learning a foreign language essay conclusion

Benefits of Knowing a Foreign Language

There are numerous advantages of learning a foreign language. Essay sample is focused on social, health, and other foreign language benefits, as well as reasons to learn another language.

Benefits of Learning a Foreign Language Essay Introduction

Benefits of learning a second language essay body, benefits of learning foreign language essay conclusion, works cited.

Why are foreign languages in demand and popularity? Not everyone probably thinks about it until they face a particular situation. Let us consider several reasons for bilingualism, such as advantages in career, travel, unlimited communication, cultural content, and the fact that knowing at least one foreign language makes the person smarter.

The first cause of foreign language usefulness is professional opportunities. You need to know a foreign language to increase your employability, work in a prestigious fast-growing company, and get the appropriate payment. It also applies to study and internships in foreign countries because plenty of companies are trying to learn from the experience of their foreign colleagues. In the case you know the foreign language, you can help in the translation of texts, preparation of documents, or during negotiations with foreign partners. Besides, you can learn some interesting and helpful information by reading foreign professional literature.

The second reason concerns traveling. Knowing the foreign language, you will be happy to listen to guided tours in original, chat with people with great ease and pleasure, and, who knows, maybe the foreign language you can speak will save the life of someone. Traveling around the world, you can always find your way, talk to the locals, learn about their lives and culture, and perhaps, receive a useful lesson (“Ten Amazing Reasons Why You Should Learn a Foreign Language,” par. 8). In other words, knowing the foreign language allows penetrating the traditions of the other culture.

The third reason in favor of knowledge of a foreign language is communication. Usually, to learn a foreign language well enough, it is necessary to plunge into the environment of living in that particular culture. In turn, such a dive does not pass entirely but forms certain personal qualities. For example, some studies have shown that people, who know more than one language, expand their horizons and are more likely to empathize taking the first steps in communication. Communication in a foreign language with native speakers will significantly strengthen your communication skills and develop life-long friendships (“Ten Amazing Reasons Why You Should Learn a Foreign Language,” par. 14).

Moreover, a foreign language helps you to enrich yourself culturally by watching movies in their original, listening to the voice and intonations of actors, and avoiding translators. You can listen to your favorite songs of foreign singers and understand their meaning with great pleasure. Despite the considerable amount of translated literature, the knowledge of a foreign language opens the door to the world of original literature. It is also essential to point out that by learning a foreign language, you can improve your native language as well. When people start to talk in a foreign language, which has its grammar, logic, and exceptions, they choose words and phrases in the native language to translate, which helps to increase the speech culture and vocabulary of the native language.

Besides, if you are interested in the events taking place in the world, the knowledge of the foreign language would be your advantage. You can easily understand the news as many world newspapers and Internet posts are published in a foreign language. Consequently, you will be able to understand the meaning of the above, taking into account all the details. It is much more objective than hearing a translation, where a lot can be unsaid or translated inappropriately. Thus, knowledge of a foreign language provides access to information, while it is commonly considered that he who owns the information – owns the world.

Finally, the last but not the least reason is probably, the most important. Knowledge of a foreign language expands consciousness. According to Merritt, “speaking a foreign language improves the functionality of your brain by challenging it to recognize, negotiate meaning, and communicate in different language systems” (par. 3). Your mind will be reconstructed to understand completely new concepts. In this sense, learning foreign languages is highly efficient due to switching codes. Switching from one language to another is a challenging job for the brain that is undoubtedly useful. Several studies have shown that among patients with dementia, symptoms began four years later in people who know two languages than in people who know one language (Merritt par. 6). In other words, the brain of bilinguals was struck but continued to operate at a higher level for a longer time.

In conclusion, I would like to emphasize that people are blacksmiths of their happiness, and a lot in life depends on them. Knowledge of foreign languages gives people plenty of advantages. It is the opportunity to travel around the world without an interpreter, to read foreign literature, to watch foreign films in the original, and to have friends from different countries. If you are willing to change something in your life for the better, then learn a foreign language, and maybe somewhere, there is a pleasant surprise waiting for you, such as an exciting journey or attractive employment.

Merritt, Anne. “ Why Learn a Foreign Language? Benefits of Bilingualism. ” The Telegraph . Telegraph Media Group, 2013.

“Ten Amazing Reasons Why You Should Learn a Foreign Language.” Lingholic . n.p., 2014.

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The Importance of Learning a Foreign Language

Table of contents, breaking down barriers, cognitive benefits, professional advantages, cultural enrichment, role of education, references:.

• Bialystok, E. (2001). Bilingualism in Development: Language, Literacy, and Cognition. Cambridge University Press.
• Crystal, D. (2017). English as a Global Language (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
• Dewaele, J. M. (2018). Why the dichotomy ‘L1 versus LX user’ is better than ‘native versus non-native speaker’. Applied Linguistics, 39(2), 236-240.
• Grosjean, F. (2010). Bilingual: Life and Reality. Harvard University Press.
• Nikolov, M. (2009). Early Learning of Modern Foreign Languages: Processes and Outcomes. Multilingual Matters.

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Foreign Language IELTS Essay: IELTS Writing Task 2 Essay Samples

• Updated On December 14, 2023
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Writing Task 2 of the IELTS exam has displayed a large variety of questions over the years. However, there are still some general themes and topics that are often repeated in Task 2 of this English proficiency test. One of these recurring themes is the new language or the foreign language theme.

Table of Contents

In this theme, you can be asked to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of learning a different language belonging to any of the foreign countries. Additionally, you can also be asked to express your own opinion on the topic. This blog shares detailed information about Foreign Language IELTS Essay. Before we get deeper into the topic and start discussing model answers, let’s walk through some general tips that can help you in leaving a good impression on the examiner about your English language skills in task 2.

Tips to Ace the Foreign Language Essay Writing Task 2 IELTS

Although you can find an endless number of relevant examples for the essay writing task in IELTS, there really is no fixed format that can guarantee you a good band score in the writing section. So, what really works in helping you get a good score in task 2?

• A strong introduction and conclusion that are in coherence with the topic assigned: This will immediately get your examiner hooked onto the paragraphs written inside your piece and will leave a great impression on them!
• Use of refined vocabulary along with excellent use of grammar: Making use of good (and sometimes complex) vocabulary accompanied by an accurate usage of the English grammar is a pre-requisite for getting a good score in writing. It shows the examiner that your own knowledge of the language is vast.
• Providing relevant examples from different parts of the world: Many aspirants miss out on supporting their arguments along with good examples from either their own country or a different country. This leads to them losing out on marks in task 2.

Following these three tips will really catapult your writing task 2 score, which will have a greater impact on your overall band score for the writing section. To make the application of these tips more clear, let’s take a look at some of the sample answers for the foreign language theme.

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Foreign Language IELTS Essay Samples

Question – Some people believe that the only reason for learning a new/foreign language is for travelling or working in a foreign land. While others argue that there are many more reasons as why someone should learn a new language apart from their native language. You have to discuss both these arguments and give your own opinion on the following topic. Make sure to give reasons for your answers and provide examples. Minimum word limit – 250 words

Sample Answer 1

Learning a second language or a foreign language is linked to many advantages that far surpass the sole reasons of learning a new language for travelling or working in a foreign land. However, for the sake of playing the devil’s advocate, I’ll say that some people belonging to a different school of thought consider better job opportunities and travelling to be the only motive behind learning a foreign language. I am of the opinion that there are other reasons like learning about a foreign culture, and the bright prospect of cognitive development that propel many monolingual people to study a new language. With ever-increasing globalization and the opening up of international barriers, more and more people choose to emigrate to new and foreign lands in the hope of better job prospects. This often requires them to learn a new tongue. For instance, many people prefer learning languages like English, Spanish, and French, rather than the Russian language because countries speaking the former tongues have shown more affinity towards emigrants and provide a multitude of better job opportunities. This makes many people believe that jobs and sometimes travel are the only driving forces for learning a new tongue, especially for a young learner. On the other hand, some people including myself have researched the pros and cons of learning a foreign language thoroughly and have found that the pros far outweigh the drawbacks. The onset of memory ailments like dementia can be slowed down by cognitive development that comes with learning a foreign language. Furthermore, multilingual people are more confident and can easily acclimate themselves to new and alien surroundings by the virtue of their communication skills that have been expanded and upscaled. They find it easy to overcome language barriers and truly become global citizens speaking the global language. In conclusion, to go through the tough process of honing effective communication skills in a third language or a second language, people realise that it is not just for the sake of travel or work that they are doing this process. Instead, it stems from a deeper love for the language and the confidence that speaking a new tongue instills in them. Question – When living in a foreign country where you have to speak a new language, you can face serious social and practical problems. To what extent do you agree or disagree? Give reasons and examples in your answer and write at least 250 words.

Also Read: SAT Writing & Language Test 2022

Sample Answer 2

Language barriers arguably form the backbone of the biggest social and practical problems that people living in a foreign land have to face and overcome often. In my personal opinion, it can also spark serious problems in various countries, however, the widespread use of technology in curbing these issues to a certain extent over the past few decades. People belonging to different cultures can have issues in understanding each other because of speaking different languages and sometimes even because of different ways of pronunciation of the same words. Migration is not on the rise in the twenty-first century and people often move to distant lands in hopes of jobs, travel, and sometimes studying. In such a scenario not speaking the land’s language can become a basis for social problems like discrimination, racism, etc. Interestingly enough, technology has played a pivotal role in curbing the extent of practical problems faced by people when moving to a new land without being savvy with the foreign language. For instance, there are many web-based applications that do the translation job for people and save them the trouble of having to explain their point to the natives merely through vague hand gestures.

By way of conclusion, I stand firm on the point that social problems can far exceed practical problems when migrating to a foreign land without being fluent in the foreign language and perhaps, some language learning could really help in becoming a part of the foreign culture quicker and better. Although, as far as practical problems are concerned, technology is a boon that is eliminating most of them.

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7 Tips on Writing an Essay In a Foreign Language

by Kelly Young

For some people, learning a new language is an advantage, while for others, it's a necessity. You may get a good opportunity to study or work abroad, or you may just want to communicate with people from other countries. When it comes to learning a new language, you can choose from among dozens of online sources.

You can learn another language yourself and talk to native speakers, practicing your conversational skills. The chances are that you will see some major improvements in your conversational skills pretty quickly. What can be much more difficult to improve, however, is writing.

Writing itself is a more daunting task than speaking. You should be good at spelling and understand the rules of punctuation in another language. Of course, informal conversations on social media allow you to ignore some of the rules and don't require you to use a sophisticated vocabulary. The situation gets much more complicated if you need to write an essay.

Some ESL students receive lower grades on writing assignments simply because English is not their native language. In fact, this is one of the main reasons why ESL students use essay writing services and resources like betterwritingservices.com . Essay writing is an integral part of most international exams, and it can also be required when applying for a job.

When writing an essay, you should know not only the basics of the written language but also how to use the right words, and phrases in each particular situation. Essay writing is a creative task, and it also requires you to follow strict rules. If you want to improve your essay writing skills, you should have a lot of practice.

To write better essays, you should write them often. Improving your writing is a continuous process, and it takes time. However, there are some tips that will help you achieve better results and make the writing process more efficient.

Although the connection between reading and writing is rather obvious, many people tend to underestimate the importance of reading for improving vocabulary and grammar. We recommend that you turn reading in your target language into a habit and read as much as you can. However, it's important not only to read but also to choose the right content. Given that your goal is to write better essays, the best solution is to focus on educational materials and articles dedicated to your subject.

Besides, we recommend that you take notes while reading. You may discover terms and phrases that you can use in your essays so make sure that you won't forget them. You can also write down idioms that can be very helpful when writing persuasive and narrative essays. Properly used idioms will make you sound like a native speaker and make your writing more diverse.

Brainstorm and research

You may or may not be able to choose a topic for your essay in different situations. If you have an opportunity to choose a topic, you can get more creative freedom, but sometimes, it can be difficult to come up with a relevant topic that would be interesting for both you and your readers. If you have a hard time trying to find a topic, brainstorm. Just write down any ideas that come to your mind so that you can evaluate them later and choose the best one. To make the brainstorming session effective, think in your target language.

You can also brainstorm on the content of your essay, writing down ideas that can be useful. You can even illustrate the connections between different ideas and their relation to the main topic with visual mind maps.

Once you've determined the topic and the key subtopics of your essay, do your research. When writing essays in a foreign language, you may often deal with topics related to another culture so make sure that you understand the whole context and the necessary background of your topic before writing the essay. Note the necessary details about your sources so that you can cite them properly.

Write an outline

You don't want to waste your time trying to figure out what you should write about during the writing process, especially if you don't have much time. Even if your time isn't limited, planning the content of your essay can help you stay focused on style and grammar.

A typical essay consists of an introduction, body, and conclusion. In the introduction, you should provide the necessary background information and present your thesis statement, which will serve as the basis for the whole essay. In the body section, address one key point per paragraph and include transitions between paragraphs to ensure a smooth flow of thoughts. In the conclusion, you should summarize the key points and restate your thesis statement. Make sure not to rewrite it word for word from the introduction.

Keep it simple and short

First of all, the essay format implies writing relatively short texts. You should keep it in mind even when choosing a topic because you must make sure that you will be able to address your topic properly within the required word count. Secondly, given that you're writing in a foreign language, make sure to keep it simple.

Don't use complex phrases and sentences if you can replace them with shorter ones. Your essay should be easy to understand, and you don't need to overcomplicate things to impress your audience.

Study grammar

Studying grammar is the least favorite activity for many people who learn new languages, but you won't be able to write better essays without improving your grammar. When writing, you don't want to spend a lot of time trying to figure out what form of a verb you should use. Besides, different languages have completely different grammar rules.

For instance, when writing in Spanish, if you use the subjunctive form of a verb where you would use it in English, your readers will immediately understand that you're a non-native speaker. Poor grammar can not only show your bad knowledge of the target language but also undermine your credibility and ruin your readers' impression of the entire essay.

Develop your writing style

Good writing is not only about creativity and grammar. If you want your essays to be appreciated by readers, you should write with style. Developing your unique writing style takes time, but the more you read and practice, the better your style will become.

When dealing with a foreign language, it can be especially difficult to understand what style of writing you should choose in each particular situation. Therefore, the best solution is to read essays on relevant topics so that you can learn from others. Don't copy someone else's style but look at what other writers have in common. This way, you'll be able to choose a style appropriate for your type of essay and academic area.

Edit and proofread

Editing and proofreading are as important as the writing process itself. Once you've finished the first draft, let it rest for a while, and then edit it. Check the overall logical structure and make sure that your thoughts are logically consistent.

Make sure that all of your sources are properly cited. Get rid of the unnecessary sentences and break down longer sentences into shorter ones. Make sure that your essay is easy to comprehend and well-focused.

A great solution is to show your essay to a native speaker so that they can tell you what sounds unnatural and suggest improvements. After this, fix grammar, spelling, and punctuation mistakes. You can use various spell checkers, but keep in mind that there is no software that would detect and fix all types of mistakes. Therefore, you should always read your papers carefully.

Final Thoughts

Learning a foreign language takes some time, so be patient. Write essays as often as you can so that you can get used to the writing process. Read essays about your academic subject and take notes. Stay determined and don't let your mistakes stop you from learning and improving your writing.

It's virtually impossible not to make mistakes when learning a new language. The main thing is not to let mistakes discourage you from learning. Learn from your mistakes. Make a list of your most common mistakes and keep it in front of you when editing and proofreading your essays.

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Advantages of Learning a Foreign Language

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Published: Feb 12, 2024

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• One of the major advantages of learning a foreign language is the professional opportunities it provides. In order to increase employability and secure positions in prestigious, fast-growing companies, individuals need to have knowledge of a foreign language. This is also true for those seeking study or internship opportunities abroad, as many companies value the experience gained from working with foreign colleagues. Additionally, being able to translate texts, prepare documents, or assist in negotiations with foreign partners can be highly beneficial in various professional settings. Moreover, reading foreign professional literature can provide individuals with interesting and helpful information.
• Another reason to learn a second language is for travel purposes. Knowing a foreign language allows individuals to fully immerse themselves in the culture of the country they are visiting. It enables them to understand guided tours in their original language, engage in conversations with locals, and gain a deeper insight into the lives and traditions of other cultures. Furthermore, being able to communicate in a foreign language can even be a life-saving skill in certain situations.
• Communication is yet another significant advantage of learning a foreign language. To truly master a foreign language, individuals must immerse themselves in the environment and culture associated with that language. This immersion not only improves language skills but also develops personal qualities such as empathy and open-mindedness. Communicating with native speakers of a foreign language strengthens communication skills and can lead to lifelong friendships.
• Moreover, learning a foreign language allows individuals to enrich themselves culturally. Watching movies, listening to music, and reading literature in their original language provides a more authentic experience and allows for a deeper understanding of the content. Additionally, learning a foreign language can improve one's native language skills. When individuals try to translate words and phrases from a foreign language into their native language, they are forced to choose the most appropriate words and phrases, thus increasing their vocabulary and enhancing their command of their native language.
• Furthermore, knowledge of a foreign language provides access to a wealth of information. Many news articles and online posts are published in foreign languages, and being able to understand them without relying on translations provides a more objective understanding of global events. This ability to access information is crucial in a world where knowledge is power.
• Lastly, learning a foreign language has significant cognitive benefits. Speaking a foreign language challenges the brain to recognize, negotiate meaning, and communicate in different language systems. This exercise improves brain functionality and can delay the onset of symptoms in patients with dementia. Bilingual individuals have been found to experience symptoms four years later than those who only know one language, suggesting that bilingualism can have a positive impact on cognitive health.

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Student Essay: The Value of Foreign Languages

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IELTS essay, topic: Is learning a foreign language essential or a waste of time (opinion)?

• IELTS Essays - Band 9

This is a model response to a Writing Task 2 topic from High Scorer’s Choice IELTS Practice Tests book series (reprinted with permission). This answer is close to IELTS Band 9.

Set 5 Academic book, Practice Test 25

Writing Task 2

You should spend about 40 minutes on this task.

Write about the following topic:

Some people feel that learning a foreign language is an essential component of a child’s education. Others feel that learning a foreign language is often a waste of time that can be better spent on learning about technology and other more vocational subjects.

Discuss both views and give your own opinion.

Give reasons for your answer and include any relevant examples from your knowledge or experience.

You should write at least 250 words.

Sample Band 9 Essay

Throughout the history of education, learning a foreign language or languages has been a constant component. Of course, many people feel that this is really an unnecessary part of education for everyone, but this is not a point of view that I share.

The opponents to learning a foreign language might argue that most people do not travel that often outside their own country. In addition to this, out of all the countries of the world, comparatively not many share the same language. Therefore, learning a foreign language will only be useful for the very limited time that one spends in a country where this language is used. For some people, the language might never be used in their entire lives. When one thinks about how much time and money are spent training language teachers, buying resources, going on trips and delivering lessons for such a negligible benefit, this would seem to be a very inefficient allocation of resources.

However, the benefits of learning a foreign language go further than just the ability to use it from time to time on a holiday or business trip. Firstly, through learning one language, one gains an understanding to some extent of how all languages work. Thus, no matter where people might end up around the world, the knowledge of language can be of use. Secondly, with the study of a foreign language, one also opens oneself up to other cultures. This allows in turn an appreciation for different points of view and belief systems. With an ever-shrinking world due to globalisation, the ability to empathise and understand the people from other countries is vital to reducing conflict and creating a more tolerant society. Finally, quite simply learning languages is excellent for the improvement of general cognitive skills.

It seems to me that learning a foreign language, therefore, is more than just gaining the ability to speak a few words of a foreign tongue. It is part of intellectual and social development and needs to be continued for everyone in today’s schools.

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Learning Foreign Languages in High School Essay

Introduction, history and status of the issue and overview of problems, problem statement.

English is undoubtedly a very beautiful language, and it is a good thing to love it and be proud of it. It is among the most prominent languages in the world. However, Americans cannot do without other languages in this century.

The 21st century has experienced an increase in international jobs and business opportunities, threats to both global and national security and other factors that necessitate international understanding. Therefore, American students should learn at least one foreign language to enhance their chances of favorably competing with other nations for job opportunities, economic development and national and international security.

The call for a second language is not a new issue in the American educational set up. It has been a concern since the 1970s. In 1979, the President’s Commission on Foreign Language and International Studies proposed a second language for all tertiary institutions in America ( Foreign languages an essential core experience , 2014).

This recommendation was followed by another one by the College Board in 1983. The new recommendation required schools to teach all students at least one foreign language. In 1996, school administrators unanimously endorsed foreign languages as crucial for the development of K-12 students ( Foreign languages an essential core experience , 2014).

However, the achievement of all these recommendations has not been good enough because only 18% of the American population can speak at least a foreign language (Grosse, 2004). Therefore, America has achieved fewer outcomes compared to what other countries have achieved (Liu, 1999).

Firstly, learning a foreign language has a great cognitive effect on an individual ( Foreign languages an essential core experience , 2014). Scholars have found out that learning a foreign language contributes to the improvement of the learners’ aptitude in other subjects. Several studies compared the performance of students taking foreign languages to that of students who only take English.

The results indicated that the performance of those learners taking foreign languages is better than that of other students ( Foreign languages an essential core experience , 2014).

Secondly, the 21st century world is dominated by globalization: technological advancement has made it possible for people from different countries to interact in attending to global issues (Rubin, 2001).

As a result, people from different parts of the world meet in educational institutions, conferences to discuss the development and use of technology and other global issues such as global warming (Block & Camer, 2012). It is also common for people to compete for international jobs and business opportunities (McKay & Wong, 2006). Communication is always a very big problem whenever such groups and organizations meet.

The third and perhaps the most problematic issue concerns attaining international peace and understanding. The last two centuries experienced widespread war between and among many countries in the world. Countries fought in the World War II, World War I, the cold War and many other wars.

Worse still, countries are still fighting each other even in the 21st century. For example, Russia is still in a conflict with Ukraine. In addition to the war between countries, terrorism has become a global issue. Terrorist groups such as Boko Haram, Al-Queda and Al-Shabab have become a global concern. Therefore, nations must come together to discuss the best ways to bring peace and co-existence and fight terrorism.

The 21st century requires the knowledge of more than one language. This century is has witnessed the reduction of the world into a global village. People from different countries meet very often to discuss emerging issues such as global warming, terrorism and economic matters.

They also meet during interviews to compete for the same job opportunities. Therefore, all US students should take a four-year foreign language course in high schools to help them compete favorably with candidates from other nations for jobs and business opportunities. These languages also help them contribute in international conferences on issues such as global warming, peace and terrorism. In addition, research has proven that learning foreign languages enhances the aptitude of learners in other subjects.

Block, D., & Camer, D. (2012). Globalization and Language Teaching . New York: Psychology Press.

Foreign languages an essential core experience (2014). Web.

Grosse, C. U. (2004). The competitive advantage of foreign languages and cultural knowledge. The Modern Language Journal , 88 (3), 351-373.

Liu, J. (1999). Non-native‐English‐speaking professionals in TESOL. Tesol Quarterly , 33 (1), 85-102.

McKay, S. L., & Wong, S. L. C. (2006). Multiple discourses, multiple identities: Investment and agency in second-language learning among Chinese adolescent immigrant students. Harvard educational review , 66 (3), 577-609.

Rubin, J. (2001). What the “good language learner” can teach us. TESOL quarterly, 2 (3), 41-51.

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IvyPanda. (2024, February 20). Learning Foreign Languages in High School. https://ivypanda.com/essays/learning-foreign-languages-in-high-school/

"Learning Foreign Languages in High School." IvyPanda , 20 Feb. 2024, ivypanda.com/essays/learning-foreign-languages-in-high-school/.

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IvyPanda . 2024. "Learning Foreign Languages in High School." February 20, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/learning-foreign-languages-in-high-school/.

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Essays About Language: Top 5 Examples and 7 Prompts

Language is the key to expressive communication; let our essay examples and writing prompts inspire you if you are writing essays about language.

When we communicate with one another, we use a system called language. It mainly consists of words, which, when combined, form phrases and sentences we use to talk to one another. However, some forms of language do not require written or verbal communication, such as sign language. 

Language can also refer to how we write or say things. For example, we can speak to friends using colloquial expressions and slang, while academic writing demands precise, formal language. Language is a complex concept with many meanings; discover the secrets of language in our informative guide.

5 Top Essay Examples

1. a global language: english language by dallas ryan , 2. language and its importance to society by shelly shah, 3. language: the essence of culture by kelsey holmes.

• 4.  Foreign Language Speech by Sophie Carson
• 5. ​​Attitudes to Language by Kurt Medina

1. My Native Language

2. the advantages of bilingualism, 3. language and technology, 4. why language matters, 5. slang and communication, 6. english is the official language of the u.s..

“Furthermore, using English, people can have more friends, widen peer relationships with foreigners and can not get lost. Overall, English becomes a global language; people may have more chances in communication. Another crucial advantage is improving business. If English was spoken widespread and everyone could use it, they would likely have more opportunities in business. Foreign investments from rich countries might be supported to the poorer countries.”

In this essay, Ryan enumerates both the advantages and disadvantages of using English; it seems that Ryan proposes uniting the world under the English language. English, a well-known and commonly-spoken language can help people to communicate better, which can foster better connections with one another. However, people would lose their native language and promote a specific culture rather than diversity. Ultimately, Ryan believes that English is a “global language,” and the advantages outweigh the disadvantages

“Language is a constituent element of civilization. It raised man from a savage state to the plane which he was capable of reaching. Man could not become man except by language. An essential point in which man differs from animals is that man alone is the sole possessor of language. No doubt animals also exhibit certain degree of power of communication but that is not only inferior in degree to human language, but also radically diverse in kind from it.”

Shah writes about the meaning of language, its role in society, and its place as an institution serving the purposes of the people using it. Most importantly, she writes about why it is necessary; the way we communicate through language separates us as humans from all other living things. It also carries individual culture and allows one to convey their thoughts. You might find our list of TOEFL writing topics helpful.

“Cultural identity is heavily dependent on a number of factors including ethnicity, gender, geographic location, religion, language, and so much more.  Culture is defined as a “historically transmitted system of symbols, meanings, and norms.”  Knowing a language automatically enables someone to identify with others who speak the same language.  This connection is such an important part of cultural exchange”

In this short essay, Homes discusses how language reflects a person’s cultural identity and the importance of communication in a civilized society. Different communities and cultures use specific sounds and understand their meanings to communicate. From this, writing was developed. Knowing a language makes connecting with others of the same culture easier. 

4.   Foreign Language Speech by Sophie Carson

“Ultimately, learning a foreign language will improve a child’s overall thinking and learning skills in general, making them smarter in many different unrelated areas. Their creativity is highly improved as they are more trained to look at problems from different angles and think outside of the box. This flexible thinking makes them better problem solvers since they can see problems from different perspectives. The better thinking skills developed from learning a foreign language have also been seen through testing scores.”

Carson writes about some of the benefits of learning a foreign language, especially during childhood. During childhood, the brain is more flexible, and it is easier for one to learn a new language in their younger years. Among many other benefits, bilingualism has been shown to improve memory and open up more parts of a child’s brain, helping them hone their critical thinking skills. Teaching children a foreign language makes them more aware of the world around them and can open up opportunities in the future.

5. ​​ Attitudes to Language by Kurt Medina

“Increasingly, educators are becoming aware that a person’s native language is an integral part of who that person is and marginalizing the language can have severe damaging effects on that person’s psyche. Many linguists consistently make a case for teaching native languages alongside the target languages so that children can clearly differentiate among the codes”

As its title suggests, Medina’s essay revolves around different attitudes towards types of language, whether it be vernacular language or dialects. He discusses this in the context of Caribbean cultures, where different dialects and languages are widespread, and people switch between languages quickly. Medina mentions how we tend to modify the language we use in different situations, depending on how formal or informal we need to be. 

6 Prompts for Essays About Language

In your essay, you can write about your native language. For example, explain how it originated and some of its characteristics. Write about why you are proud of it or persuade others to try learning it. To add depth to your essay, include a section with common phrases or idioms from your native language and explain their meaning.

Bilingualism has been said to enhance a whole range of cognitive skills, from a longer attention span to better memory. Look into the different advantages of speaking two or more languages, and use these to promote bilingualism. Cite scientific research papers and reference their findings in your essay for a compelling piece of writing.

In the 21st century, the development of new technology has blurred the lines between communication and isolation; it has undoubtedly changed how we interact and use language. For example, many words have been replaced in day-to-day communication by texting lingo and slang. In addition, technology has made us communicate more virtually and non-verbally. Research and discuss how the 21st century has changed how we interact and “do language” worldwide, whether it has improved or worsened. 

We often change how we speak depending on the situation; we use different words and expressions. Why do we do this? Based on a combination of personal experience and research, reflect on why it is essential to use appropriate language in different scenarios.

Different cultures use different forms of slang. Slang is a type of language consisting of informal words and expressions. Some hold negative views towards slang, saying that it degrades the language system, while others believe it allows people to express their culture. Write about whether you believe slang should be acceptable or not: defend your position by giving evidence either that slang is detrimental to language or that it poses no threat.

English is the most spoken language in the United States and is used in government documents; it is all but the country’s official language. Do you believe the government should finally declare English the country’s official language? Research the viewpoints of both sides and form a conclusion; support your argument with sufficient details and research. 

Check out our guide packed full of transition words for essays .If you’re stuck picking your next essay topic, check out our guide on how to write an essay about diversity .

Martin is an avid writer specializing in editing and proofreading. He also enjoys literary analysis and writing about food and travel.

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Conclusion Given the importance of learning foreign languages

Given the importance of learning foreign languages to adults and their need to develop their language skills in this study, we tried to analyze and understand more about this process, about education psychology and more specifically perceptions and attitudes of the two groups of actors for this ever-changing process. We have tried to provide our assistance in a field that requires further research, with regard to the approaches and strategies used in teaching.

According to sociology of education and according to Charlot, Bautier (Botie) and Rochex (Rosheks) (1992, 29), it is necessary to share the knowledge report with the school report.

They are a relation of feelings, values, between an individual (and a group) to processes and products of knowledge as well as situations and persons.

Improving teaching is a process that requires and goes through many stages, and is about awareness, planning, implementation, and reflection. Good ideas come from talented people working together. Clear requirements are set and then work is centralized.

Using active methods, placing an adult student at the center of learning, where he or she takes decisions, is very important. Most of the pedagogical literature deals with the teaching of foreign languages at younger and younger ages. It is thought that more scholars who teach foreign language, general or specific language, are required to have much to do with their practical experience and in-depth studies to further enrich the teaching methodology with the ages of increased.

In conclusion, the objectives set out in the planning of learning and activities are not mandatory to apply as it does to the subject objectives.

Proficient in: Education

“ Have been using her for a while and please believe when I tell you, she never fail. Thanks Writer Lyla you are indeed awesome ”

This means that the teacher can plan those goals he feels most appropriate for students to manage the class, taking into account the diversity of students. He always takes care to set goals that facilitate and improve student learning in formal learning. Classroom management consists mainly of its physical and social aspect and it is the responsibility of the teacher and the student to provide and protect it so that it is more effective for successful learning development, including all the student’s social classes.

From the paper we came to a conclusion that interactive games are very necessary to help children learn English and to make the subject more beautiful and enjoyable for children.

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4. John H. Hollo?ay, September(2003) Managing Culturally Diverse Classrooms.

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8. Diversiteti Sfida K?rkesa P?rkrahja – Paketa e Masave p?r Integrim, Prill 2010

9.Manual ‘Jam mes jush”, Ministria e Arsimit, F. Kulla, L. Remacka. M. Ndrio, Tiran? 2014

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14Muharremi,A (2013) Menaxhimi ne klase (Marredheniet e mesimdhenies ndervepruese me sjelljen disruptive te nxenesve ne klase ) teme doktorature ,Universiteti i Tiranes Fakulteti I Shkencave Sociale Shqiperi.

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Elements of elementary classroom control. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis

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17.Anderson,C,M, & Spaulding,S.A, (2007) Using positive behavior support to design effective classrooms, Chicago.

18. Karaj, Theodhori, (2008) Menaxhimi I klas?s,Tiran?,

19. Miller, Bonnie. (2005)Komunikimi me f?mij? (Doracak p?r prind?r dhe arsimtar). Ferizaj: QPEA.

20. Muharremi, A. “Marr?dh?niet e m?simdh?nies nd?rvepruese me sjelljen disprutive t? nx?n?sve n? klas?”, (teme doktorature).

21. Miller, Bonnie (2003)“Si t? krijohet kontakti i suksessh?m me nx?n?sit”,Prishtine QPEA,

22. Musai, B. (2003). Metodologji e m?simdh?nies, Tiran?: Pegi

23. Musai, B, (1999) Psikologji edukimit,Tiran? , Zylfiu, Njazi, Didaktika, Prishtin? 2001

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28. Fives H and Buehl M.M (2008) “What do teachers believe? Developing a framework of examining beliefs about teachers knowledge and ability”Contemporary educational Psychology

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Learning English as a Foreign Language Writing Skills in Collaborative Settings: A Cognitive Load Perspective

1 School of Foreign Languages and Literature, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China

Slava Kalyuga

2 School of Education, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia

Associated Data

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Learning to write in a foreign language is a complex cognitive process. The process-genre approach is a common instructional practice adopted by language teachers to develop learners’ writing abilities. However, the interacting elements of procedural knowledge, linguistic knowledge, and generic knowledge in this approach may exceed the capacity of an individual learner’s working memory, thus actually hindering the acquisition of writing skills. According to the collective working memory effect, it was hypothesized that teaching writing skills of English as a foreign language by adopting a process-genre approach in collaborative conditions could lead to better writing performance, lower cognitive load, and higher instructional efficiency. The reported experiment compared learning writing skills of English as a foreign language in individual and collaborative instructional conditions from a cognitive load perspective, a rarely adopted approach in this field. The results indicated that the collaborative instructional condition was more effective and efficient than the individual instructional condition in improving the quality of written products as well as in optimizing the cognitive (working memory) load experienced by the learners. Measures of cognitive load were used to support the cognitive load theory’s interpretation of the results, which is the unique contribution of this research study to the field.

Introduction

Learning to write in a foreign language is a complex problem-solving process, requiring not only a range of skills from writing English letters to composing complete essays but also the ability to make claims and provide appropriate supporting details ( Kirkland and Saunders, 1991 ; Bruning and Horn, 2010 ; Howell et al., 2018 ). Students need to develop the skills of generating, organizing, and refining ideas by being involved in complex activities, such as brainstorming, discussing, outlining, drafting, monitoring, and revising ( Raimes, 1992 ; Hyland, 2003a ). Cognitive load theory aims at designing effective instructional materials and procedures to facilitate learners’ acquisition of complex knowledge and skills based on the mechanisms of human cognitive architecture ( Van Merriënboer and Sweller, 2005 ; Sweller et al., 2011 ). According to this theory, learners can build new knowledge about writing processes not only with the help of explicit formal instruction or through personal reading but also using problem solving via individual or collaborative efforts (through personal introspection or pair/group discussions).

The collective working memory effect in cognitive load theory refers to the working memory space created by communicating and coordinating knowledge by each collaborator ( Kirschner et al., 2011 , 2018 ; Sweller et al., 2011 ). An individual who studies alone processes all the interacting elements of the instructional material in his or her working memory. By contrast, under a collaborative learning condition, all the interactive elements can be distributed among the working memories of group members. This effect allows a better understanding of cognitive processes in collaborative learning environments and the conditions under which such environments provide more efficient instructional options.

However, to our best knowledge, differences between the effectiveness of individual and collaborative instructional approaches in learning writing skills of English as a foreign language from a cognitive load perspective have never been investigated ( Kirschner et al., 2011 , 2018 ). Moreover, despite that collaborative writing as a teaching strategy has been actively implemented in foreign language classrooms since the 1990s ( McDonough, 2004 ; Shehadeh, 2011 ), the issue of how developing writing skills in collaborative settings impact learners’ cognitive characteristics has not been investigated extensively. In addition, more empirical research should be done to examine how learners in collaborative learning conditions would perform on individual writing tasks rather than on co-authoring tasks in the post-intervention phase ( Storch, 2005 ; Chen, 2019 ). Accordingly, the experimental study reported in this paper was conducted in an attempt to fill these gaps.

Models and Approaches to Teaching Writing Skills

Cognitive model of writing processes.

Writing involves a range of cognitive activities. Flower and Hayes (1981) proposed a cognitive model of writing processes, which regarded writing as a decision-making process, consisting of a range of cognitive activities orchestrated in cyclical or recursive rather than linear orders ( Racelis and Matsuda, 2013 ). Flower and Hayes (1981) argued that a writing process “involves three major elements which are reflected in the three units of the model: the task environment, the writer’s long-term memory, and the writing process” (p. 369). This cognitive model generally corresponds to the three phases of writing: planning, translating, and revising phases. The three cognitive processes do not necessarily appear in a linear order but can happen at any moment in the writing process ( Berninger et al., 1996 ; Baaijen and Galbraith, 2018 , p. 196). Jones (2014) highlighted that the cognitive model of writing processes emphasized the functions of planning (i.e., generating ideas) and translating ideas into texts. Even though Flower and Hayes (1981) stressed that the three types of cognitive activities were recursive, they did not identify the “distinctions involving the temporal dimensions (before, during, or after translation) and spatial dimensions on which the planning and reviewing/revising processes operate (whole text or a portion of it)” ( Berninger et al., 1996 , p. 198). The distinctions are of great significance to instructions as an awareness of stages or phases in writing could help learners internalize the phases of writing, which was evidenced in Jones’ (2014) study that some of the participants were not fully aware of making distinctions between planning and translating while others were struggled with how to organize ideas in the writing process. It can be assumed that explicit instruction in planning and organizing ideas in the pre-writing stage could improve writing quality. Orchestrating the cognitive activities into stages or phases in this study attempted to actualize these abstract activities for instructional purposes. However, as Bizzell (1982) and Atkinson (2003) noted, this post-cognitivist approach to writing may neglect the genre nature of writings—shared features of texts shaped through social conventions. Therefore, it is of equal significance to teach genre knowledge when adopting the cognitive model of writing processes in teaching writing skills.

Approaches to Teaching Writing Skills

The genre approach and process approach to teaching writing skills have been used extensively to promote learners’ abilities to write in English ( Hyland, 2003a , b ; Muncie, 2009 ; Keen, 2020 ). The process-based approach in writing instruction, which was introduced in the 1980s, usually consists of four stages: prewriting, writing, revising, and editing ( Tribble, 1996 ). Participants in Keen’s (2020) study adopted a process approach to learning skills: discussing topics in small groups, writing ideas about the topic, writing first drafts, carrying out peer reviews, writing second drafts, and sharing their accounts with the whole class. It was found that the participants developed a sense of ownership and learned how to write more effectively. Even though Keen (2020) used young learners of English as a first language as research subjects, he identified the beneficial role of procedural learning in cultivating students’ writing abilities. However, it should be noted that such approaches demonstrate “how some writers write, they do not reveal why they make certain linguistic and rhetorical choices” ( Hyland, 2003b , p. 19), as the process-based approach “is seen as predominantly to do with linguistic skills such as planning and drafting, and there is much less emphasis on linguistic knowledge” ( Badger and White, 2000 , p. 154). In a response, ( Hyland, 2003b , 2008 ) put forward a genre-based approach to teach writing skills, in which genre is conceptualized as “a term for grouping texts together, representing how writers typically use language to respond to recurring situations” (p. 544). The genre-based approach emphasizes explicit instructions for communicative purposes, key language features, and structural patterns.

Graham and Sandmel (2011) advised that “advocates of process writing instruction integrate other effective writing practices into this approach” (p. 405). Researchers (e.g., Flowerdew, 1993 ; Badger and White, 2000 ) have endeavored to integrate the process-approach and genre-based approach in teaching writing skills of English as a foreign language as the two approaches could be mutually complementary ( Raimes, 1991 ; Badger and White, 2000 ; Racelis and Matsuda, 2013 ; Deng et al., 2014 ; Huang and Zhang, 2020 ; Jiang et al., 2021 ; Rahimi and Zhang, 2021 ). For example, Flowerdew (1993) introduced a process consisting of six types of activities to explicitly teach the process of learning specific genres. Badger and White (2000) proposed the process-genre approach to teaching writing skills, which consists of several stages starting from understanding a situation to completing a draft. By process-genre approach, Badger and White (2000) emphasized the significant roles of language skills, situational knowledge, and processes in cultivating writing abilities. Learning to write also means learning the techniques of self-regulating cognitive activities and procedures. Students who learn how to regulate the writing procedures collaboratively could transfer the knowledge when writing independently ( Teng, 2020 ).

Learning English Writing Skills Through Collaboration

Taking a social stance, a process-genre approach to teaching writing skills encourages interactions and collaborations, which involves some kinds of collaborative activities such as “modeling, eliciting, supporting, probing, and suggesting alternatives or extension” to a learner’s initial attempts ( Wette, 2017 , p. 72). Dillenbourg (1999) and Prince (2004) defined collaborative learning as an instructional method through which students work together in small groups to pursue common learning or writing goals. Although collaborative learning, in general, has a long history of research, learning writing skills through collaboration was not actively implemented in foreign language classrooms until the late 1990s ( McDonough, 2004 ). Learning writing skills through collaboration, with a primary aim of learning curricular content, focuses on both deconstruction and construction processes ( Karnes et al., 1997 ). Granado-Peinado et al. (2019) found that participants who received collaborative practice and explicit instructions about writing synthesis identified more proportions of arguments and higher levels of integration of different sources than those in the collaborative practice conditions without instructions about writing synthesis. However, their research showed that providing collaboration opportunities does not sufficiently warrant effective learning, which also needs not only guides about how to collaborate but also explicit instructions about learning tasks. Accordingly, Teng (2020) investigated the effect of collaboratively modeling text structure and explicitly teaching self-regulated strategies on younger English learners’ abilities to write summarizations and essays. After 1-month intervention, it was found that participants who adopted self-regulated strategies and collaboratively modeled text structures demonstrated better performance than the participants in the control group in terms of the three measurements. It should be noted that the available research studies have reported mixed results about whether learning writing skills through collaborations could effectively improve the quality of written products or not ( McDonough, 2004 ; McDonough and De Vleeschauwer, 2019 ; Matos, 2021 ). For example, some studies (e.g., Storch, 2005 ; Fernández Dobao, 2012 ; Hsu and Lo, 2018 ) indicated that texts written by collaborative learners were more grammatically accurate than those by individual ones. However, it has also been reported that learners in the individual learning conditions produced more syntactically complex text than collaborative learners ( McDonough et al., 2018 ). The divergent findings in the collaborative learning of writing skills can be related to the following three issues: the lack of explicit collaborative tasks in the learning phases, not considering cognitive aspects in the experimental designs, and not evaluating individual writing outcomes. Accordingly, Kirschner et al. (2009) recommended that research in collaborative learning should directly measure learning outcomes in a test condition, focus on one aspect of the learning goals at a time, and investigate the performance of individual learners instead of the group as a whole. They also advocated that research studies need to consider human cognitive architecture to better understand and compare individual and collaborative learning. In addition, ( Berninger et al., 1996 ) noted that “working memory, and not only long-term memory, is involved in writing development” (p. 199), as the cognitive activities in relation to the task environment and writing process should be carried out in working memory.

Cognitive Load Theory

Cognitive load theory aims at designing effective instructional materials and procedures to optimize learner cognitive resources in the process of acquiring complex knowledge structures ( Sweller, 2010 ; Sweller et al., 2011 ). Cognitive load refers to the working memory resources needed for completing a particular learning task. Theoretically, learners may experience two types of cognitive load: intrinsic cognitive load and extraneous cognitive load ( Van Merriënboer and Sweller, 2005 ; Sweller et al., 2011 ). Intrinsic cognitive load is defined as the working memory resources demanded by the innate complexity of information that a learner must learn ( Sweller, 2010 ). Extraneous cognitive load, conceptualized as the working memory load that is unnecessary and extrinsic to instructional goals, is generated by the presentation manner and structure of the instructional material ( Van Merriënboer and Sweller, 2005 ; Sweller et al., 2011 ).

The level of cognitive load experienced by the learners is determined by the level of element interactivity which refers to the degree to which information elements or components of a learning task should be processed simultaneously for meaningful learning ( Sweller et al., 2011 ). For example, learning new vocabularies in a list can be considered as low in element interactivity, as individual vocabularies can be acquired without reference to other information in the list. By contrast, most writing tasks have high levels of element interactivity, as the writing process involves a relatively large number of interconnected elements of information, as well as cognitive, metacognitive, and socio-affective activities ( Negari, 2011 ).

The levels of cognitive load that learners experience can be measured by subjective rating scales of effort, a simple and reliable instrument first adopted by Paas (1992) . In this type of rating method, learners were asked to recall, reflect, and report the level of mental effort during their previous learning after they completed instructional activities. Even though subjective rating scales were capable of measuring the overall cognitive load, researchers also needed information about the levels of particular types of cognitive load that learners experience ( Paas et al., 2003 ; DeLeeuw and Mayer, 2008 ). Leppink et al. (2013) proposed a more recent version of subjective rating scales: three items on intrinsic cognitive load, three items on extraneous cognitive load, and four items on germane cognitive load. However, the results of confirmatory factor analysis in Jiang and Kalyuga’s (2020) study showed that the two-factor (intrinsic and extraneous) model was an acceptable fit. Therefore, the cognitive load rating questionnaire in this study, which was developed on the basis of Leppink et al.’s (2013) version, adopted the two-factor model.

Cognitive load ratings are frequently combined with learning performance measures to calculate the relative instructional efficiency for different learning environments. Instructional efficiency in this study was calculated using Paas and van Merriënboer’s (1993) formula E = ( P-R )/√ 2 , in which E stands for efficiency, P for performance z-score, and R for cognitive load rating z-score. In this study, the average of intrinsic cognitive load and extraneous cognitive load ratings were used to calculate the cognitive load z-score. According to this formula, higher values of instructional efficiency are achieved in situations where learning performance is high and cognitive load is low; lower values of instructional efficiency occur under conditions where learning performance is low and cognitive load is high.

Collective Working Memory Effect

Cognitive load theory considers a social interaction situation as a collective working memory system and extends the instructional focus from individual learning to collaborative learning. A collective working memory system can be developed from individual cognitive systems through collaboration, coordination, and communication. The collective working memory effect happens when learners acquire knowledge more effectively and efficiently through collaborating with others than through learning individually ( Sweller et al., 2011 ). The collective working memory space constituted by multiple working memories has a larger capacity and longer duration than any of the constituents in individual working memories. This concept was supported by Dillenbourg (1999) who argued that in the collaborative conditions, “the horizontal division of labor into, for instance, task-level and strategy-level tasks, reduces the amounts of processing performed by each individual” (p. 10). Villarreal and Gil-Sarratea (2019) found that the texts produced by pairs were more accurate and grammatically complex than those by individual learners. They attributed the difference partially to collective scaffolding.

Collective working memory refers to the working memory space created by communicating and coordinating knowledge by each collaborator ( Kirschner et al., 2018 ). An individual who studies alone processes all the interacting elements of the instructional material in his or her working memory. By contrast, under a collaborative learning condition, all the interactive elements can be distributed among the working memories of group members. The multiple working memories constitute a collective working memory space that has a larger capacity and longer duration than individual working memory. As a result, an individual learner in the collaborative instructional condition may experience lower levels of the cognitive load than a learner who studies alone. The collective working memory effect, a recently developed cognitive load theory effect, occurs when learners learn better through collaborating with other learners than through learning alone ( Sweller et al., 2011 ). This effect assumes that “students working in groups have more processing capacity than students working individually” ( Janssen et al., 2010 , p. 139). Even though interacting with group members in the collaborative learning condition may generate extraneous cognitive load, the interactive process should be beneficial as elaborating and eliciting could result in forming more advanced knowledge ( Dillenbourg, 1999 ).

Under the individual learning condition, all the interacting elements of the learning task are processed in the individual learner’s working memory. By contrast, learners who collaborate with others in their learning distribute all the interactive elements among the working memories of group members. Consequently, a collaborator would experience lower levels of the cognitive load than an individual learner. This assumption was supported by Zhang et al. (2011) , who compared the effectiveness of collaborative and individual instructional approaches in learning the complex tasks of designing web pages. They found that the participants in the collaborative learning condition demonstrated better performance and experienced a lower level of the cognitive load than the individual learners.

Task complexity or element interactivity can influence the effectiveness of collaborative learning. For simple learning tasks, individual learning is expected to be more effective and efficient, as the transaction costs associated with sharing knowledge and coordinating communication will nullify the benefits offered by collaborative learning. By contrast, for complex tasks, the benefits offered by the collective working memory could be higher than the transaction costs, thus fostering efficient learning. Kirschner et al. (2009) found that individual learners performed better in remembering biological knowledge (simple tasks) than learners in collaborative conditions, whereas collaborative learners performed better in transferring the skills to solving similar problems (complex tasks) than individual learners. Similar findings were reported by Kirschner et al. (2011) who found that learning low-complexity biological tasks individually was more effective and efficient while learning high-complexity tasks benefited more from the collaborative approach.

Experimental Study

Learning writing skills of English as a foreign language has long been regarded as a complex process that usually generates a heavy cognitive load ( Vanderberg and Swanson, 2007 ; Kellogg, 2008 ). Based on the review of literature on cognitive load theory and writing learning, the study was conducted to examine the following research hypotheses:

• (1) Participants taught through the process-genre approach in the collaborative learning condition would demonstrate better individual writing performances than participants in the individual learning condition.
• (2) Participants taught through the process-genre approach in the collaborative learning condition would experience lower levels of the cognitive load than participants in the individual learning condition.

The reported experiment focused on the effect of collaboration in creating a collective working memory among the members of a group. Previous research studies seldom included controlled randomized experiments and assessed learners’ writing products as a means to evaluate the effectiveness of collaborative learning. Therefore, according to the collective working memory effect, the reported experiment was designed to test the hypotheses that learners of English as a foreign language in the collaborative process-genre instructional condition would achieve better individual learning outcomes in terms of writing skills, experience lower levels of cognitive load, and have higher instructional efficiency than learners in the individual process-genre instructional condition.

Materials and Methods

Participants.

The study adopted a purposive convenience sampling method; 64 undergraduate students (29 females) voluntarily participated in this experiment after reading the recruitment notice. They studied at a technological university in Shandong Province, China. They were also briefed about the aims, the procedures, their rights through the study, and their rights to access the research results. They were requested to return the signed consent form if they determined to participate. These college students were on average 21.5 years old and had spent 11 years learning English as a foreign language at the time of the experiment, so they could be regarded as having an intermediate level of English proficiency. They were randomly allocated into the individual learning condition (IL) ( n = 32) and the collaborative learning condition (CL) ( n = 32). The participants in the collaborative learning condition were further randomly allocated into eight groups with four members in each. This arrangement was based on the rationale that groups consisting of no more than six members could maximize participation by all group members ( Herner et al., 2002 ).

The participants were required to write an essay as a pretest. The design of the pretest was based on Task 2 of the writing section in International English Language Test System (IELTS): General Training . Two independent raters examined their writings by complying with the IELTS writing band descriptors . These raters were proficient IELTS tutors with experience in applying the band descriptors in evaluating IELTS essays. An independent samples t -test indicated that the pre-test scores of the IL group ( M = 5.16, SD = 0.91) were not significantly different from the CL group ( M = 5.00, SD = 1.02), t (58) = 0.61, p > 0.05.

The instructional material was about how to write complaint letters. The development of the teaching material was based on the book The Official Cambridge Guide to IELTS authored by Cullen et al. (2014) . The experimental materials included four teaching components (structural features teaching, language features teaching, model essay teaching, and essay planning teaching), one essay planning phase, one testing phase (essay writing), and one subjective cognitive load rating phase ( Appendix ).

The instruction was delivered in seven phases (see Figure 1 ). The participants in the individual learning condition were allocated to a lecture room. Each participant sat with at least 1-m distance from other participants to prevent collaboration and interference. The 84-member CL instructional groups were put in one lecture room. Each group kept a distance of at least 5 m from other groups to prevent collaboration and interference between groups, if any. The participants in the IL condition were required to complete all the seven phases individually; on the other hand, the participants in the CL condition completed the first five learning phases collaboratively, but the last two phases were completed independently. Associated questions were provided for thinking (for individual learners) and discussing (for collaborative learners) as Proske and Kapp (2013) argued that “learning questions might also be suitable to support the construction of a richly interconnected situation model of a writing topic which in turn may allow writers to produce better text products” (p. 1340). As it was generally believed that cognitive activities involved in writing procedures were recursive and dynamic ( Flower and Hayes, 1981 ), the participants were reminded that they did not necessarily treat the phases as absolute linear orders and had the freedom to revisit the previous phase or skip to next one when they feel necessary.

Seven phases of the research study.

The first part of the instructional materials (10 min) introduced the purposes and structural features of complaint letters, as well as the functions of each structural component. The structural features of complaint letters covered in this study include the following: the introductory paragraph elicits the purpose of complaint letters; the body paragraphs elaborate on the problems that letters are about and the suggested solutions; and the conclusion paragraph generally states the expectations and closes the letter. The associated questions for thinking (for individual learners) and discussion (for collaborative learners) were: How do structural features reflect communicative purposes? and Are there alternative structures for this genre? The second part (10 min) elaborated on the common language features of complaint letters, such as phrases and sentence structures for specifying the problem, outlining the consequences, making and justifying a specific claim, and so on, with the questions for thinking and discussion being: Are there alternative ways to give reasons and solutions? By using graphic organizers, the third part (10 min) showed the essential steps in planning writing. The question for introspection and discussion in this phase was: If there exist alternative structures, how can these steps in essay planning be adapted to suit those structures? The fourth part (15 min) introduced a model letter, in which the participants were required to identify the structural features, explain the functions of each feature, and the language features that were used for achieving the purposes. The associated questions in this phase were: What tenses have been used mainly in each paragraph? and Why tenses were used in these ways? The fifth instructional phase (10 min) required the participants to plan a letter on a given topic and scenario. In these five phases, the participants in the collaborative instructional conditions were encouraged to learn the materials through collaboration, share their understandings, ask questions, and provide responses, while the individual learners were encouraged to talk to themselves or engage in an internal conversation. In the sixth phase (15 min), the participants were required to individually write a letter on the topic they discussed in the fifth phase by using the skills learned in the first four phases. The last phase of the experiment (5 min) was a subjective cognitive load rating questionnaire ( Appendix ).

Traditionally, subjective ratings of working memory load have proven to be able to collect reliable and valid estimations of mental load in a non-intrusive way ( Jiang and Kalyuga, 2020 ). The cognitive load rating questionnaire was developed from the questionnaires designed by Leppink et al. (2013) , with the first six items on intrinsic cognitive load and the last six items on extraneous cognitive load. The questionnaire was written in Chinese, the research participants’ first language. The participants were asked to evaluate the appropriateness of a certain aspect of the instructional design that could orchestrate their mental resources to facilitate learning by choosing a number on a Likert-type scale, ranging from 0 (not at all the case) to 10 (completely the case). In addition, the instructor was available to clarify and explain puzzles and queries, if any.

The quality of the letters was assessed according to the IELTS General Training Writing Task 1: Writing band descriptors published by the British Council. The band descriptors cover four categories: task achievement, coherence and cohesion, lexical resource, and grammatical range and accuracy. Each category has the 9-point scale, ranging from one to nine. Each letter was given one score for each category, and the sum of the scores in the four categories was the rater’s score for the letter. The highest mark for a letter was 36. Two independent raters assessed students’ letters. The average value of two raters’ markings was used as the final score of the letter. The inter-rater reliability was calculated using a Person intra-class correlation (ICC). The ICC measure of 0.92 indicated a high degree of inter-rater reliability.

Table 1 shows means and standard deviations of the letter scores, the scores of each category, the ratings of intrinsic, extraneous, and overall cognitive load, and the instructional efficiency for the two instructional conditions. The reliability of the subjective cognitive load rating scale as measured by Cronbach’s alpha was 0.76.

Means and standard deviations for essay writing performance scores, individual category score, subjective ratings of cognitive load, and instructional efficiency for two instructional groups.

An analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was conducted to compare the two instructional groups’ letter scores, scores of each subcategory, the ratings of intrinsic cognitive load, extraneous cognitive load, and overall cognitive load, as well as the indicators of instructional efficiency. Levene’s test was conducted ( p > 0.05) and the assumptions were satisfied. After controlling for the effect of pretest, it was found that the participants in the CL instructional condition demonstrated significantly better letter writing performance [ F (1, 61) = 27.40, p = 0.001, partialη 2 = 0.31] and significantly higher instructional efficiency [ F (1, 61) = 31.97, p = 0.001, partialη 2 = 0.34] than those in the IL instructional condition. In terms of category scores, the learners in the CL teaching condition significantly outperformed those learners in the IL teaching condition in all the four subscales: task achievement [ F (1, 61) = 15.72, p = 0.001, partialη 2 = 0.21], coherence and cohesion [ F (1, 61) = 30.64, p = 0.001, partialη 2 = 0.33], lexical resource [ F (1, 61) = 17.86, p = 0.001, partialη 2 = 0.23], as well as grammatical range and accuracy [ F (1, 61) = 41.76, p = 0.001, d = 0.41]. The participants in the IL instructional condition experienced significantly higher levels of intrinsic cognitive load [ F (1, 61) = 7.68, p = 0.007, partialη 2 = 0.11], significantly higher levels of extraneous cognitive load [ F (1, 61) = 5.83, p = 0.020, partialη 2 = 0.09], and significantly higher levels of overall cognitive load [ F (1, 61) = 12.02, p = 0.001, partialη 2 = 0.17] than the participants in the CL condition.

The covariate, which is pretest in the study, was significantly related to the letter writing performance, which means that the participants in the CL condition had significantly better performance than the students in the IL condition in terms of the overall scores [ F (1, 61) = 143.44, p = 0.001, r = 0.84] as well as the four subscales: task achievement [ F (1, 61) = 127.86, p = 0.001, r = 0.81], coherence and cohesion [ F (1, 61) = 128.09, p = 0.001, r = 0.82], lexical resource [ F (1, 61) = 125.52, p = 0.001, r = 0.82], and grammatical range and accuracy [ F (1,61) = 146.29, p = 0.001, r = 0.84]. In addition, cognitive load ratings and instructional efficiency were related to the covariate, pretest. The correlation to the covariate, pretests, was also observed in intrinsic cognitive load, overall cognitive load, and instructional efficiency. Students in the CL instructional condition had lower cognitive load ratings and higher instructional efficiency than the participants in the IL condition: intrinsic cognitive load [ F (1, 61) = 5.49, p = 0.02, r = 0.28], overall cognitive load [ F (1, 61) = 4.58, p = 0.036, r = 0.07], and instructional efficiency [ F (1, 61) = 62.88, p = 0.001, r = 0.51]. However, it should be noted that the covariate, pretest, was not significantly related to extraneous cognitive load [ F (1, 61) = 0.42, p > 0.05], which indicates that the differences in participants’ perception of extraneous cognitive load could be largely attributed to the dependent variable, instructional conditions.

The reported experiment was conducted to test the hypotheses generated by cognitive load theory that learners of English as a foreign language in a collaborative instructional condition would show better writing performance, lower levels of cognitive load, and higher instructional efficiency than learners in an individual learning condition. Even though relations to the covariate, pretest, were observed, the results of the study generally supported the hypotheses. As for the first hypothesis, this randomized experimental study found that the students in the collaborative learning condition demonstrated higher overall post-test letter writing scores and higher subcategory scores (task achievement, coherence and cohesion, lexical resource, as well as grammatical range and accuracy) than the participants in the individual learning condition. The second research hypothesis was also supported as the participants in the collaborative learning condition indicated lower overall cognitive load ratings than the participants in the individual learning condition. It was also found that the collaborative learning condition generated higher instructional efficiency in terms of developing writing skills than the individual learning condition. Moderate and significant negative correlations were found between the ratings of intrinsic cognitive load and the letter-writing performance scores for both instructional conditions. The results demonstrated the collective working memory effect ( Kirschner et al., 2009 , 2018 ; Sweller et al., 2011 ) in the domain of learning writing skills by learners of English as a foreign language. As predicted by cognitive load theory, in the case of complex learning tasks such as writing in a foreign language, the benefits of collective working memory exceeded the possible disadvantages of dealing with transaction costs involved in coordinating individual working memories.

First, the study contributed to the research area of writing in a foreign language by conceptualizing the research and interpreting the findings from the perspective of cognitive load theory. In an attempt to account for the role of specific cognitive mechanisms in improving writing performance, it is possible to assume that the collaborative instructional approach had created an effective pool of knowledge about language and a pool of cognitive resources that beneficially influenced the quality of written products ( Storch, 2005 ; Strobl, 2014 ). The interactions in collaborative instructional conditions could trigger more learning-relevant cognitive mechanisms, for example, knowledge elaboration and internalization which are essential for meaningful and effective learning. These learning mechanisms could enable learners to organize information into ordered structures and integrate new information with prior knowledge structures ( Dillenbourg, 1999 ; Kalyuga, 2009 ). In the process of collaborative learning, theme-related knowledge structures would be retrieved from learners’ long-term memory and function collectively as distributed cognition including “internal minds, external representations, and interactions among individuals” ( Klein and Leacock, 2011 , p. 133). The distributed cognition could evolve through members’ contributions using stating claims, supporting or challenging others’ opinions, providing supporting details, and so on. The mental activities in sharing, understanding, and negotiating meaning involve expressive or introspective elaborations, resulting in conceptual changes in group members ( Dillenbourg, 1999 ). As more sources of information come to the group memory, learners would exercise more knowledge elaborations to establish links between new information and the existing knowledge structures, leading to better performance measures. The multiple learning phases in the collaborative conditions offered collaborators more opportunities to use the language-related episodes (LRE) and task-related episodes, which were supposed to benefit their writing.

Second, the findings are consistent with the collective working memory effect, in that learning English as a foreign language writing skills in the collaborative instructional condition is more effective and efficient than in the individual learning condition ( Kirschner et al., 2009 ; Retnowati et al., 2018 ). As learning tasks used for teaching English as a foreign language writing skills are high in element interactivity, and multiple factors (such as linguistic and situational knowledge, understanding of audience and purposes, etc.) affect the learning process, it can be assumed that the participants in each collaborative group would provide collective scaffolding, resulting in learning more sophisticated writing skills in terms of lexical accuracy, grammatical complexity, logic organization, and so on, in the learning phases and consequently in the better performance of these learners in the testing phase than the participants in the individual learning condition.

In addition, this study also indicates that adopting a process-genre approach in a collaborative condition could lead to significantly better writing performance than in an individual learning condition, which is particularly consistent with research studies on developing self-regulation of writing processes and generic knowledge through collaborations (e.g., Graham and Sandmel, 2011 ; Jones, 2014 ; Wette, 2017 ; Villarreal and Gil-Sarratea, 2019 ; Teng, 2020 ). According to the genre approach to teaching writing skills, effective instructional practices should “offer writers an explicit understanding of how texts in target genres are structured,” teach “the lexico-grammatical patterns which typically occur in its different stages,” and cultivate writers to command “an awareness of target genres and an explicit grammar of linguistic choices” ( Hyland, 2003b , p. 26). However, if all lexical, syntactical, structural, and logical contents were taught without appropriate sequencing and prioritizing, high levels of cognitive load could be generated. Therefore, segmenting a learning task into several phases can ameliorate the complexity of information as the number of interacting elements would be reduced. For example, in a controlled randomized experiment, Klein and Ehrhardt (2015) found that organizing instructional tasks into manageable parts helped learners generate more balanced claims and reduced high-achieving students’ cognitive load in writing persuasion texts as measured by the perceived difficulty of their learning.

Furthermore, the results of the reported study are also consistent with previous research in the field of collaborative learning of writing skills (e.g., Shehadeh, 2011 ; McDonough et al., 2018 ), in that the learners in the collaborative instructional condition had better qualities of prewriting/writing performance than the learners in the individual instructional condition. Still, this study contributed to the area of collaborative writing research in two novel ways. First, differently from most of the previous research which required all learners in a collaborative group to write a common single text, this study required every member in a collaborative condition to write a separate text, and the quality of individual texts was assessed to compare the effectiveness of individual and collaborative learning conditions on the same grounds. This method of measuring learning gains by assessing the quality of individual writing products is more valid and reliable according to Kirschner et al. (2009) , as it better fits the learning goals. Second, the use of subjective ratings of participants’ cognitive load in learning and the calculation of instructional efficiency provided additional evidence to support a cognitive load interpretation of the results as the case of the collective working memory effect.

The reported study still has some limitations that require further research. First, this study did not consider the foreign language proficiency of the participants as a variable in collaborative teaching of English as a foreign language writing skill. According to the expertise reversal effect in cognitive load theory, the effectiveness of specific instructional techniques and procedures depends on the levels of the learner’s prior knowledge in the domain ( Kalyuga et al., 2003 ; Kalyuga, 2007 ; Sweller et al., 2011 ). This effect has been demonstrated with all other instructional methods developed by cognitive load theory. It is likely that this effect also applies to the collective working memory effect. For example, Storch (2011) claimed that second language proficiency should be taken into consideration in implementing collaborative learning of writing skills. Therefore, future research studies may need to recruit learners at different proficiency (prior knowledge) levels to investigate possible interactions between levels of learner expertise in the area of English as a foreign language writing skills and the effectiveness of individual versus collaborative learning conditions. Second, this study examined the effectiveness of learning approaches (individual or collaborative) by primarily assessing the quality of learning products (i.e., essay). Future studies need to consider and measure other possible contributing factors and performance indicators, such as interactions in the writing processes, the quality of jointly drafted essays, and learners’ perceptions. In addition, as a way to manifest how collaborative learning affects the development of collective memory, future research should record and analyze learners’ interactions during the collaborative learning phases. Furthermore, more research should be done to investigate how learners develop their writing skills in other genres (such as argumentative, informative, and descriptive ones) in individual and collaborative instructional conditions.

In conclusion, the results of the reported experimental study supported the hypothesis generated by cognitive load theory. Learning English as a foreign language writing skills through a process-genre approach in the collaborative instructional condition was more effective and efficient than in the individual instructional condition. Subjective ratings of the cognitive load supported the interpretation of results within a cognitive load framework. The findings have implications for the innovations of teaching approaches, the developments of course materials, and curriculum designs in the field of teaching foreign language writing skills.

Data Availability Statement

Ethics statement.

Ethical review and approval was not required for the study on human participants in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The patients/participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author Contributions

DJ: conceptualization, methodology, resources, data curation, writing – original draft, and review and editing. SK: supervision and writing – review and editing. Both authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Subjective Rating of Cognitive Load

All of the following questions refer to the learning activity that you just finished. Please respond to each of the questions on the following scale (0 meaning not at all the case and 10 meaning completely the case).

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The End of Foreign-Language Education

A few days ago, I watched a video of myself talking in perfect Chinese. I’ve been studying the language on and off for only a few years, and I’m far from fluent. But there I was, pronouncing each character flawlessly in the correct tone, just as a native speaker would. Gone were my grammar mistakes and awkward pauses, replaced by a smooth and slightly alien-sounding voice. “My favorite food is sushi,” I said— wo zui xihuan de shiwu shi shousi —with no hint of excitement or joy.

I’d created the video using software from a Los Angeles–based artificial-intelligence start-up called HeyGen. It allows users to generate deepfake videos of real people “saying” almost anything based on a single picture of their face and a script, which is paired with a synthetic voice and can be translated into more than 40 languages. By merely uploading a selfie taken on my iPhone, I was able to glimpse a level of Mandarin fluency that may elude me for the rest of my life.

HeyGen’s visuals are flawed—the way it animates selfies almost reminded me of the animatronics in Disney’s It’s a Small World ride—but its language technology is good enough to make me question whether learning Mandarin is a wasted effort. Neural networks, the machine-learning systems that power generative-AI programs such as ChatGPT, have rapidly improved the quality of automatic translation over the past several years, making even older tools like Google Translate far more accurate.

At the same time, the number of students studying foreign languages in the U.S. and other countries is shrinking. Total enrollment in language courses other than English at American colleges decreased 29.3 percent from 2009 to 2021, according to the latest data from the Modern Language Association, better known as the MLA. In Australia, only 8.6 percent of high-school seniors were studying a foreign language in 2021—a historic low. In South Korea and New Zealand , universities are closing their French, German, and Italian departments. One recent study from the education company EF Education First found that English proficiency is decreasing among young people in some places.

Many factors could help explain the downward trend, including pandemic-related school disruptions, growing isolationism, and funding cuts to humanities programs. But whether the cause of the shift is political, cultural, or some mix of things, it’s clear that people are turning away from language learning just as automatic translation becomes ubiquitous across the internet.

[ Read: High-school English needed a makeover before ChatGPT ]

Within a few years, AI translation may become so commonplace and frictionless that billions of people take for granted the fact that the emails they receive, videos they watch, and albums they listen to were originally produced in a language other than their native one. Something enormous will be lost in exchange for that convenience. Studies have suggested that language shapes the way people interpret reality. Learning a different way to speak, read, and write helps people discover new ways to see the world—experts I spoke with likened it to discovering a new way to think. No machine can replace such a profoundly human experience. Yet tech companies are weaving automatic translation into more and more products. As the technology becomes normalized, we may find that we’ve allowed deep human connections to be replaced by communication that’s technically proficient but ultimately hollow.

AI language tools are now in social-media apps, messaging platforms, and streaming sites. Spotify is experimenting with using a voice-generation tool from the ChatGPT maker OpenAI to translate podcasts in the host’s own voice, while Samsung is touting that its new Galaxy S24 smartphone can translate phone calls as they’re occurring . Roblox, meanwhile, claimed last month that its AI translation tool is so fast and accurate , its English-speaking users might not realize that their conversation partner “is actually in Korea.” The technology—which works especially well for “ high-resource languages ” such as English and Chinese, and less so for languages such as Swahili and Urdu—is being used in much more high-stakes situations as well, such as translating the testimony of asylum seekers and firsthand accounts from conflict zones. Musicians are already using it to translate songs , and at least one couple credited it with helping them to fall in love.

One of the most telling use cases comes from a start-up called Jumpspeak, which makes a language-learning app similar to Duolingo and Babbel. Instead of hiring actual bilingual actors, Jumpspeak appears to have used AI-generated “people” reading AI-translated scripts in at least four ads on Instagram and Facebook. At least some of the personas shown in the ads appear to be default characters available on HeyGen’s platform. “I struggled to learn languages my whole life. Then I learned Spanish in six months, I got a job opportunity in France, and I learned French. I learned Mandarin before visiting China,” a synthetic avatar says in one of the ads, while switching between all three languages. Even a language-learning app is surrendering to the allure of AI, at least in its marketing.

Alexandru Voica, a communications professional who works for another video-generating AI service, told me he came across Jumpspeak’s ads while looking for a program to teach his children Romanian, the language spoken by their grandparents. He argued that the ads demonstrated how deepfakes and automated-translation software could be used to mislead or deceive people. “I'm worried that some in the industry are currently in a race to the bottom on AI safety,” he told me in an email. (The ads were taken down after I started reporting this story, but it’s not clear if Meta or Jumpspeak removed them; neither company returned requests for comment. HeyGen also did not immediately respond to a request for comment about its product being used in Jumpspeak’s marketing.)

The world is already seeing how all of this can go wrong. Earlier this month, a far-right conspiracy theorist shared several AI-generated clips on X of Adolf Hitler giving a 1939 speech in English instead of the original German. The videos, which were purportedly produced using software from a company called ElevenLabs, featured a re-creation of Hitler’s own voice. It was a strange experience, hearing Hitler speak in English, and some people left comments suggesting that they found him easy to empathize with: “It sounds like these people cared about their country above all else,” one X user reportedly wrote in response to the videos. ElevenLabs did not immediately respond to a request for comment. ( The Atlantic uses ElevenLabs’ AI voice generator to narrate some articles.)

[ Read: The last frontier of machine translation ]

Gabriel Nicholas, a research fellow at the nonprofit Center for Democracy and Technology, told me that part of the problem with machine-translation programs is that they’re often falsely perceived as being neutral, rather than “bringing their own perspective upon how to move text from one language to another.” The truth is that there is no single right or correct way to transpose a sentence from French to Russian or any other language—it’s an art rather than a science. “Students will ask, ‘How do you say this in Spanish?’ and I’ll say, ‘You just don’t say it the same way in Spanish; the way you would approach it is different,’” Deborah Cohn, a Spanish- and Portuguese-language professor at Indiana University Bloomington who has written about the importance of language learning for bolstering U.S. national security , told me.

I recently came across a beautiful and particularly illustrative example of this fact in an article written by a translator in China named Anne. “Building a ladder between widely different languages, such as Chinese and English, is sometimes as difficult as a doctor building a bridge in a patient's heart,” she wrote. The metaphor initially struck me as slightly odd, but thankfully I wasn’t relying on ChatGPT to translate Anne’s words from their original Mandarin. I was reading a human translation by a professor named Jeffrey Ding, who helpfully noted that Anne may have been referring to a type of heart surgery that has recently become common in China. It's a small detail, but understanding that context brought me much closer to the true meaning of what Anne was trying to say.

[ Read: The college essay is dead ]

But most students will likely never achieve anything close to the fluency required to tell whether a translation rings close enough to the original or not. If professors accept that automated technology will far outpace the technical skills of the average Russian or Arabic major, their focus would ideally shift from grammar drills to developing cultural competency , or understanding the beliefs and practices of people from different backgrounds. Instead of cutting language courses in response to AI, schools should “stress more than ever the intercultural components of language learning that tremendously benefit the students taking these classes,” Jen William, the head of the School of Languages and Cultures at Purdue University and a member of the executive committee of the Association of Language Departments, told me.

Paula Krebs, the executive director of the MLA, referenced a beloved 1991 episode of Star Trek: The Next Generation to make a similar point. In “Darmok,” the crew aboard the starship Enterprise struggles to communicate with aliens living on a planet called El-Adrel IV. They have access to a “universal translator” that allows them to understand the basic syntax and semantics of what the Tamarians are saying, but the greater meaning of their utterances remains a mystery.

It later becomes clear that their language revolves around allegories rooted in the Tamarians’ unique history and practices. Even though Captain Picard was translating all the words they were saying, he “couldn’t understand the metaphors of their culture,” Krebs told me. More than 30 years later, something like a universal translator is now being developed on Earth. But it similarly doesn’t have the power to bridge cultural divides the way that humans can.

The End of Foreign-Language Education

Thanks to AI, people may no longer feel the need to learn a second language.

Listen to this article

Produced by ElevenLabs and News Over Audio (NOA) using AI narration.

A few days ago, I watched a video of myself talking in perfect Chinese. I’ve been studying the language on and off for only a few years, and I’m far from fluent. But there I was, pronouncing each character flawlessly in the correct tone, just as a native speaker would. Gone were my grammar mistakes and awkward pauses, replaced by a smooth and slightly alien-sounding voice. “My favorite food is sushi,” I said— wo zui xihuan de shiwu shi shousi —with no hint of excitement or joy.

I’d created the video using software from a Los Angeles–based artificial-intelligence start-up called HeyGen. It allows users to generate deepfake videos of real people “saying” almost anything based on a single picture of their face and a script, which is paired with a synthetic voice and can be translated into more than 40 languages. By merely uploading a selfie taken on my iPhone, I was able to glimpse a level of Mandarin fluency that may elude me for the rest of my life.

HeyGen’s visuals are flawed—the way it animates selfies almost reminded me of the animatronics in Disney’s It’s a Small World ride—but its language technology is good enough to make me question whether learning Mandarin is a wasted effort. Neural networks, the machine-learning systems that power generative-AI programs such as ChatGPT, have rapidly improved the quality of automatic translation over the past several years, making even older tools like Google Translate far more accurate.

At the same time, the number of students studying foreign languages in the U.S. and other countries is shrinking. Total enrollment in language courses other than English at American colleges decreased 29.3 percent from 2009 to 2021, according to the latest data from the Modern Language Association, better known as the MLA. In Australia, only 8.6 percent of high-school seniors were studying a foreign language in 2021—a historic low. In South Korea and New Zealand , universities are closing their French, German, and Italian departments. One recent study from the education company EF Education First found that English proficiency is decreasing among young people in some places.

Many factors could help explain the downward trend, including pandemic-related school disruptions, growing isolationism, and funding cuts to humanities programs. But whether the cause of the shift is political, cultural, or some mix of things, it’s clear that people are turning away from language learning just as automatic translation becomes ubiquitous across the internet.

Read: High-school English needed a makeover before ChatGPT

Within a few years, AI translation may become so commonplace and frictionless that billions of people take for granted the fact that the emails they receive, videos they watch, and albums they listen to were originally produced in a language other than their native one. Something enormous will be lost in exchange for that convenience. Studies have suggested that language shapes the way people interpret reality. Learning a different way to speak, read, and write helps people discover new ways to see the world—experts I spoke with likened it to discovering a new way to think. No machine can replace such a profoundly human experience. Yet tech companies are weaving automatic translation into more and more products. As the technology becomes normalized, we may find that we’ve allowed deep human connections to be replaced by communication that’s technically proficient but ultimately hollow.

AI language tools are now in social-media apps, messaging platforms, and streaming sites. Spotify is experimenting with using a voice-generation tool from the ChatGPT maker OpenAI to translate podcasts in the host’s own voice, while Samsung is touting that its new Galaxy S24 smartphone can translate phone calls as they’re occurring . Roblox, meanwhile, claimed last month that its AI translation tool is so fast and accurate , its English-speaking users might not realize that their conversation partner “is actually in Korea.” The technology—which works especially well for “ high-resource languages ” such as English and Chinese, and less so for languages such as Swahili and Urdu—is being used in much more high-stakes situations as well, such as translating the testimony of asylum seekers and firsthand accounts from conflict zones. Musicians are already using it to translate songs , and at least one couple credited it with helping them to fall in love.

One of the most telling use cases comes from a start-up called Jumpspeak, which makes a language-learning app similar to Duolingo and Babbel. Instead of hiring actual bilingual actors, Jumpspeak appears to have used AI-generated “people” reading AI-translated scripts in at least four ads on Instagram and Facebook. At least some of the personas shown in the ads appear to be default characters available on HeyGen’s platform. “I struggled to learn languages my whole life. Then I learned Spanish in six months, I got a job opportunity in France, and I learned French. I learned Mandarin before visiting China,” a synthetic avatar says in one of the ads, while switching between all three languages. Even a language-learning app is surrendering to the allure of AI, at least in its marketing.

Alexandru Voica, a communications professional who works for another video-generating AI service, told me he came across Jumpspeak’s ads while looking for a program to teach his children Romanian, the language spoken by their grandparents. He argued that the ads demonstrated how deepfakes and automated-translation software could be used to mislead or deceive people. “I'm worried that some in the industry are currently in a race to the bottom on AI safety,” he told me in an email. (The ads were taken down after I started reporting this story, but it’s not clear if Meta or Jumpspeak removed them; neither company returned requests for comment. HeyGen also did not immediately respond to a request for comment about its product being used in Jumpspeak’s marketing.)

The world is already seeing how all of this can go wrong. Earlier this month, a far-right conspiracy theorist shared several AI-generated clips on X of Adolf Hitler giving a 1939 speech in English instead of the original German. The videos, which were purportedly produced using software from a company called ElevenLabs, featured a re-creation of Hitler’s own voice. It was a strange experience, hearing Hitler speak in English, and some people left comments suggesting that they found him easy to empathize with: “It sounds like these people cared about their country above all else,” one X user reportedly wrote in response to the videos. ElevenLabs did not immediately respond to a request for comment. ( The Atlantic uses ElevenLabs’ AI voice generator to narrate some articles.)

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Gabriel Nicholas, a research fellow at the nonprofit Center for Democracy and Technology, told me that part of the problem with machine-translation programs is that they’re often falsely perceived as being neutral, rather than “bringing their own perspective upon how to move text from one language to another.” The truth is that there is no single right or correct way to transpose a sentence from French to Russian or any other language—it’s an art rather than a science. “Students will ask, ‘How do you say this in Spanish?’ and I’ll say, ‘You just don’t say it the same way in Spanish; the way you would approach it is different,’” Deborah Cohn, a Spanish- and Portuguese-language professor at Indiana University Bloomington who has written about the importance of language learning for bolstering U.S. national security , told me.

I recently came across a beautiful and particularly illustrative example of this fact in an article written by a translator in China named Anne. “Building a ladder between widely different languages, such as Chinese and English, is sometimes as difficult as a doctor building a bridge in a patient's heart,” she wrote. The metaphor initially struck me as slightly odd, but thankfully I wasn’t relying on ChatGPT to translate Anne’s words from their original Mandarin. I was reading a human translation by a professor named Jeffrey Ding, who helpfully noted that Anne may have been referring to a type of heart surgery that has recently become common in China. It's a small detail, but understanding that context brought me much closer to the true meaning of what Anne was trying to say.

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But most students will likely never achieve anything close to the fluency required to tell whether a translation rings close enough to the original or not. If professors accept that automated technology will far outpace the technical skills of the average Russian or Arabic major, their focus would ideally shift from grammar drills to developing cultural competency , or understanding the beliefs and practices of people from different backgrounds. Instead of cutting language courses in response to AI, schools should “stress more than ever the intercultural components of language learning that tremendously benefit the students taking these classes,” Jen William, the head of the School of Languages and Cultures at Purdue University and a member of the executive committee of the Association of Language Departments, told me.

Paula Krebs, the executive director of the MLA, referenced a beloved 1991 episode of Star Trek: The Next Generation to make a similar point. In “Darmok,” the crew aboard the starship Enterprise struggles to communicate with aliens living on a planet called El-Adrel IV. They have access to a “universal translator” that allows them to understand the basic syntax and semantics of what the Tamarians are saying, but the greater meaning of their utterances remains a mystery.

It later becomes clear that their language revolves around allegories rooted in the Tamarians’ unique history and practices. Even though Captain Picard was translating all the words they were saying, he “couldn’t understand the metaphors of their culture,” Krebs told me. More than 30 years later, something like a universal translator is now being developed on Earth. But it similarly doesn’t have the power to bridge cultural divides the way that humans can.