course of peaceful existence marked by a new millennium where older generation’s memories of world wars remain in the past.

This issue is also important, because it implies that political involvements in international incidents will keep its main goal in solving the problem, rather than directly participating in them.

Despite that the desire for peace in the entire world seems mythical, I can assess that this desire is reachable when the first priority is kept as conversation and dialogue. In that context the international relations are not merely having a representative in an embassy in another country helping their citizens. In my understanding, it’s a multilevel process that keeps the relations between countries based on mutual benefits coexisting peace.

In conclusion, it is necessary to mention that international relations stay among the most essential components of the world welfare, as international trade, mutual support, tourism and etc. Additionally, diplomacy is an essential part of that component as a mean of finding common grounds for negotiation. Therefore I believe that the aforementioned political issue is important as a confirmation of international relations’ importance.

• Barnes, Julian E.. “Gates on board with Obama’s Iraq plan.” Los Angeles Times. 2008.
• Nolfo, E.D. History of International Relations 1918-1999. Unknown Binding publishing, 2000.
• “Senate passes Iraq withdrawal bill; veto threat looms.” Cnn.com. 2007.
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

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• Essay on Sociology

Good Essay On International Politics and Relations

Type of paper: Essay

Topic: Sociology , Interests , Perspective , Countries , World , Realism , Art , Politics

Published: 04/29/2021

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There are different perspectives of international politics and relations. While some ideologists assert that there is constant competition between different members of the international structures and politics, others indicate that these structures work together and in turn affect the ideas and communication of the agents. Constructivism seems to disagree with the realists and liberals in most of their assertions. However, the latter two perspectives share some concepts as discussed in this paper. Neo-realists and neo-liberalists have greatly debated on several issues based on a shared commitment to rationalism. Most of the social theoretical perspectives rely on rational choice in asking specific questions and not others. Rational choice also directs treating identities and interests of agents as exogenously given. These social perspectives seek to explain how behavior of agents generates outcomes. Both the neo-realism and neo-liberalism concepts, therefore, offers the conception that the processes and institutions change behaviors, but not interests and identities. Neo-realists consider anarchies as self-help systems that lack both collective security and central authority.

Therefore, due to the fact that some states might fail to conform to the logic of self-help system, the complex learning involved in the redefinitions of identity is impossible. Realism has been defined as the view that world politics is driven by competitive self-interests. Therefore, countries in the world are struggling for power in order to preserve or improve their economic welfare and military security in competition with other countries. In this perspective, a gain in one country automatically infers a loss to the other competing countries. These realists also see human beings as intrinsically divided by national identity and loyalty to religion, culture, and political ideologies. The neo-realists consider the struggle for power and anarchy in international politics as the source of international politics.

According to Liberalism, people and countries representing them are capable of finding the mutual interests and cooperate to achieve their mutual interests according to international law and through international organization. While they do not dismiss power as a factor in international politics, they reject the realists’ assertion that the struggle for power results into international conflicts. However, they add other concepts such as ideology, morality, cooperation habits, emotions, and altruism as influencing the behaviors of national leaders and the status of world politics. This perspective believes in a win-win situation, where countries do not accumulate gains at the expense of other countries.

On the other hand, constructivism represents a more complex approach to international relationships. This perspective views the priority of ideas and human consciousness, therefore the core assumptions – idealism and holism. The major difference between the constructivist and realist perspectives is evidenced by their approaches to ideas. While constructivism demands that human beings take seriously the role played by ideas in world politics, neo-realism disregards this assertion. Nevertheless, realism has much historical evidence, which favors its arguments that makes this perspective a possibility of defending social constructivism. According to constructivism, the course of international relations is an interactive process, where the communications among, and the ideas of actors or agents of international politics such as individuals, groups, and social structures such as states serve to create other structures such as laws, treaties, international organizations, and the international systems of governance and trade among other aspects of interaction. This perspective further indicates that these structure in turn influence the communications and ideas of these agents.

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• Essay on Politics

Essay on Politics for Students in English

Politics is a hugely important domain in the world and it has a profound impact on the functioning as well as the policies of the governments. Politics has an effect on all types of government including democratic, autocratic, monarchical, theocratic and others. The government is responsible for making decisions on different matters of public interest, issuing orders for the public health, directing the citizens towards development and growth, and performing a wide range of other related functions.

There are numerous definitions of what politics means. Politics can be described as the disagreement between the various groups on what they like. One of the broad definitions of politics, which is widely agreed, is the art of governance. The government is the entity having the legal authority of regulating people’s actions. The word politics is usually used for defining how the countries are governed and how the governments make the rules and the laws. 

Defining laws and regulations that tell people what they can or cannot do is one of the ways in which the government leads the people. These regulations and laws are enacted by the government for ensuring order and protection in the society. Beyond the laws, the government might also regulate the citizens and the functioning of the country in other ways. Most of the countries have specific groups or political parties for expressing their views and policies. 

The political parties form a consensus on the common policies or path that they should take in communicating their ideas or policies to the people. These parties support legislative bills or reforms and the candidates based on the agenda agreed upon by the members. The election is usually contested or fought between the opposite political parties of different spectrum. 

One of the conventional explanations of politics refers to politics being conducted within the system of checks and balances for avoiding misuse of political power. The several institutions that exist within the governing system include the legislative body that is responsible for making laws, executive body that imposes them, and judiciary that interprets them thus providing a powerful and well-rounded political spectrum.

If you want to study in detail about politics and its various concepts of applications for your essay in English then you can refer to it on the Vedantu website or app. Vedantu is a leading learning platform with a wide range of learning resources, tutorials, solutions, reference notes, and sample questions papers with solutions for students of different branches.

Short Politics Essay in English

Politics, in general, is the platform by which people create, maintain, and change the laws that govern their lives. As a result, conflict and collaboration are inextricably connected in politics. On the one hand, the presence of conflicting views, competing expectations, competing needs, and competing interests is expected to result in conflict over the rules under which people live.

Politics is fascinating because everyone has a different perspective on life and its rules. They have differing opinions about how they should live. What money should go to whom? What is the best way to disperse power to help the powerless? Is it better for society to be built on collaboration or conflict? And so forth. They also talk about how such disputes can be resolved. What is the best way to make decisions as a group? In what conditions does who have a say? How much say should each person have in decisions? The list goes on.

This, according to Aristotle, made politics the "master science," which he described as "the action by which human beings strive to better their lives and build and contribute to a Good Society." Politics is, first and foremost, a social practice. It's still a conversation, but the parties have reduced it to a monologue.

Any effort to grasp the sense of the word "politics" must always grapple with two major issues. The first is the different connotations that this word has in everyday speech. Unlike economics, geography, history, and biology, which most people think of as academic subjects, few people approach politics without preconceptions. The second, more complicated issue is that even well-respected authorities cannot agree about what politics is all about. It has infiltrated nearly every aspect of society.

Hence, we can say that the exercise of authority, the sacred science of governance, the making of unified decisions, the distribution of limited resources, the art of deceit and exploitation, and so on are all terms used to describe politics.

FAQs on Essay on Politics

1. How do we define politics?

Politics is the collection of activities connected with community decision-making or other types of power relations between individuals, such as resource allocation or status.

2. Name the Various national-level political parties in india.

There are several national-level political parties in India. The major ones include:

All India Trinamool Congress(AITC)

Bahujan Samaj Party(BSP)

Bharatiya Janata Party(BJP)

Communist Party of India(CPI)

Communist Party of India(Marxist)

Indian National Congress(INC)

National People’s Party(NPP)

Nationalist Congress Party(NCP)

3. What is the definition of politics?

Politics has numerous definitions and explanations. In the basic broad term politics can be defined as the art of governance through a collection of activities that are associated with society, decision-making, and power relations between the individuals, like status or resource allocation. The concept of politics is very important in the governance of a country and it is an important topic related to public life that the students must learn about.

4.  Which are the different major political parties in India?

There are several major political parties in India. Some of these political parties include All India Trinamool Congress (AITMC), Indian National Congress (INC), Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP), Nationalist Congress Party (NCP), Communist Party of India (Marxist), Communist Party of India (CPI), and National People’s Party (NPP) amongst a host of others. Each of these political parties have their own political manifesto based on which they conduct their operations.

5. Why is politics an important subject for students to learn?

Politics is related to day-to-day functioning of a country or a society and thus it is important for students to learn and be well informed about it. Politics includes vital policies and decisions that have a direct impact on people and as a responsible citizen it is crucial for students to have a basic grasp of developments in the country that charts out the future path of the nation.

6. How can I prepare for an essay on politics?

If you want to write an essay on politics then you would need to prepare well by understanding the definitions and various other aspects related to politics. One of the ways you can do this is by learning and reading about politics on the internet. You can also find a detailed essay on politics for students in English at Vedantu. This essay incorporates all the important points and provides an excellent guide on how the essay should be done.

7. How can I download the English essay on politics from Vedantu?

If you want to download the English essay on Politics provided by Vedantu then you can do it from either the website or the app. All you need to do is go to the English section and browse to the essay on politics. Here you will have the “Download PDF” option and you just need to click on that button to download the English essay by Vedantu on your device for free. Once you downloaded the PDF file you can access it offline any time you want.

460 Excellent Political Topics to Write about in 2024

If you have an assignment in politics, look no further—this article will help you ace your paper. Here, you will find a list of unique political topics to write about compiled by our custom writing team .

Our specialists will write a custom essay specially for you!

But that’s not all of it! Keep reading if you want to:

• See how to tackle political essay topics in your paper;
• Choose a topic that will be interesting for you to research;
• Refresh your knowledge of essential political concepts.

Now, without further ado, let’s get started! Below, you’ll find political topics and questions for your task.

• 🔝 Top 10 Topics
• ✅ Main Political Concepts
• 🇺🇸 American Politics Topics
• 🌐 Global Politics
• 📚 Political Science
• 🏛️ Political Philosophy
• ⚖️ Comparative Politics
• 💵 Political Economy
• 🍴 Food Politics
• 🌱 Environmental Politics
• 📖 Political Case Study Topics
• ✍️ How to Write a Political Essay

🔍 References

🔝 top 10 political topics to write about.

• The political causes of terrorism
• Why do we need political parties?
• Is politics connected to religion?
• Does an ideal political system exist?
• How to prevent ideological conflicts
• Electoral systems around the world
• The role of the UN in the world politics
• Should nuclear weapons be banned?
• The importance of international relations
• Should the government control the internet?

✅ Main Political Concepts to Focus On

Politics is an exciting and versatile subject. Contrary to popular belief, it’s not confined to senates and debate chambers. It also takes place on the streets and in your home. You can even say that everything is political.

Politics has so many areas to study—it may be hard to decide what to choose. Let’s see what interesting concepts you can focus on:

• Government and all that concerns the state. It includes actions that involve state institutions and people serving them. You might want to concentrate on voting, transnational interactions, or acts of politicians.
• We’ve all heard that conflict is a healthy part of every relationship. Do you believe that politics should embrace the differences? Then you may want to study the mechanisms of protests and revolutions.
• Or, you can focus on methods of nonviolent conflict resolution .
• Execution of power . Here the question is: what is power? Study various definitions and choose the ones you like best.
• Maybe you consider politics a social activity . You can also think of it as more of a public activity . Look into these concepts and see where politics takes place.

Does any of these ideas seem particularly interesting to you? Write an essay about it! Or, if you want inspiration, check our extensive list of ideas covering every major branch of politics. Below you will find current political topics as well as historical ones.

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🇺🇸 American Politics Essay Topics

Inner social and economic tensions have led to drastic changes in America’s political climate. The divide between Democrats and Republicans grows more resonant by the minute. What is your opinion on these developments? Have a closer look at it with one of our engaging topics:

• Discuss gun control measures and crime rates reduction in the US.
• Analyze Kanye West’s presidential campaign.
• What are the crucial current issues to voters in America?
• Do national politics in the USA neglect older adults?
• Why isn’t the right to privacy listed in the US constitution?
• The American government has extensive plans concerning the closure of Purdue Pharma. But are they acting in the public’s best interest?
• Pros and cons of raising the number of justices at the Supreme Court .
• Write about American neutrality and contribution in the Great War.
• Discuss the pros and cons of building a fortified border wall between the USA and Mexico .
• What would happen to California if it became an independent country?
• Who should pay for essential healthcare services in America?
• Does the two-party-system do more harm than good?

• What did President Trump achieve by pulling out of the Paris Climate Accord?
• Describe how the American states collaborate in the federal system .
• Is a cap on immigration to the US necessary?
• How does wealth inadequacy affect American democracy?
• The role of freedom in American politics .
• How does the Electoral College work?
• What are the implications of Donald Trump’s revealed tax statements?
• Political impact of the body positivity movement in America.
• The BLM movement as covered by Fox News vs. CNN .
• The US-Australian cooperation and its implications.
• Should the US seek tighter bonds with China ?
• What’s the easiest way to become politically involved in the US?
• Why should you join a political party?
• Effects of the war on drugs.
• Debate implementing more restrictive gun laws nationwide.
• America’s role in restoring Europe after World War II .
• How does social media influence political decisions in America?
• Is capitalism the best system for the US?
• Why don’t LGBT people in America have the same rights as straight people?
• How did the legalization of dispensaries in California impact consumer behavior ?
• What branches does the American government consist of?
• How is poverty affecting rural communities in the US?
• Explore law enforcement in the US on local, state, and federal levels.
• Discuss the limits of executive power in New Jersey.
• Should Oregon implement a cap on the price of medicines?
• What caused healthcare in America to become so expensive?
• Religious extremism in the US after 9/11.
• Your position on the American intervention in Syria .
• What caused many people to lose trust in President Trump’s government?
• Describe the state of affairs that allowed Donald Trump to win the 2016 election.
• What laws restrict campaign financing in Florida?
• Discuss the budgeting of the US Environmental Protection Agency.
• Evaluate President Trump’s crisis response.
• Outline the ideas of American politicians from parties on the margin.
• The importance of the Hispanic vote.
• The Patriot Act : facts and controversies.
• How do stereotypes towards Asian Americans influence their opportunities?
• The power of line-item vetoes in Wisconsin.

🌐 Global Political Topics to Talk About

Global politics studies basic political ideas on an international scale. This subject combines multiple social sciences to analyze political activity worldwide. Choose between the topics concerning human rights, development, conflict, and international relations.

• Why did Reporters without Borders build a library in Minecraft?
• How influential are NGOs?
• What are the main functions of the UN ?
• Discuss how the 2015 migrant crisis affected European politics.
• What are the drawbacks of being stateless ?
• African socialism in the 1950s and 1960s.
• Has the US become estranged from its European allies?
• What is the Human Development Index?
• Explain the three waves of democratization .
• Why do some countries suffer from terrorism more than others?
• Discuss methods of conflict resolution used by the African Union.
• At what point does a crisis justify international intervention?
• Trace the events of the 2020 election in Belarus .
• What caused the Eastern Mediterranean to be war-torn?
• Discuss the role of gender in modern Africa .
• How did the California Gold Rush in 1848 impact global politics?
• The development of Latin American cities in the past 30 years.
• Why was Germany hesitant to participate in colonization ? What led to the change of heart?
• Israeli-Palestine conflict and the global community.
• How do countries reconcile after being at war with each other?
• What is the Spratly Islands dispute?
• Why does China claim ownership of the South China Sea? What makes it a globally important issue?
• The threats of transnational organized crime .
• What are the effects of Brexit on the UK and international relations?
• How does a country’s geography shape its politics?
• US foreign policy : criticism and problems.
• The purpose and importance of global health .
• Discuss how Sub-Saharan Africa can become independent of foreign aid.
• Global citizenship : characteristics and responsibilities.
• How does feminism influence global relations?
• What does deterrence theory entail?
• Explain how the International Court of Justice works.
• Global war in terrorism: what are its main challenges?
• What causes interdependence between nations?
• Why do states need to be internationally acknowledged? What happens if they aren’t?
• Structural effects of uneven resource distribution.
• Gender bias in global politics .
• Explore the history of Cambodian politics.
• Kazakhstan : the proposal to switch the alphabet from Cyrillic to Latin.
• What factors determine if a country is safe to travel to?
• Discuss Daniel Drezner’s theories of global politics.
• The development of the UK’s global political influence.
• Compare how various countries protect their indigenous cultures .
• Should the EU be dissolved?
• What is Wilsonianism?
• Characterize America’s foreign affairs in the Middle East.
• What rights does a stateless person have?
• Amnesty international: criticism and controversies.
• What has the Pan-African movement achieved?
• How did American government respond to the Arab Spring?

📚 Political Science Topics to Research

Political science studies collective decisions and their consequences. Part of this process is analyzing the structure and mechanisms of government. Researchers in this field consider psychological, social, and cultural aspects of political activity.

• The rise of Austria’s Freedom Party in 2000. 
• What can game theory tell us about society? 
• Discuss the concept of nationhood, its benefits, and pitfalls.  
• Trace the development of the Nigerian government from the ’60s up to now. 
• The impact of celebrities on political campaigning . 
• Describe the goals of the anti-globalization movement. 
• Why did all Germany’s attempts to form a republic fail until after World War II? 
• The effects of poverty on Australian indigenous peoples . 
• What type of events affect voting behavior the most? 
• Examine historical examples of anarchist societies. 
• Does a president need to represent all of their country’s citizens ? 
• What are the advantages of polling?  
• Can monarchies be democratic? 
• What influences people’s political beliefs? 
• The regulation of water supply in Latin American countries. 
• Describe how the media affects cultural globalization . 
• Compare right and left-wing terrorist groups.  
• What constitutes tyranny? 
• How does the Saudi Arabian government work? 

• The relationship between the automobile industry and politics in Japan .
• Crisis theory, its strengths, and its weaknesses.
• What are the goals of the alt-right?
• The historical significance of the treaty of Westphalia.
• Was the Equal Rights Amendment doomed to fail? What is its current status?
• How does tourism affect Caribbean politics?
• What makes someone a leader?
• Discuss how powerful states influence poorer ones.
• How does the EU make decisions?
• Examine the success rate of petitions.
• The psychology behind supporting extremist groups .
• The mechanics of propaganda : when language becomes a political tool.
• Class 12 political education: preparing students to vote in their first election.
• Analyze the structure of the Chinese Communist Party.
• What does the Lemon test determine?
• Is fear a good instrument of control?
• The political danger of fake news .
• How do civil wars happen?
• Political culture: why did democracy in Iraq fail?
• Investigate the conflict between China and Tibet.
• Should institutions benefit society’s poorest members?
• The role of poverty in driving the popularity of Boko Haram in Nigeria.
• Why do some people miss the Soviet Union ?
• What are the differences between the IS and al-Qaeda?
• Organization of the Taliban government in Afghanistan from 1996 to 2001.
• Political radicalization on the internet.
• The importance of women in governments .
• Balance of power theory and modern world order.
• The dangers of neopatrimonialism in African politics.
• Why was the French Revolution an important event in history?
• What influences outside the government can impact policymaking ?

🏛️ Best Political Philosophy Essay Topics

What type of systems can ensure a happy life for everyone? Political philosophy, or political theory, seeks to answer this question. Its goal is to create a social standard by applying ethics to politics. Get contemplative with our interesting political theory paper topics:

• How ethical is capitalism ?
• Explore the ideological connection between liberalism and feminism.
• How close is your community to Plato’s ideal society?
• What would happen if we leave capitalism behind?
• Discuss the concept of democracy in political theory.
• Ethical issues concerning globalization .
• What would Aristotle say about the world’s current state of affairs?
• Marx’s and Lenin’s imperialism theories.
• Was Jean-Jacques Rousseau right in saying that a civil society began with a fence?
• Is restricting immigration an ethical way to increase wages?
• How relevant is John Locke’s social contract theory today?
• Explore the problems of democratic transition and consolidation.
• Analyze the shortcomings of positivism.
• Discuss John Rawls’ position on justice.
• What is philosophical anarchism ?
• How does Michel Foucault explain the development of Western penal systems in Discipline and Punish ?
• Discuss grounds on which war is morally permissible or even necessary.
• The influence of existentialism on Western politics.
• What events sparked the foundation of the Paris Commune?
• How can governments and communities cooperate?
• Can religion have a positive influence on lawmaking?
• What does it mean to have authority ?
• Should governments provide stability or freedom of choice?
• The influence of revisionism on the German Social Democratic Party policies.
• Is gerrymandering always unjust?
• How did the idea of democracy change from ancient Greece to modern times?
• Is the law always morally right?
• The role of violence in the ideologies of Pyotr Kropotkin and Mikhail Bakunin.
• Police corruption: understanding and prevention.
• Is democracy indeed a rule by the people?
• What’s the difference between nationalism and patriotism?
• The role of power from the post-structuralist perspective.
• Is there a big divide between Asian and Western political ideology?
• What motivates someone to be politically active?
• Why are students typically engaged in politics?
• Is populism ethical?
• Provide an advanced perspective of public policy.
• Should the state be allowed to decide whether an individual can end their life?
• The meaning of the term “ liberalism ” from its origins to this day.
• What do feminists mean by saying “the personal is political”?
• How do you define the word “ political ”?
• Discuss dehumanization and its evolution in warfare.
• If you could start a whole culture anew, what would its principles be?
• Analyze how pornography can be political.
• Policymaking: systemic thinking on various levels.
• Are liberal government models the end of political development?
• How did the US government morally justify the Vietnam war ?
• According to Thomas Hobbes, why do citizens need a Leviathan ?
• Describe Machiavelli’s position concerning the role of religion in politics.
• The influence of Ayn Rand’s objectivism on libertarian movements.

⚖️ Comparative Politics Essay Topics

Have you ever wondered how the state influences a nation’s economy? Scholars of comparative politics know the answer. They analyze governments by comparing and contrasting them. Choose a topic in this category to discover the differences between various political systems.

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• What causes nations to transform their governments?
• Define the differences between a nation and a nation-state .
• Causes of war: comparative politics and peace studies.
• The politics of baby boomers vs. millennials .
• Is the “ tyranny of the majority ” an unavoidable weakness of democracy?
• Characteristics of authoritarian vs. totalitarian regimes.

• What are the differences between laws and executive orders ? 
• How does bureaucracy work in Norway vs. Russia? 
• Living conditions in South African squatter settlements and Brazilian favelas. 
• Compare conservative ideology in the US vs. the Netherlands. 
• What is the ideological difference between liberalism and conservatism?  
• Discuss the advantages of a participatory vs. a representative democracy . 
• What are the current trends in democratization ? 
• Compare the contents of the French vs. the British constitution . 
• Describe the differences between federal and unitary governments. 
• The executive’s role in Japan vs. China. 
• Political parties in Canada: ideological analysis.  
• What does it take to pass a law in Finland as compared to Sweden? 
• How does the naturalization process work in Canada vs. the US? 
• What factors impact political participation in different countries? 
• How does a country’s education influence its citizens’ political activity? 
• Analyze the role of interest groups in the USA and Poland. 
• How do presidential systems work in comparison to parliamentary systems?  
• Idealism versus realism in international politics   
• Ownership laws in Nigeria vs. Eritrea. 
• Compare Saddam Hussein’s regime with societies from Orwell’s 1984 .  
• Identify current trends in voter turnout . 
• What constitutes the civil society in India and Pakistan? 
• Contrast the structures and influence of the top five grassroots movements. 
• The role of independent media in political education. 
• What factors determine whether a societal change is successful? 
• Compare American and Icelandic healthcare systems.  
• Protest votes: in which system do they work best? 
• Which fundamental ideologies do most of the world’s democracies share? 
• The social consequences of corruption in Mexico vs. Venezuela. 
• The perception of conservatism in the US vs. other countries. 
• Analyze Indian and Brazilian democracies.  
• Revolving door politics in Japan vs. Australia. 
• How is gender equality institutionalized in different countries? 
• Why are green parties more successful in Europe than in the US? 
• Contrast political education across the states of the former Soviet Union . 
• The influence of the military on the government in the US vs. New Zealand. 
• Achievements of the LGBT movement in Poland and the Czech Republic. 
• What are sustainability measures in South Africa vs. Senegal? 
• The evolution of women’s rights in Russia vs. Switzerland. 
• How does federalism in Brazil differ from the one in America? 
• Compare Peru’s and Lesotho’s unitary systems. 
• Comparison between Florida and Maryland’s legislative frameworks.  
• Contrast various military governments. Can they be beneficial for the public? 
• Political socialization in France vs. India. 

💵 Political Economy Topics to Write About

Are you interested in how trade relates to a nation’s law and government? Then this section is for you. Scholars in this field study how economic theories influence societies. On top of that, they advise governments on economic policies and proposals. Find a great topic in the list below:

• Economic interdependence theory and future of trade.
• How do oligopolies influence the market?
• What are the economic effects of taxation ?
• Do democratic countries have better economies than autocratic states?
• Did NAFTA overall benefit Mexico’s economy?
• The oil industry in Saudi Arabia: analysis and strategies.
• Globalization and the economy: interrelations and consequences.
• What are the goals of the WTO?
• How did the foundation of OPEC shape oil trade?
• What factors influence the global GMO market?
• Explain the concept of the invisible hand.
• What are the characteristics of public goods?
• Does private ownership necessarily lead to inequality?
• How did mercantilism affect colonized countries?
• Define critical political economy theory.
• What role does mass media play in a nation’s economic decisions?
• The current revival of neoliberalism .
• Why does the exchange rate matter?
• The role of competition in politics.
• How did the development of financial systems impact governments?
• Why did President Trump’s tax reports cause a scandal?
• How did economic troubles lead to political tensions in the EU?
• What policies did countries in South-East Asia implement to drive economic growth?
• Can guaranteed income prevent socio-economic crises?
• How are pension age policies connected to a country’s economic situation?
• The impact of terrorism on oil prices and production.
• What were the political pros and cons of the gold standard ?
• Does the trade war between the US and China have the potential to affect global trade?
• What types of governments are more likely to engage in protectionism ?
• How is America “weaponizing” the dollar?
• Discuss risk management strategies during the financial crisis in the US.
• Utilitarian ethics in political economy.
• What is the minimum wage , and how do you calculate it?
• Do big companies have too much political influence?
• The effects of gender-biased laws on economic systems .
• What are the economic concerns behind sustainable policies?
• Why are European countries struggling to convert to green energies ?
• Does turning away from fossil fuels automatically mean a decrease in economic growth?
• How do policies create wealth gaps?
• What do wealthy countries do to stay rich?
• Describe the political consequences of outsourcing .
• The connection between political instability and widespread poverty .
• The political economy of financing conflicts in the Middle East.
• Why do countries export weapons to war-torn areas?
• How do political power balances create inequality?
• The politics of free markets vs. planned economies.
• What are the key elements of the political economy, according to Marxism ?
• Explain the 19th-century socialist ideology.
• What effects do a country’s political institutions have on the development of organized crime ?
• Feminism in the political economy .

🍴 Food Politics Essay Topics

Decisions concerning packaging labels and food safety regulations belong in the realm of food politics. This branch also encompasses aspects related to food production, distribution, and consumption. Dive into the world of food politics with one of our popular writing ideas:

• How much should the government influence our food choices ? 
• What’s political about our diet? 
• How do food politics influence our eating habits ? 
• Why do most American food production companies add sugar and syrup to bread? 
• The politics of kid-targeted food advertising.  
• What are the differences between the major labels of organic food ? 
• Should conventional agriculture still be subsidized? 
• What are the most dominant conflicts of interest in the agricultural industry today?
• What can governments do to make fresh and healthy foods more accessible? 
• Compare various government-sponsored programs to promote a healthy diet . 
• How does the demand regulate the market in terms of food products ? 
• Will we ever be able to eradicate hunger globally?  
• How can policies and restrictions make the food industry more sustainable? 
• Why are food politics crucial to achieving development goals? 
• Should governments ban plastic bags and packaging? 
• Following the annexation of Crimea , Russia received heavy sanctions . It prompted President Putin to ban the import of food products from Europe and the US. How does this affect the country? 
• Monsanto : the political influence of America’s former biggest GMO seed distributor. 
• What issues are associated with eco-friendly food packaging?  
• What would be the consequences of outlawing alcohol ? 

• Should there be a ban on advertisements for unhealthy foods? 
• Lobbying tactics in the alcohol industry. 
• Discuss the benefits of implementing higher taxes on soft drinks. 
• When can a company label their product as “natural”? 
• Discuss the problems related to US school cafeterias.  
• The danger of alcopops: policies that prevent early alcohol consumption . 
• Challenges of regulating deceptive health claims. 
• How does sponsored research influence nutritional guidelines? 
• The biopolitics of nutrition and food distribution. 
• What should all food labels contain to ensure safe consumption? 
• The vegan movement’s impact on the organic food market. 
• How did industrialization change the way we eat? 
• Is ethnic food underrepresented in nutritional guidelines? If so, why? 
• Discuss the role of price in alcohol consumption.  
• Why is cannabis banned in many countries, but cigarettes aren’t? 
• Sin tax: what are its unintended social repercussions? 
• How do gruesome pictures on cigarette packages influence smoking behavior? 
• Consumption of harmful products in states with and without a sin tax. 
• Treatment of migrant fruit pickers in Texas . 
• California removed sugary drinks and sweets from its public schools. Did this lead to a decrease in youth obesity? 
• Food safety: a policy issue in agriculture today.  
• What would sustainable policies on regulating food waste be? 
• Should governments allocate more resources into cloning research to satisfy the meat demand? 
• The political influence of the American meat industry. 
• Should animal rights be secured in the constitution? 
• The development of whale hunting laws in Japan. 
• What type of regulations could ensure sustainable fishing ? 
• What’s the problem with “Big food”? 
• Examine the food vs. fuel dilemma. 
• Discuss the court case in which a Colorado bakery refused to bake a wedding cake for a gay couple. 
• Denial of food access as a war weapon. 

🌱 Environmental Political Research Topics

Issues like sustainability and climate change need coordinated political decisions. That’s where environmental politics comes into play. This branch analyzes policymaking as well as political theories and ideas concerning the environment. Besides, it investigates what position political parties and social movements have on the matter. If you want to address environmental concerns in your essay, this section is for you.

• How can the global power of the church be used to drive sustainability agendas? 
• Why do some arid countries want to tow icebergs? What are the environmental consequences of this practice? 
• What are the goals of the carbon tax?  
• Why should cities endorse greenways in their urban planning ? 
• How did Nigerian activists react to the environmental consequences of the country’s excessive oil production? 
• Political strategies to preserve biodiversity . 
• What did the Kyoto protocol achieve? 
• Why didn’t Iran and Turkey sign the Paris Agreement ? 
• Explore the environmental positions of various parties across the political spectrum. 
• Is sustainability a viable aspiration for a community?  
• Why are liberal governments more likely to address environmental concerns than conservative ones? 
• Does it take an authoritarian state to combat global warming effectively? 
• The benefits of environmental education in class 11. 
• How do interest groups manipulate political action against environmental problems ? 
• Is lobbyism responsible for the hesitation in terms of setting strict sustainability goals? 
• The Clean Water Act: achievements and shortcomings.  
• Are governments doing enough to tackle environmental issues ? 
• The success of market mechanisms in environmental policymaking. 
• Discuss the progress made to control air pollution in China. 
• What roles do NGOs play in driving policies to protect nature? 
• Are environmental politics mostly moving forward in times of a crisis? 
• Geoengineering : should governments rely on changing the weather instead of adjusting regulations? 
• Discuss the correlation between energy crisis and climate change.  
• How will Indonesia’s new Omnibus Law impact environmental politics? 
• The influence of social movements in making the fishery industry more sustainable. 
• How can governments ensure green conservation without reducing their country’s living standards? 
• Is ecoterrorism a good way to bring attention to under-discussed problems? 
• Investigate how environmental politics can reconcile its proponents with its adversaries. 
• How did Hannah Arendt influence modern political thought about nature? 
• What is ecofeminism , and what are its goals? 
• Implications of the Gaia hypothesis for environmental politics. 
• Provide an outline of an environmental conservation project.  
• Al Gore’s influence on environmental decisions during his time as vice president. 
• Sustainability initiatives in the US vs. Europe. 
• The significance of environmental politics in international relations. 
• Discuss the link between social justice movements and the rise of green parties. 
• Should the California government promote native fire tending techniques to save the state’s forests ? 
• An Inconvenient Truth : legacy and criticism. 
• Do not let Belgrade d(r)own: environmental activism in the Balkans. 
• The role of the military in protecting nature. 
• What plans does the New Zealand government have to reduce carbon emissions ? 
• Responsible mining practices in the Philippines. 

• Political cooperation efforts for protecting the Caspian Sea.
• Discuss the benefits and costs of the US acid rain program.
• How did the COVID-19 pandemic impact environmental policymaking?
• The role of populism in addressing climate change .
• Radioactive waste management policies in the EU.
• Contrast the methods of various climate justice organizations.
• How can we use AI to protect the environment ?
• Combating food waste in Norway: consequences of introducing the phrase “best before, often good after” on food labels.

📖 Political Case Study Topics to Look Into

Case studies are valued among all social sciences. They are an excellent method to learn from real-life examples. What’s even better, you can apply the information you’ve gathered from them to a broader framework. If you prefer a practical approach to politics, check out these compelling ideas:

• The 2011 drought caused the Yangtze River to carry significantly less water. How did this affect Chinese politics? 
• The Arctic ice is melting at an unprecedented pace. How do politicians cooperate in combating it? 
• Pollution has caused an ecological disaster in Kamchatka. What was the Russian government’s response to the crisis? 
• The economic growth of Asian countries has put them on the radar of potential Western allies. What stands in the way of a successful partnership? 
• Apartheid in South Africa didn’t end until the 1990s. What events led up to the system’s abolishment? 
• Botswana used to be one of the world’s poorest countries. Now, it’s considered a role model for African development. How did it achieve its wealth? 
• Environmental NGOs have positioned themselves against fracking from the very beginning. How do their actions impact congressional decision making? 
• Guinea-Bissau is a haven for the illegal drug trade. Politicians are not able to contain it. How did the situation develop? 
• In Nigeria, ethnic minorities and the state claim ownership over the country’s oil reserves. How did this conflict emerge? What has been done to solve it? 
• In 2016, military troops attempted to overthrow the Turkish government. Why did they fail? 
• In 2020, the military took over the Mali government. How did it happen? What was the international response? 
• Kenya remained under British rule until 1963. Describe the consequences colonization had on the country. 
• Nornickel is a Russian Nickel and Palladium production company. In 2020, it has caused two major environmental disasters: an oil leakage and a wastewater spill. What were the consequences? What did officials do to cover it up? 
• In the 20th century, Latin America was home to many dictatorships. To this day, some countries in the area are struggling with their governments. How did this happen? 
• The Universal Child Allowance is a conditional cash transfer designed to help underage Argentinian children from low-income families. Investigate their impact. 
• Microfinancing has created a debt trap for women in Sri Lanka . As a result, they formed a cooperative movement with better credit conditions. Could such cooperatives be an alternative to microfinancing worldwide? 
• Greece’s refugee camps are notorious for their harsh living conditions. Investigate their access to healthcare. 
• Few countries are as affected by HIV as India . Identify how this phenomenon connects to the nation’s high poverty rate. 
• Civil conflict in Columbia between the far-right, far-left, and the government has been ravaging the country for decades. What strategies could restore peace ? 
• Bhutan has recently transitioned from an absolutist monarchy to a democracy. How did religion influence this development? 
• Class identity has been a central topic in post-apartheid South Africa . How are changes in identity perception impacting politics? 
• Incarceration rates among black citizens in America are significantly higher than among white people. Discuss how this is linked to racial profiling . 
• The Hungarian Prime Minister Victor Orbán funds populist propaganda campaigns. How does he instrumentalize the national identity to drive his agenda? 
• During the 2020 elections in the United States , there was no clear result on the election night. Yet, Donald Trump has falsely declared himself the winner before the official announcement. What political intentions did he have? 
• In 2014, Scotland tried to gain independence from Great Britain through a referendum. Why did it fail? Would it be more likely to succeed now? 
• Women’s rights in countries under Islamic rule are often underdeveloped. How did the Musawah movement influence lawmaking in these nations? 
• Tel Aviv’s Ben Gurion is the world’s most secure airport. Explore its history. What makes it unique? 
• Ever since its foundation, the US has been a dream destination for many immigrants. How did this situation change since President Trump promised to build the wall  
• The Antarctic has plenty of lands to offer. Currently, governments are engaging in territorial disputes. Who does this land belong to? Why is this debate relevant? 
• Since 2019, Hong Kong people have been protesting laws that potentially impose closer legal bonds with mainland China. How did these protests influence the legislature so far? How did the governments in Hong Kong and China react? 
• The Gaza strip has been a center of an ongoing conflict between Palestine and Israel. How did its latest developments influence Israeli security politics? 
• Child labor is a significant problem in the Philippines. What does the country do to tackle it? 
• South Ossetia is a Caucasus region fighting for autonomy. It is officially recognized as part of Georgia by most countries. Plans to integrate the de facto state with Russian North Ossetia have failed. What caused the fights? What can be done to solve the conflict? 
• Asian countries are developing rapidly. It causes economic competition for the neighboring nations. What factors led China and Japan to emerge as global players? 
• In Vietnam , agriculture has undergone significant changes in the past decades. How have these transformations impacted farmers? 
• The Ottoman Empire used to be an enormous state. It encompassed most of Southeastern Europe and much of Arabia. How did its dissolution lead to modern-day conflicts on the Arabian Peninsula? 
• Tokyo is one of the most densely populated cities in the world. How does the government ensure enough housing opportunities? 
• The Saudi Arabian crown prince Mohammad bin Salman was celebrated for his liberal economic and social reforms. Why was he suspected of ordering the assassination of journalist and government critic Jamal Khashoggi ? 
• Colton is a valuable mineral found in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The excessive mining of the resource has led to increased criminal activity and conflict. How is this impacting the local civilians? What solutions have been proposed? 
• Sierra Leone was engaged in a war with the Revolutionary United Front for 11 years. How did foreign intervention resolve the conflict? How did this experience impact the current political situation? 
• Until its criminalization in 1997, cannabis has been a medicinal staple in Pakistan . Recently, the government approved the industrial production of the drug. What were the reasons for it? How is this going to affect the country’s economy? 
• In Japan, decreasing birth rates have led to a steep decline in the population. What plans does the government have to tackle this problem? 
• 4chan is an anonymous forum that caters to all kinds of interests. It is infamous for spreading hate and online radicalization. Some of America’s recent mass shooters were connected with the site, as is QAnon. What led to this development? Should the website be taken down? 
• In 2019, American colleges were at the center of a bribery scandal. Celebrities tried to enroll their children with substandard grades into prestigious schools such as USC and Yale. How can colleges maintain their funding while ensuring equal opportunities for the less wealthy candidates? 
• In the Ice Bucket Challenge , people poured a bucket of ice water over their heads. It was supposed to raise awareness for ALS. How did this activity impact disease research funding? 
• In 2017 and 2018, Finland studied the consequences of universal basic income . What did the findings suggest? Should other countries adopt this strategy? 
• Tesla electric car company has reinvented the automobile industry with its vehicles. What role did the company play in raising awareness of sustainability issues? 
• Facebook is financed by targeted ads and data trade. How is this influencing voter behavior? 
• The Interview is a 2014 political satire film in which American journalists plot to kill Kim-Jong Un. The film sparked outrage in North Korea . How did this impact US-North Korean political relations? 
• In the US, advertisements for prescription drugs aren’t illegal. How does this influence consumer behavior in comparison with the countries where such advertisements are banned? 

✍️ How to Write an Essay on Politics

Are you eager to start your paper right away? Check these helpful essay writing tips! Keep them in mind when talking about political issue topics:

Get an originally-written paper according to your instructions!

• Research. Read your notes first, then search the internet. Academic journals and government sites are an excellent place to start. Stay on point; don’t waste your time with sources that are not relevant to your topic.
• The introduction presents all the essential terms and relevant literature. Your thesis statement belongs there.
• Your paper’s body includes your arguments and supporting evidence. Use topic sentences to introduce your point.
• The conclusion contains a summary of the essay’s key points.
• Style and format. Write concisely in a formal manner. Ask your tutor for formatting requirements such as font, size, space, or margin. Don’t forget to include a reference list at the end.
• Editing and proofreading. Check for spelling and grammar mistakes. Make sure all your arguments are directly connected to your topic. Lastly, make sure to cite all your sources properly.

That’s all we’ve got for you. We hope this article was useful and wish you good luck with your assignment!

Further reading:

• 512 Research Topics on HumSS (Humanities & Social Sciences)
• 430 Philosophy Topics & Questions for Your Essay
• 560 Unique Controversial Topics & Tips for a Great Essay
• 240 Controversial Debate Topics and Questions for Discussion
• 625 Excellent Presentation Topics & Tips
• A List of 212 Brilliant Research Proposal Topics to Investigate
• 497 Interesting History Topics to Research
• 435 Literary Analysis Essay Topics and Prompts [Upd]
• 417 Business Research Topics for ABM Students
• What Is Politics?: The Open University
• Political Topics: Pew Research Center
• Politics & Political Systems: Encyclopedia Britannica
• Studying Global Politics: International Baccalaureate
• Global Politics from the View of the Political Economy Trilemma: VOX EU
• Managing 21st Century Political Risk: Harvard Business Review
• US President Donald Trump and His Administration: Statistics & Facts: Statista.com
• The Purposes of Government: US History
• Undergraduate Sample Research Topics: Political Science: Western Michigan University
• US Government and Politics: History.com
• What is Political Science?: University of Washington
• Political Philosophy: Methodology: Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• Social Science and Comparative Politics: Saylor Academy
• Research Guides: Writing a Case Study: University of Southern California
• Political Economy: Corporate Finance Institute
• Topics in Political Economy: Trinity College Dublin
• Food Politics and Development: Science Direct
• Food Politics: United States: Encyclopedia.com
• Importance of Environmental Ethics: Maryville University
• American Politics Courses: University of California San Diego
• Political Philosophy: Routledge.com
• Overview of Comparative Politics: Oxford Handbooks
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A Level Politics: Paper 2 Essay Plans

Subject: Government and politics

Age range: 16+

Resource type: Assessment and revision

Last updated

10 April 2024

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• 14 extremely detailed essay plans covering the four topics (Constitution, Parliament, Relations between branches and the PM and the Executive) as well as including one fully written Anarchism essays.
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Global Politics and International Relations

• Bilal Ahmad
• November 20, 2023
• CSS Solved Essays

CSS 2022 Solved Essays | Global Politics and International Relations

Bilal Ahmad, a Sir Syed Kazim Ali student, has attempted the CSS 2022 essay “ Global Politics and International Relations ” on the given pattern, which Sir  Syed Kazim Ali  teaches his students. Sir Syed Kazim Ali has been Pakistan’s top English writing and CSS, PMS essay and precis coach with the highest success rate of his students. The essay is uploaded to help other competitive aspirants learn and practice essay writing techniques and patterns to qualify for the essay paper.

1- Introduction

• ✓ Thesis statement

Although Global politics and international relations are dynamic and complex fields that shape the course of nations and the fate of humanity on a worldwide scale, international relations play a pivotal role in shaping the landscape of global politics, as they encompass the interactions, alliances, conflicts, and negotiations among nations on many issues, significantly impacting the stability and dynamics of the global politics.

2- Differentiating the terms global politics and international relations

3- Current manifestations of global politics and international relations

4- How do international relations affect global politics?

• Evidence: According to the World Trade Organization (WTO), global trade has grown significantly over the past few decades, with world merchandise exports reaching $18.89 trillion in 2020.
• Evidence: According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), in 2020, NATO member states collectively spent over 3 trillion dollars on defense, showcasing the substantial resources committed to collective security efforts.
• Evidence: For instance, when a nation successfully exports its films, music, art, or educational programs, it not only shares its culture but also extends its influence and soft power.
• Evidence: For instance, the Cold War’s ideological clash between capitalism and communism polarized the world, shaping alliances, conflicts, and global policies for decades.
• Evidence: For instance, diplomatic efforts like the Camp David Accords in 1978 and the Iran nuclear deal in 2015 showcased international relations’ potential to resolve conflicts peacefully.
• Evidence: For instance, the Paris Agreement on climate change exemplifies how international relations influence global governance in the context of environmental issues.

5- What are the difficulties encountered in the realm of global politics and international relations?

• ✓ Geopolitical tensions  
• ✓ Environmental challenges
• ✓ Economic issues
• ✓ Human rights and humanitarian crises

6- Ways to reform unpredictable global politics and international relations

• ✓ Diplomatic initiatives
• ✓ Conflict prevention and resolution
• ✓ Environmental and health cooperation
• ✓ Education and cultural exchange  

7- Conclusion

Global politics and international relations are dynamic and complex fields that shape the course of nations and the fate of humanity on a global scale. These disciplines delve into the complex interactions between countries, international organizations, non-state actors, and global issues, dissecting the strategies, conflicts, and cooperation that underpin the international system. However, international relations play a pivotal role in shaping the landscape of global politics, as they encompass the interactions, alliances, conflicts, and negotiations among nations on a multitude of issues. These interactions can significantly impact the stability and dynamics of the international system. Diplomatic relations, trade agreements, and international organizations serve as conduits for states to engage with one another, influencing the distribution of power and resources on a global scale. Moreover, international relations often determine the response to global challenges, such as climate change, pandemics, and security threats, with cooperation or discord among nations affecting the effectiveness of international efforts. Nevertheless, global politics and international relations confront a multitude of formidable challenges. Rising nationalism and populism threaten international cooperation while major powers vie for influence, often leading to geopolitical tensions. Economic disparities, migration, and the spread of terrorism are other factors that contribute to the complexity of international relations. Hence, navigating this complex landscape necessitates innovative diplomacy, enhanced multilateral cooperation, and a steadfast commitment to international law and order, as addressing these challenges is imperative for a more stable and prosperous global community.

To begin with, it is pertinent to differentiate between global politics and international relations. Global politics and international relations are closely related concepts in the field of political science, but they have distinct nuances. International relations primarily focus on the interactions between sovereign states on the global stage. It encompasses the study of diplomacy, alliances, conflicts, treaties, and the role of international organizations like the United Nations. On the other hand, global politics extends beyond the realm of states to encompass a broader spectrum of actors and issues. It encompasses not only the interactions between states but also the involvement of non-state actors such as multinational corporations, non-governmental organizations, and global movements. Global politics includes a broader range of topics, including global governance, environmental issues, human rights, and transnational challenges like terrorism and pandemics. Hence, while international relations deals with the behavior of states in the international arena, global politics extends its scope to include a wider array of actors and issues in the global landscape, emphasizing the interconnectedness of the world.

Considering the ongoing changes and obstacles, it is pertinent to explore the contemporary expressions of global politics and international relations. The current manifestations of global politics and international relations are marked by a complex interplay of traditional state interactions and emerging global challenges. Geopolitical tensions between major powers, such as the United States, China, and Russia, continue to shape the global landscape, with issues like trade disputes, territorial disputes, and competition for influence in various regions remaining at the forefront. In addition, the world faces pressing transnational challenges, including climate change, cyber security threats, and the ongoing Russia-Ukraine war, which demand coordinated international responses. Multilateral institutions, though strained, continue to play a vital role in addressing these issues. Furthermore, the rise of non-state actors, such as multinational corporations, non-governmental organizations, and influential individuals, is reshaping power dynamics and offering new avenues for global influence. This evolving nature of global politics underscores the need for innovative and adaptable approaches to diplomacy and cooperation on the world stage.

When delving into the present state of global affairs, one can clearly discern that international relations assume a crucial role in molding the global political terrain. To begin with, economic and trade interdependence is a fundamental driver in shaping the landscape of global politics through the lens of international relations. In an increasingly interconnected world, the economic ties that bind nations together are a powerful force in shaping their behavior on the global stage. Countries rely on one another for access to resources, markets, and investment opportunities, creating a complex network of dependencies. This interdependence often encourages cooperation among states as they seek to maintain and expand their economic interests. According to the World Trade Organization (WTO), global trade has grown significantly over the past few decades, with world merchandise exports reaching $18.89 trillion in 2020. Hence, the dynamic of international relations is profoundly affected by economic and trade interdependence, making it a critical factor in shaping the course of global politics.

In addition, international relations exert a profound influence on global politics, particularly through the lens of security alliances and collective defense mechanisms. Security alliances, such as the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) or regional pacts like the Organization of American States (OAS), shape global politics by promoting cooperation and stability among member states. These alliances establish a network of trust and shared security interests, effectively deterring potential aggressors and reducing the likelihood of conflict escalation. They also create a forum for diplomatic dialogue and conflict resolution, allowing nations to address disputes peacefully. According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), in 2020, NATO member states collectively spent over 3 trillion dollars on defense, showcasing the substantial resources committed to collective security efforts. Thus, international relations, through security alliances and collective defense, play a pivotal role in shaping global politics by fostering cooperation, enhancing security, and promoting peaceful resolution of conflicts, ultimately contributing to a more stable and secure world order.

Further, international relations impact global politics through soft power and cultural diplomacy. Soft power, the ability to attract and influence, is bolstered by cultural diplomacy, where nations share their culture to build goodwill. Effective cultural exchanges foster cross-cultural understanding and cooperation, leading to diplomatic ties, trade opportunities, and alliances that shape the global political landscape. For instance, when a nation successfully exports its films, music, art, or educational programs, it not only shares its culture but also extends its influence and soft power. Hence, the ability of nations to project their culture and values on the global stage can shape their standing, alliances, and impact in the world, ultimately affecting the course of global politics.

Furthermore, international relations have a profound impact on global politics, particularly through cultural and ideological influence. Culture shapes a nation’s values, norms, and beliefs, impacting its foreign policies and alliances. Ideological difference, like democracy versus autocracy or capitalism versus socialism, drive conflicts and cooperation on a global scale. Cultural exchanges and diplomacy can foster understanding and cooperation, while clashes in values can lead to tensions and even conflicts. These cultural and ideological dimensions often underpin international alliances, rivalries, and decisions, shaping the course of global politics and determining the success or failure of international cooperation and conflict resolution efforts. For instance, the Cold War’s ideological clash between capitalism and communism polarized the world, shaping alliances, conflicts, and global policies for decades.

Going down the ladder, international relations play a pivotal role in shaping global politics, particularly in the context of global security and conflict resolution. The interactions between nations, their alliances, and diplomatic negotiations significantly impact the stability of the world. Cooperation among countries through international organizations and treaties can mitigate conflicts and promote peace, while disputes and power struggles can lead to heightened tensions or even armed conflicts. For instance, diplomatic efforts like the Camp David Accords in 1978 and the Iran nuclear deal in 2015 showcased international relations’ potential to resolve conflicts peacefully. Hence, in an interconnected world, international relations shape alliances, treaties, and dialogues, fundamentally shaping global security and the pursuit of peaceful solutions to conflicts.

Last but not least, international relations are the cornerstone of global politics, and they exert a profound influence on the functioning of global governance. Global governance refers to the collective framework of international institutions, norms, and agreements that regulate global affairs. The behavior and interactions of states within this system determine its efficacy. When states cooperate and align their interests, global governance mechanisms can effectively address pressing global issues such as climate change, trade, and security. For instance, the Paris Agreement on climate change exemplifies how international relations influence global governance in the context of environmental issues. Thus, the dynamics of international relations play a critical role in shaping the effectiveness and adaptability of global governance in an ever-evolving world.

Delving deeper into the intricacies of how international relations impact global politics, one can discern that these interactions engender a plethora of challenges and complexities within the domain of global politics and international relations. To begin with, geopolitical tensions represent a formidable set of challenges within the dynamic landscape of global politics and international relations. These tensions often emerge from conflicting interests, territorial disputes, differing ideologies, or the pursuit of strategic advantages among nations. Such conflicts can disrupt diplomatic efforts, hinder cooperation, and even escalate into more serious crises, including armed conflicts. Geopolitical tensions often reverberate across the international stage, affecting not only the involved parties but also influencing the broader geopolitical landscape. Hence, they can shape alliances, redraw geopolitical boundaries, and even alter the course of history.

Moreover, environmental challenges constitute a formidable and multifaceted set of difficulties within the sphere of global politics and international relations. The escalating threats posed by climate change, biodiversity loss, deforestation, and resource scarcity have propelled environmental concerns to the forefront of diplomatic discourse. These challenges are inherently transnational, transcending borders and demanding coordinated responses from nations worldwide. Disagreements over the responsibility for historical emissions, the distribution of mitigation efforts, and the allocation of environmental costs often strain international relations. In addition, competition for finite resources, such as water and arable land, can fuel conflicts and exacerbate existing geopolitical tensions. So, it is evident that the intricate intersection of environmental issues with international relations necessitates a paradigm shift in diplomatic approaches, emphasizing collaboration and long-term sustainability for the well-being of both the planet and its inhabitants.

Furthermore, economic issues play a central role in shaping the landscape of global politics and international relations. These challenges encompass a wide array of concerns that transcend national borders, affecting nations’ interactions on the global stage. Key economic issues include trade disputes, currency fluctuations, income inequality, and economic sanctions, among others. Trade tensions between major powers, such as the United States and China, can disrupt diplomatic relations and even lead to trade wars with far-reaching consequences. Currency fluctuations can impact a nation’s competitiveness in the global market, while income inequality can spark social unrest and impact a country’s stability. Hence, economic issues are not only complex but also deeply intertwined with global politics, underscoring the need for effective international cooperation and diplomacy to address them in an increasingly interconnected world.

Last but not least, human rights and humanitarian crises represent formidable challenges in the complex arena of global politics and international relations. Human rights violations, ranging from oppressive regimes and discrimination to torture and censorship, persistently test the moral fabric of nations and the efficacy of international organizations. These violations often escalate into humanitarian crises when they trigger mass displacements, conflicts, and suffering on a large scale. Such crises, whether fueled by armed conflicts, natural disasters, or political upheaval, demand urgent attention and coordinated international responses to alleviate human suffering. Hence, human rights and humanitarian crises represent enduring challenges in the realm of global politics and international relations.

Navigating through the complexities and challenges faced in the realm of global politics and international relations, it becomes imperative to explore proactive strategies and innovative approaches aimed at reforming and stabilizing this unpredictable landscape. To begin with, diplomatic initiatives stand as a critical means of reforming the often unpredictable landscape of global politics and international relations. In a world where conflicts and disputes are common, diplomacy serves as a powerful tool for nations to engage in peaceful dialogue, negotiation, and conflict resolution. Through diplomatic efforts, countries can establish channels of communication, foster mutual understanding, and seek common ground to address pressing global issues. Diplomacy also plays a vital role in preventing conflicts from escalating into full-scale war, as it provides an avenue for nations to voice their concerns and seek solutions without resorting to violence. Hence, by promoting dialogue and collaboration, diplomacy helps steer global politics and international relations towards a more stable and harmonious future.

Moreover, conflict prevention and resolution are indispensable tools for reforming unpredictable global politics and international relations. In a world marked by complex and evolving challenges, the ability to anticipate and address conflicts before they escalate is crucial for fostering stability and cooperation among nations. By investing in diplomacy, dialogue, and early warning mechanisms, states can work together to identify potential sources of tension and collaboratively seek peaceful solutions. The resolution of existing conflicts through negotiations and diplomacy can pave the way for a more predictable and harmonious international system. Hence, by embracing these strategies, nations can transcend the unpredictability that often characterizes global politics and strive for a world where disputes are resolved through dialogue rather than confrontation, ultimately fostering a more secure and prosperous global community.

In addition, environmental and health cooperation holds immense potential to reform the unpredictable landscape of global politics and international relations. In an era marked by increasing transnational challenges such as climate change and pandemics, countries are realizing the interconnectedness of their fates. Collaborative efforts to address environmental issues, such as the Paris Agreement, not only mitigate the impacts of global warning but also foster trust and dialogue among nations. Similarly, health cooperation, as seen in initiatives like COVAX during the COVID-19 pandemic, promotes solidarity and shared responsibility. Thus, by working together on these critical issues, countries can transcend traditional rivalries and pave the way for a more stable and cooperative international order, emphasizing the importance of shared interests and the well-being of our planet and its inhabitants.

Last but not least, education and cultural exchange serve as powerful tools for reforming unpredictable global politics and international relations. By promoting cross-cultural understanding and fostering open dialogue, education equips individuals with the knowledge and critical thinking skills necessary to navigate complex international issues. It empowers citizens to make informed decisions, engage in constructive diplomacy, and advocate for peaceful solutions to conflicts. Cultural exchange programs, on the other hand, facilitate the exchange of ideas, values, and perspectives between people from diverse backgrounds. So, these interactions help break down stereotypes, reduce prejudice, and build bridges of cooperation.

In conclusion, international relations exert an undeniable and profound influence on global politics. The interactions between nation-states, organizations, and non-state actors shape the dynamics of the world stage. Diplomacy, conflicts, alliances, and negotiations on the international level determine the course of global events, from trade agreements and peace treaties to environmental accords and security arrangements. The intricate web of international relations underscores the interconnectedness of the world, emphasizing the necessity of collaboration and effective diplomacy to address pressing global challenges. As international relations continue to evolve, their impact on global politics remains central to understanding and shaping the trajectory of the increasingly interdependent world.

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