essay on psychological theories

38 Famous Psychology Theories: Examples and Overview

Psychology is the social science that studies the mind. However, there is a broad range of ways to conduct this analysis, which has led to a proliferation of psychological theories.

These theories can be separated into a few key categories, including:

• Psychoanalytic Theories
• Behavioral Theories
• Cognitive Theories
• Developmental Theories
• Social Psychology Theories
• Motivation and Humanist Theories
• Personality Theories

In each category, we have a range of contributing theories that have fundamentally shaped the field of psychology. Each is outlined below.

Psychology Theories Examples

1. Psychoanalytic Theories

Psychoanalysis centers on uncovering unconscious thoughts and emotions that contribute to an individual’s mental afflictions. This can involves the interpretation of dreams and free association techniques.

The practice of psychoanalysis involves facilitating a patient’s self-insight by providing interpretations of the patient’s words and behavior in therapy.

Freud pioneered the notion of unconscious mental processes, highlighting the repressed conflicts that, under the surface, influence human behavior. He also introduced the concept of a structured mind consisting of the id, ego, and superego .

Building on Freud’s work, later psychoanalysts, such as Carl Jung and Alfred Adler, branched out to explore collective unconscious and individual psychology, respectively.

Major Psychoanalytic Theories

• Ego Psychology (Freud): This theory emphasizes the role of the ego in mediating between the demands of the id, the superego, and reality, focusing on defense mechanisms and adaptive functions.
• Psychosexual Development Theory (Freud): Freud proposed that individuals progress through five stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital) where pleasure is centered on different erogenous zones, and conflicts at each stage can impact personality and behavior.
• The Collective Unconscious (Jung) : Jung believed in a shared, deep layer of the unconscious that houses universal memories and ideas inherited from our ancestors, distinct from an individual’s personal unconscious.
• Psychological Archetypes (Jung) : Jung also proposed that we all have universally recognized symbols and themes, such as the Hero or the Mother, present in myths, stories, and dreams, stemming from the collective unconscious.
• Individual Psychology (Adler): Adler’s theory emphasizes the importance of feelings of inferiority, the striving for superiority or success, and the role of social connections in shaping personality.
• Psychosocial Development Theory (Erikson) : Erikson proposed that individuals navigate eight stages of life, each marked by a specific conflict that influences personality development and social relationships.
• Object Relations Theory (Klein): This theory focuses on the importance of early relationships, especially with primary caregivers, in shaping how individuals relate to others and their understanding of social bonds throughout life.

Go Deeper: Psychoanalytic Theories in Psychology

2. Behavioral Theories

Behavioral theories in psychology posit that human behavior is learned and shaped by environmental stimuli.

Breaking from the introspective nature of psychoanalysis, behaviorism asserts that all behavior can be explained without considering internal mental states. Instead, it maintains that behavior is a response to stimuli in our environment.

In fact, behaviorists argue that, in order for psychology to be considered a true science, unconscious and unobservable mental states should be rejected as unexaminable. (Behaviorists went as far as labelling psychoanalysis to be mere pseudoscience ).

Behaviorism surfaced around the early 20th century with John B. Watson and Ivan Pavlov as leading figures. B.F. Skinner later further developed the theory, emphasizing operant learning, the idea that a behavior’s consequence affects its likelihood of reoccurrence.

Major Behavioral Psychology Theories

• Classical Conditioning (Pavlov) : The famous Pavlov’s dog experiment demonstrated that learning can occur in an organism (human or animal) when a neutral stimulus (such as a bell) becomes associated with a naturally occurring stimulus (such as food). Once these two stimuli become associated, we can infer a learned behavior – i.e. a dog salivating when a bell rings.
• Operant Conditioning (Skinner) : This theory posits that behavior is shaped and maintained by its consequences, including reinforcements (which increase behavior) and punishments (which decrease behavior). Rewards make a behavior more likely to reoccur, while punishments make a behavior less likely to reoccur.
• Social Learning Theory (Bandura) : Through his famous Bobo Doll experiment, Bandura proposed that people can learn new behaviors and acquire new information simply by observing others, emphasizing the importance of modeling and imitation.
• Stimulus Response Theory (Watson): This theory suggests that behavior is a direct response to a stimulus, emphasizing the predictability of behavior in relation to specific stimuli.
• Contingency Theory (Rescorla): Rescorla’s theory emphasizes that for learning to occur, a stimulus must reliably predict another; it’s not just the pairing, but the predictive value of the pairing that matters.

3. Cognitive Theories

Cognitive theories focus on understanding how mental processes such as thinking, memory, perception, and problem-solving influence behavior.

Operating under the assumption that humans are rational and systemic in the way that they organize and interpret information, cognitive theories emphasize the active role of individuals in shaping their understanding of reality.

This perspective emerged as a reaction to the limitations of behaviorism, which disregarded the influence of cognitive processes on behavior. Cognitive psychologists argued that complex mental processes, such as problem-solving, could not be fully understood through observable behavior alone.

But don’t mistake it with the highly theoretical psychoanalysis – cognitive psychology has a strong empirical emphasis, relying on experimental research (see: experimental psychology) to reach its conclusions.

A leading figure in this field is Jean Piaget, known for his theory on children’s cognitive development. The concepts central to cognitive theory, such as schema and cognitive biases, have been highly influential in numerous subfields, including educational psychology, clinical psychology, and cognitive neuroscience.

Major Cognitive Psychology Theories

• Cognitive Development Theory (Piaget) : Piaget proposed that children progress through four distinct stages of cognitive growth (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational), each characterized by specific ways of thinking and understanding the world.
• Information Processing Theory: This theory likens the human mind to a computer, emphasizing how information is taken in, processed, stored, and retrieved.
• Schema Theory (Bartlett): Bartlett suggested that our understanding of the world is organized into mental frameworks or “schemas” that influence how we perceive and remember information.
• Dual Process Theory (Kahneman): Kahneman proposed that human thinking operates on two levels: a fast, intuitive process (System 1) and a slower, more deliberate process (System 2).
• Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Festinger) : Festinger suggested that individuals experience discomfort when holding conflicting beliefs or attitudes, leading them to change one to resolve the inconsistency.

Go Deeper: The Major Cognitive Psychology Theories

4. Developmental Theories

Psychological development theories are concerned with changes in cognitive, physical, and social abilities over the course of life.

These theories provide frameworks for understanding how humans grow, change, and learn across their lifespan. They aim to explain the processes of development and growth, outlining stages or phases that a person typically passes through from infancy to adulthood.

Notable theorists include Jean Piaget, who proposed four stages of cognitive development and emphasized the role of active learning; Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson, who outlined theories of psychosexual and psychosocial development respectively; Lawrence Kohlberg, who created a theory of moral development; and Urie Bronfenbrenner, who framed human development within an ecological systems context.

Broadly speaking, the theories explore how individuals’ abilities, behavior, and identities are shaped over time, in connection with genetic and environmental factors. They stress the importance of stages, critical periods, and the influence of early experiences on later behavior.

Major Developmental Psychology Theories

• Cognitive Development Theory (Piaget): Piaget proposed that children progress through four distinct stages (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational) of cognitive growth, each characterized by specific ways of thinking and understanding the world.
• Moral Development Theory (Kohlberg) : Kohlberg outlined a three-level, six-stage theory where individuals progress through distinct stages of moral reasoning, from a focus on self-interest to a broader, universal ethical principle.
• Loevinger’s Theory of Ego Development (Loevinger): Loevinger described a series of stages where individuals progress in their understanding of self and others, moving from a simplistic, self-centered perspective to one of integrated self-awareness and concern for others.
• Ecological Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner) : Bronfenbrenner proposed that an individual’s development is influenced by a series of interconnected systems, from immediate surroundings like family to broader societal structures.
• Montessori’s Planes of Development (Montessori) : Montessori outlined four distinct developmental stages (or planes) from birth to adulthood, each with its own characteristics and educational needs, emphasizing self-directed learning and hands-on experience.

5. Social Psychology Theories

Social psychology theories aim to understand how individuals’ behaviors, thoughts, and feelings are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others.

A key debate that led to the rise of social psychology was the disagreement between Piaget, of cognitive psychology, and Vygotsky. While Piaget held that children tend to develop at a relatively similar rate, Vygotsky disagreed, holding that social contexts (such as books in the house and parental support) can heavily impact rates of development.

Later, Barbara Rogoff demonstrated that cultural contexts also strongly affect development (e.g. children in different cultures develop along different paths).

Social psychology theories explore a wide spectrum of social phenomena that affect individuals, including, but not limited to, social psychology concepts like social perception, social interaction, group behavior, and social influence. These theories provide the foundation for understanding how social context shapes individual behavior and how the interplay between the two impacts a variety of outcomes – from attitudes and stereotypes to interpersonal relationships and collective action.

Ultimately, social psychology theories underscore the significant impact that our social environment has on our attitudes and behaviors, reminding us that our perception of reality is as much a social construction as it is an objective fact.

Major Social Psychology Theories

• Sociocultural Theory (Vygotsky) : Vygotsky emphasized the critical role of social interaction and cultural context in cognitive development, particularly the influence of language and more knowledgeable peers or adults.
• Social Identity Theory (Tajfel) : Tajfel proposed that individuals categorize themselves and others into in-groups and out-groups, leading to biases that favor one’s own group and shape self-esteem.
• Attribution Theory (Heider) : Heider posited that people tend to explain others’ behaviors based on internal dispositions or external situations, influencing their perceptions and reactions.
• Social Exchange Theory (Homans) : Homans proposed that social behavior is the result of an exchange process where individuals weigh potential benefits and costs of interactions.
• Social Learning Theory (Bandura) : Bandura emphasized that people can learn new behaviors and acquire new information simply by observing others, highlighting the role of modeling and imitation.

6. Motivation and Humanist Theories

Motivation and humanist theories tend to overlap to the extent that I’ve decided to group them here.

Here is how they overlap:

• Humanist psychology focuses on individual free will, personal growth, and the concept of self-actualization.
• Motivation theories aim to comprehend the ‘why’ behind human actions, which presupposes free will and (usually) the fact we desire personal growth, given the right conditions.

Humanist psychologists assert that individuals have an inherent drive towards self-fulfillment and are inherently good. The subjective experiences and perceptions of the individual are given prime importance in these theories.

Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow are among the leading figures in humanistic psychology. They strived to understand human psychology, not through mental illness symptoms, but by recognizing the potential for creativity, love, and self-actualization in all individuals.

Next, multiple motivation theories explore different angles and potential explanations for human drive. For instance, Drive Theory postulates that human behavior is propelled by a series of physiological needs, whereas Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs classifies the needs into a sequence of relative significance.

Combined, motivation and humanistic theories provide a holistic view of human behavior, integrating elements of inner drive, environmental influences, and the aspiration for self-improvement.

Major Motivational and Humanistic Theories

• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs : Maslow proposed a pyramid of human needs, starting from basic physiological needs to self-actualization, suggesting that lower-level needs must be satisfied before higher-level needs become motivating.
• Attachment Theory (Bowlby & Ainsworth) : This theory posits that early relationships with caregivers form the basis for later social attachments and influence an individual’s emotional and social development.
• Rogers’ Person-Centered Theory: Rogers emphasized the importance of self-actualization, positive regard, and an authentic relationship between therapist and client for therapeutic change.
• Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan) : Deci and Ryan proposed that optimal human functioning and well-being are achieved when individuals satisfy their innate psychological needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness.
• Expectancy Theory (Vroom): Vroom suggested that motivation is determined by the expectation that a certain behavior will lead to a desired outcome, multiplied by the value of that outcome to the individual.
• Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory: Herzberg proposed that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction arise from two separate sets of factors: motivation factors (which lead to satisfaction) and hygiene factors (whose absence can lead to dissatisfaction).

Read More: Examples of Humanistic Psychology

7. Personality Theories

Personality theories in psychology aim to define and explain the consistent patterns of behavior, thinking, and feeling that characterizes individuals.

Researchers in this field strive to elucidate how personality develops and how it influences behavior. Generally, they focus on identifying traits, behaviors, and motivations which distinguish individuals from one another and predict how individuals will behave in certain situations.

Regardless of their different views, all personality theories contribute to understanding the complexity of humans, seeking to explain why we are uniquely ourselves.

Major Personality Theories in Psychology

• Trait Theory of Personality : This theory posits that personalities are composed of a set of stable characteristics or traits that influence an individual’s behavior across various situations.
• Five Factor Model of Personality: This model identifies five core personality traits: openness, conscientiousness , extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism, which are believed to describe the broad dimensions of human personality.
• Freud’s Personality Theory : Freud proposed that personality is shaped by the dynamic interactions among the id (primitive desires), ego (reality-oriented mediator), and superego (moral conscience).
• Adler’s Individual Psychology: Adler believed that individuals are driven by a sense of inferiority to strive for superiority or success, and that social connections and community play a crucial role in shaping personality.
• Humanist Theory of Personality : Rooted in the works of figures like Maslow and Rogers, this theory emphasizes individual potential, self-actualization, and the intrinsic nature of humans to grow towards their personal ideals in a supportive environment.

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What Are Psychological Theories? Explained With Examples

What Are Psychological Theories? Exploring the Foundations of Human Behavior. This blog explores the intriguing field of psychology, unravelling the essence of Psychological Theories. Discover the fundamental concepts, prominent theories, and their impact on understanding the complex workings of the human mind and behaviour in this insightful exploration.

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They offer insights into why we think, feel, and act as we do, paving the way for therapeutic breakthroughs, educational strategies, and a profound understanding of ourselves. So, What are Psychological Theories, and how have they evolved to shape our comprehension of the complexities that define us? 

Explore the blog and learn What Psychological Theories are, their importance, forms, examples, and how they are used productively in day-to-day life. 

Table of Contents  

1) The basics of Psychological Theories 

2) Major categories of Psychological Theories  

3) The formulation of Psychological Theories  

4) Examples of Psychological Theories  

5) The evolution of Psychological Theories 

6) Conclusion 

The Basics of Psychological Theories  

2) Behavioural Theories:  Behavioural Theories emphasise observable behaviours and their relationship with environmental stimuli. B.F. For example, Skinner's operant conditioning Theory posits that behaviours are learned through reinforcement and punishment. These Theories are essential in understanding how external factors shape actions. 

3) Cognitive Theories:  Cognitive Theories explore mental processes such as thinking, memory, perception, and problem-solving. Jean Piaget's cognitive development Theory describes how children's thinking evolves as they interact with their environment. Cognitive approaches shed light on how individuals process information and make decisions. 

4) Humanistic Theories:  Humanistic Theories, like those proposed by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers, focus on individual growth, self-actualisation, and personal experiences. These Theories emphasise the importance of meeting psychological needs and realising one's potential for psychological well-being. 

5) Social learning Theories:  Social learning Theories, championed by Albert Bandura, highlight the role of observational learning and modelling in shaping behaviour. Bandura's Bobo doll experiment demonstrated how children imitate behaviours they observe in others, illustrating the influence of social context on learning. 

6) Biological Theories:  Biological Theories examine the relationship between physiological processes and behaviour. Neuroscience explains how the brain and nervous system contribute to thoughts, emotions, and actions. The study of genetics and heritability also plays a role in understanding how traits are passed down across generations. 

7) Evolutionary Psychology:  Evolutionary Psychology proposes that human behaviour and cognition have evolved to adapt to the challenges of survival and reproduction. This perspective suggests that certain behaviours, emotions, and cognitive processes can be understood as products of natural selection. 

8) Trait Theories:  Trait Theories focus on identifying and categorising consistent personality traits that influence behaviour. The Five-Factor Model (Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism) is a widely adopted framework to describe and measure personality traits. 

9) Ecological systems Theory:  Proposed by Urie Bronfenbrenner, this Theory emphasises the interaction between an individual and their environment, recognising that development is influenced by multiple layers, from immediate family to broader cultural contexts. 

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Major categories of Psychological Theories   

Psychological Theories are categorized into several major groups or domains, each of which focuses on specific aspects of human behavior and mental processes. These categories help organize and classify the diverse Theories within the field of psychology. The major categories of psychological Theories include: 

1) Biological Theories:  These Theories focus on the relationship between the brain, nervous system, and behaviour. They explore how genetics, neurotransmitters, hormones, and brain structures influence psychological processes. Neuroscientific advancements have provided insights into schizophrenia, depression, and anxiety disorders. 

2) Cognitive Theories : These Theories examine mental processes, including perception, memory, reasoning, and problem-solving. They delve into how people acquire, process, and store information, leading to our understanding of cognitive biases, decision-making, and cognitive development across the lifespan. 

3) Behavioural Theories:  These Theories emphasise observable behaviours and how they are learned through interactions with the environment. Operant conditioning, classical conditioning, and social learning ideas fall under this category. They're essential in behaviour modification, addiction treatment, and education. 

4) Psychodynamic Theories : These Theories, rooted in the works of Freud and his followers, emphasise the role of unconscious processes in shaping behaviour. Concepts like the id, ego, superego, and defence mechanisms contribute to our understanding of personality, motivation, and psychotherapy. 

5) Humanistic Theories : These Theories focus on individual growth, self-actualisation, and personal experiences. They stress the importance of free will, self-awareness, and pursuing one's potential. Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs and Carl Rogers' client-centered therapy are prominent examples. 

6) Social and cultural Theories:  These Theories examine how social interactions, institutions, and cultural norms influence behaviour and Psychological Processes. Social identity Theory, cultural Psychology, and Theories of prejudice and discrimination fall within this realm. 

7) Developmental Theories:  These Theories explore how individuals change and evolve over their lifetimes. Jean Piaget's cognitive development and Erik Erikson's psychosocial stages are iconic examples. These Theories provide insights into how people learn, mature, and adapt from infancy to old age. 

8) Evolutionary Psychology:  This subject draws from evolutionary biology to understand how psychological traits and behaviours have evolved to enhance survival and reproduction. It explores adaptations, such as aggression, mate selection preferences, and universal human characteristics. 

9) Trait Theories:  These Theories aim to categorise and measure consistent behaviour, emotion, and thought patterns. The Five-Factor Model (Big Five) is a widely accepted framework with dimensions like openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. 

10) Positive Psychology:  This subject studies positive emotions, strengths, virtues, and factors contributing to human flourishing. It aims to enhance well-being, resilience, and the qualities that make life fulfilling. 

11) Ecological systems Theory:  Bronfenbrenner views individuals as embedded within various interconnected environments, from family and peers to culture and society. It emphasises the dynamic interplay between these systems in shaping development. 

12) Attachment Theory:   Bowlby examines the bonds formed between caregivers and children. It sheds light on how early relationships influence emotional and social development. 

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The Formulation of Psychological Theories    

1) Identifying a phenomenon or question:  The formulation of a psychological Theory often begins with the identification of a specific psychological phenomenon or a question about human behavior or mental processes. This phenomenon could be related to anything from memory and learning to social behavior and emotions. 

2) Literature review : Researchers conduct a comprehensive review of existing research and literature related to the chosen phenomenon or question. This step helps them understand what is already known and what gaps or unanswered questions exist in the field. 

3) Hypothesis generation : Based on their review of the literature, researchers begin to generate hypotheses or educated guesses about the underlying causes, mechanisms, or relationships involved in the phenomenon they are investigating. These hypotheses serve as the foundation for the Theory. 

4) Conceptualisation : Researchers develop a conceptual framework or model that outlines the key concepts and variables related to the phenomenon. They define these concepts and their relationships, creating a structured overview of the Theory.  

5) Operationalisation : This step involves defining how the key concepts will be measured or observed in empirical research. Operationalization is essential for designing experiments or studies that test the Theory's hypotheses.  

6) Testing and empirical research : Psychological Theories must be tested through empirical research. Researchers design experiments, observational studies, surveys, or other research methods to gather data that can either support or challenge the Theory. The data collected help researchers evaluate the validity and applicability of the Theory. 

7) Data analysis : After collecting data, researchers analyze it to determine whether the results align with the Theory's predictions and hypotheses. Various statistical and analytical methods are employed to draw meaningful conclusions.  

8) Refinement and revision : If the empirical research reveals that the Theory needs adjustments or improvements, researchers refine or revise the Theory accordingly. This process may involve modifying the Theorys concepts, relationships, or assumptions based on the new evidence. 

9) Peer review and validation : Psychological Theories are subject to peer review by experts in the field. Other researchers assess the Theory's rigor, methodology, and findings to ensure its validity and reliability. Validation from the scientific community is crucial for the Theory's acceptance and credibility.  

10) Publication and dissemination : If a Theory withstands empirical testing and peer review, it is typically published in academic journals or books, making it accessible to the wider scientific community. Dissemination allows other researchers to build upon the Theory and conduct further research. 

11) Application and practical use : Once a psychological Theory is established and validated, it can have practical applications. It may inform therapeutic interventions, educational strategies, policy development, or other real-world practices.  

12) Integration and synthesis : Over time, psychological Theories contribute to the broader body of knowledge in psychology. Researchers may integrate and synthesize multiple Theories to form a more comprehensive understanding of complex psychological phenomena. 

It's important to note that the formulation of psychological Theories is an iterative process. Theories may be refined, expanded, or even replaced as new evidence and insights emerge. This process of ongoing investigation and Theory development is crucial for the advancement of the field of psychology and our understanding of human behavior and mental processes. 

Examples of Psychological Theories  

1) Classical conditioning:  Classical conditioning, formulated by Ivan Pavlov, is a fundamental behaviourist Theory. It explains how associations between stimuli can lead to learned responses. Pavlov's famous experiments with dogs demonstrated that a neutral stimulus (like a bell) paired with a naturally occurring stimulus (like food) could eventually elicit a conditioned response (salivation) even in the absence of the natural impulse. This Theory has widespread applications, from understanding phobias to marketing strategies.   

2) Operant conditioning:  B.F. Skinner's operant conditioning Theory focuses on how consequences shape behaviour. It posits that behaviours followed by rewards (reinforcement) are more likely to be repeated, while behaviours followed by punishments are less likely to be repeated. This Theory is crucial in understanding how behaviours are acquired and modified, influencing fields like education and behaviour therapy. 

3) Psychoanalytic Theory:  Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic Theory delves into the unconscious mind's influence on behaviour. It suggests unconscious desires, conflicts, and motivations drive behaviour and psychological experiences. Concepts like the id, ego, superego, and defence mechanisms explain personality development and intrapsychic dynamics. 

4) Cognitive development:  Jean Piaget's cognitive development Theory focuses on how children's thinking evolves as they interact with their environment. He proposed four stages of cognitive development which describes how children acquire cognitive skills, problem-solving abilities, and the capacity to think abstractly. 

5) Social cognitive Theory:  Bandura's social cognitive Theory stresses on the role of observation and modelling in learning. It suggests that individuals learn by observing others' behaviours, outcomes, and consequences. Bandura's Bobo doll experiments highlighted how children imitate aggressive behaviours they witness, underscoring the impact of social context on learning. 

6) Hierarchy of needs:  Abraham Maslow's needs hierarchy Theory outlines a pyramid of human needs, ranging from physiological conditions to self-actualisation. This Theory posits that people strive to meet basic needs before pursuing higher-level goals, which has implications for motivation, personal growth, and well-being. 

7) Attachment Theory:  Attachment Theory, constructed by John Bowlby, explores the emotional bonds formed between infants and their caregivers. It suggests that these early attachments influence later emotional and social development. Secure attachments lead to healthy relationships, while insecure attachments may result in difficulties with trust and intimacy. 

8) Five-factor model:  The Five Factor Model is a prominent trait Theory of personality that identifies five broad dimensions, which are, Openness to experience, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism. These traits provide a framework for describing individual differences in personality and behaviour across various contexts. 

9) Ecological systems Theory : Urie Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems Theory emphasises the interconnectedness between individuals and their environment. It identifies multiple systems influencing development and behaviour, from immediate family to broader cultural and societal contexts. 

10) Cognitive-Behavioural Theory (CBT):  Cognitive-behavioural Theory integrates cognitive processes and behavioural principles. It suggests that thoughts, emotions, and behaviours are interconnected. CBT identifies and modifies negative thought patterns to promote healthier feelings and behaviours. It is widely used in psychotherapy. 

The Evolution of Psychological Theories  

The evolution of psychological Theories has been a dynamic and ongoing process over the past centuries. As our understanding of the human mind and behavior has deepened, psychological Theories have evolved and adapted to encompass new findings, perspectives, and paradigms. Here's a brief overview of the key stages in the evolution of psychological Theories: 

Early Philosophical Roots (Ancient Greece to 17th Century):  

The earliest psychological inquiries were philosophical in nature. Ancient Greek philosophers like Plato and Aristotle explored topics related to the mind, consciousness, and the nature of the self. 

Descartes' dualism, which separated the mind (the thinking self) from the body (the physical self), laid the groundwork for discussions of the mind-body relationship. 

Emergence of Empirical Research (18th Century):  

The Enlightenment period brought about a focus on empiricism and observation. Philosophers like John Locke emphasized the importance of sensory experience and observation as sources of knowledge. 

Structuralism and Functionalism (Late 19th Century):  

Wilhelm Wundt is often credited with establishing the first psychology laboratory in 1879, marking the formal beginning of psychology as a scientific discipline. Edward Titchener's structuralism aimed to analyze the structure of consciousness, focusing on identifying and describing basic elements of thought. William James' functionalism emphasized the study of mental processes in terms of their adaptive functions and contributions to survival. 

Psychoanalysis and Psychodynamic Theories (Late 19th to Early 20th Century):  

Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic Theory introduced the idea that unconscious processes significantly influence human behavior. This Theory revolutionized thinking about the mind but was later critiqued and modified. 

Behaviorism (Early to Mid-20th Century):  

Behaviorism, founded by John B. Watson and developed by B.F. Skinner, dominated psychology during the early and mid-20th century. Behaviorism focused on observable behavior and the role of reinforcement and conditioning in shaping human conduct. 

Cognitive Revolution (1950s to 1960s):  

The cognitive revolution shifted the focus of psychology back to the study of mental processes. Researchers like George Miller and Ulric Neisser emphasized topics such as memory, perception, problem-solving, and language. 

Humanistic Psychology (1950s to 1960s):  

Humanistic psychology, led by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers, emphasized human potential, self-actualization, and personal growth, contrasting with the more behaviorally focused paradigms of the time. 

Social and Cultural Psychology (20th Century):  

The 20th century witnessed the development of social psychology and cultural psychology, which explored how social interactions, group dynamics, and cultural factors influence human behavior and identity. 

Biological and Evolutionary Psychology (Late 20th Century to Present) : 

The late 20th century saw a surge in research into the biological basis of behavior, including genetics, brain structure, and neurochemistry. Evolutionary psychology examined how human behavior and cognition may be shaped by evolutionary processes. 

Cognitive-Behavioral Approaches (Late 20th Century to Present) : 

Cognitive-behavioral Theories, which integrate cognitive and behavioral perspectives, became prominent in psychology. They emphasize the role of thoughts, beliefs, and conditioning in shaping behavior and emotions. 

Contemporary Psychological Theories (Present):  

Today, psychological Theories continue to evolve, incorporating findings from neuroscience, technology, and cross-disciplinary research. These Theories address a wide range of topics, including mental health, social behavior, cognition, and motivation. 

Conclusion  

Psychological Theories illuminate the human experience from diverse angles. It is, therefore, important to understand "What are Psychological Theories". From the foundational roots of structuralism and behaviourism to the contemporary vistas of neuroscience and positive Psychology, these Theories have adapted to the changing currents of science and society. Through them, we glimpse the fascinating interplay between nature and nurture, biology and environment, conscious and unconscious. 

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Psychology Discussion

Essay on psychological theories | theories | psychology.

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Here is a compilation of essays on ‘Psychological Theories’ for class 11 and 12. Find paragraphs, long and short essays on ‘Psychological Theories’ especially written for school and college students.

Essay on Psychological Theories

Essay Contents:

• Essay on the Psychoanalysis-Freud’s Theories
• Essay on Structural Theory
• Essay on Libido Theory or Theory of Psychosexual Development
• Essay on Freud’s Theory of Dreams
• Essay on Behavioural and Cognitive Theories
• Essay on Social Theories

1. Essay on the Psychoanalysis-Freud’s Theories :

Prepsychoanalytic Theories:

Sigmund Freud gained from many workers to evolve his final theories. The important ones were: Helmholz (from whom Freud learned to pattern psychological theories after physical ones and who particularly focused on matters of energetic distribution); Brucke (who also emphasized concepts of energy and conversation); Meynert (who bridged Freud’s interests in neuroanatomy and its behavioural consequences); Charcot (whose work in hypnosis and hysteria opened for Freud the path which would eventually lead to psychoanalysis); Hughlings Jackson (from whom Freud advanced a theory of dynamic association and of regression).

Early Theory of Defense:

Charcot has emphasized trauma itself caused hysteria in susceptible individuals but Freud stated that it was not the trauma itself, but rather the defense against the recollection of the memory of the trauma that caused neurosis.

Predisposition or susceptibility was deemphasized e.g., In hysteria, the affect could undergo ‘conversion’ to a motor or sensory symptom, which though determined symbolically by the memory’s ideational content, allowed the removal from consciousness of the idea itself.

Topographical Theory of Mind:

Freud recognized that the bulk of psychic life lay outside of consciousness (i.e., the importance of unconscious mental life) and also gave a concept of ‘psychic determinism’ (i.e., all mental events were causally linked to others in an associative network).

Topographical model introduces three ‘areas’ of the mind:

i. Conscious:

It is compared with the small visible tip of an iceberg i.e., a kind of sense organ of attention serving the function of awareness. It can accept external input from sensory perceptions of environmental stimuli and internal input from the preconscious portion of the mind. The latter contains wishes, ideas, memories and feelings that are accessible by an act of volition or attention.

The mental activities of the conscious and preconscious are called secondary process thinking and are characterized by systematic organization, respect for logical connections, low tolerance ‘for inconsistencies’, a tendency to delay instinctual discharge and efforts to conform to the demands of external reality and the individual’s moral values. It is governed by the reality principle and is responsible for logical thought and action in adult life.

ii. Preconscious:

It develops during childhood in parallel with the development of the ego. It can be reached by both the conscious and the unconscious. Contents of the unconscious can only gain access to consciousness by being linked with the words and via the preconscious.

iii. Unconscious:

The portion of mind contains material that cannot be made conscious by focusing attention. It contains repressed ideas, wishes and effects that can become conscious only by first entering the preconscious, which censors them and attempts to keep them unconscious. Repressed ‘Freudian slips’ of speech. Mental activity of the unconscious is called primary process thinking and is characterized by the following features.

Primary Process thinking makes frequent use of symbolization (in which one object or idea takes over the significance of another that it resembles in some way), condensation (in which several concepts become fused and replaced by a single symbol) and displacement (in which the effective component of an idea is transferred to a symbolic substitute). Primary Process thinking is characteristic of very young children, of nocturnal dreams and of severely regressive behaviour in psychosis or mental retardation.

A number of questions remained unanswered- Does the barrier between consciousness and the dynamic unconscious lie in the unconscious or within consciousness? What is the content of the unconscious? Does energy flow toward keeping things unconscious or does it flow toward keeping things conscious or does it flow in the same direction of pushing toward emergence in consciousness? Freud was soon dissatisfied with the topographical theory and eventually replaced it by structural theory of personality.

2. Essay on Structural Theory:

In 1923, Freud divided the psychic apparatus into three structures:

It represents the unorganized source of primitive impulses, as summarized in the sentence ‘It wants’. It contains basic drives, instinctive impulses as those concerned with survival, sex and aggression. Id demands immediate gratification and is illogical. It is non-verbal and does not enter consciousness (i.e. mainly unconscious).

It is the seat of the conscious, intellectual and self-preservative functions as summarized in ‘I will or I will not’. It acts as a mediator between the drives derived from the id and the outer world (i.e., reality). It is influenced by the superego. Some of the parts of ego (mainly defense mechanisms) are unconscious.

iii. Superego:

It develops from the ego and fulfills such functions as those summarized in the sentence “You shall or You shall not”. It is mainly unconscious. Two aspects of superego have been identified.

The conscience-developed through internal­ization (introjection) and automatizations of the many prohibitions of early childhood. It is the conscious part of superego.

The Ego-ideal developed through identification with the attributes of those who are admired or envied.

The superego is labelled as the part of personality that is ‘soluble in alcohol’.

Functions of Ego:

1. Relationship with reality:

(a) Maintenance of a sense of reality

(b) Adaptive

(c) Reality testing.

2. Regulations and control of drives (‘libido theory’)

3. Relationships with other people (‘Object Relations theory’)

4. Cognitive

5. Defensive

6. Synthetic -the ability to hold together as a person.

7. Autonomous-derived from autonomous energies of the ego.

The various Ego’s defense mechanisms are given in Table 3.1.

Defense mechanisms can also be classified as Narcicistic (Projection, Projective identification, Primitive idealization, Splitting, Denial, Distortion), Immature (Acting out, Blocking, Hypochondriasis, introjection passive Aggressive Behaviour, Projection, Regression, Schizoid Fantasy, Somatization), Neurotic (Controlling, Displacement, Dissociation, Externalization, Inhibition, Intellectualization, Isolation. Rationalization, Reaction formation. Repression, Sexualisation) and Mature defenses (Altruism, Anticipation, Asceticism, Humor, Sublimation, Suppression).

3. Essay on Libido Theory or Theory of Psychosexual Development:

It includes a theoretical description of a characteristic maturational sequence of libidinal or psychosexual phases in development from birth to mature adulthood. The drive organization is subject to progression, fixation or regression determined in part by the extent to which the individual encounter normal, excessive, or frustrated gratification (See Table 3.2).

i. Oral Phase (0-1.5 Years):

It is the earliest stage of development and is associated with behaviour appropriate to the first year of life, particularly extreme dependency. Fixation at or regression to this phase of development is considered characteristic of schizophrenia, severe affective disorders and alcohol and other drug dependence. It consists of two phases of chewing (Receptive phase) and biting (Sadistic Phase when teething occurs).

ii. Anal Phase (1-3 Years):

Anal Phase of development implies the ability to give or to withhold and requires the child to learn to compromise between primitive wishes and the rewards obtained by conforming with the demands and expectations of significant adult.

“Anal” traits persisting in adults include excessive orderliness, miserliness and obstinacy. If present to a significant degree, they may be associated with the development of obsessive compulsive disorder. It also consists of two-phases—a destructive expulsive phase (child enjoys excretion) and a mastering retaining phase (child enjoys sphincter control).

iii. Phallic Phase (Oedipal Phase) (3-4 Years):

In this phase, the children display considerable sexual interest and curiosity focused on the penis or clitoris. The observed difference between male and female genitalia may lead to the childhood fantasy that the female genitalia results from loss of the penis.

According to Freud, the boy then develops a castration complex, fearing castration at the hands of his father in retaliation for his desire to replace his father in his mother’s affections. This leads to envious and aggressive wishes toward the father (the Oedipus complex, after the main character in Sophocles’ tragedy Rex, who killed his father and married his mother without knowing the identity of either).

It is resolved by identification with the parent of the same sex. A similar complex seen in girl is called Electra complex (from a Greek myth in which Electra connives at the death of her mother Clytemnestra who had murdered her father Agamemnon). Various forms of sexual dysfunction and deviation in both sexes are considered to have their origin in this phase of development.

iv. Latency Phase (6 Years until Puberty):

It is regarded as phase of sexual latency. At the start of this phase, the Oedipus complex has usually been resolved (but will be temporarily reactivated at the time of puberty) and the child has made a decisive identification with the appropriate parental figure and formed an effective superego (conscience and ego-ideal).

Intrafamilial relationships during the preschool years constitute a nucleus of knowledge about human society, which is now expanded in school and play activities, in relationships with adults outside the family and in competitive or collaborative interactions with peers. Old techniques of adaptation are repeated and reinforced or extinguished and replaced by newer techniques that are found more rewarded.

v. Genital Phase:

Genital Phase is initiated by puberty and leads to a reawakening of sexual interest that is now conscious, verbalized and acted on in accordance with mores of the peer group. There is an increasing desire to be freed from infantile dependency and to achieve adult status. The desire results in rejection of the standards and the validity of demands imposed by parents and other adult, with a tendency toward acceptance of the philosophy of the peer group.

In this process, there is often partial identification with others of the same sex who are just slightly older than the individual and who are admired by the peer group. Ideally, the gradual emancipation from parental control is accomplished by increasing responsibility and mature genitality based on respect for the rights of others.

4. Essay on Freud’s Theory of Dreams:

Freud regarded dreams as ‘the royal road to the unconscious’.

He laid down three basic principles in dream interpretation:

i. The function of the dream is to preserve sleep.

ii. There is a latent as well as a manifest content and it is frequently the former which is more significant.

iii. It represents the gratification of an unfulfilled wish which is usually infantile.

Efforts to disguise the dream are called dream work and Freud describes four mechanisms whereby it operates:

i. Dramatization:

Dramatization where abstract ideas are given solid or concrete shape with the free use of symbols representing the repressed activities or experiences.

ii. Condensation:

Condensation a form of abbreviation or shorthand which conceals from the dreamer some of the latent content by omission or by using a part, sometimes a very small part, to represent a whole or by the fusing of a variety of latent elements sharing a common feature into one piece.

iii. Displacement:

Displacement is the replacement of the latent content by a remotely associated element which is no more than an allusion or oblique reference or shifting the accent so that latent content is barely recognizable.

iv. Secondary Elaboration:

Secondary elaboration which occurs just as full consciousness is regained and continues for a time during the waking state, thus making the dream appear more rational. As secondary elaboration is ego-inspired, it is advisable to get the patient to write down his dreams immediately on waking before his distortion begins to operate.

School of Analytic Psychology:

Jung, an early associate of Freud but after a few years broke with the psychoanalytic movement.

He described that there are three levels of psyche:

Conscious includes the persona. Personality is regarded as the persona or mask worn by Roman actors and was therefore that part of consciousness exposed to the gaze of the world.

ii. Personal Unconscious:

Personal Unconscious those aspects of mental life which are denied in consciousness develop in the unconscious and form the personal unconscious or shadow, which plays an important part in dreams.

iii. Collective Unconscious (Racial, Universal):

Collective unconscious (racial, universal) Jung described the persona the outer crust of the personality, which is the opposite of the personal unconscious on dimensions of:

i. Thinking/feeling

ii. Sensuousness/intuition

iii. Extrovert/introvert (related to direction of flow of mental energy)

Archetypes are the generalized symbols and images within the collective unconscious and include:

i. Animus-the unconscious, masculine side of the woman’s female persona.

ii. Anima-the unconscious feminine side of the man’s male persona

Complex is a group of interconnected ideas which arouse associated feelings and affect behaviour.

Individual Psychology:

He was first of Freud’s associates to break away. He expressed his basic tenet: To a human being means the possession of a feeling of inferiority that is constantly pressing towards its own conquest. He was strongly influenced by Nietzschean philosophy and terms such as ‘organ inferiority’ with striving to overcompensate for this inferiority and the ‘will to power’ are frequently referred to.

He explained that the helplessness of the child gives it an inferiority complex which can be accentuated by an organ inferiority in three ways:

i. By successful compensation as for example, Beethoven with his deafness and Demosthenes with his stammer.

ii. Defeat is followed by retreat, which is regarded as the normal pattern in some cultures.

iii. Compromise for over compensation, the former being a tendency to attribute the failure to the physical inferiority while the latter is a ridiculous protest against it. Over compensation can result in decompensation and neurosis.

5. Essay on Behavioural and Cognitive Theories :

The learning theory that arises from the laboratory setting of experimental psychology, generating applications for the clinical situation, in contrast to psychoanalysis and dynamic psychiatry, which arose in the treatment setting and rely on that same setting for confirmation.

Learning is itself an inference based on the observation of changes in the behaviour of an organism. Learning may be inferred from permanent or quasi-permanent changes in behaviour which occur under specific circumstances. An organism is influenced by the effect of its behaviours and its responses reflect that bearing. If behaviour leads to states which the organism will repeat the behaviour to attain of if a behaviour leads to states which the organism will stop that behaviour in order to avoid, learning may be said to have taken place.

This is known within learning theory as Thorndike’s ‘law of effect’. States associated with behaviours can become reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is the occurrence of an event which will increase the probability that the antecedent behaviour will be increased a negative reinforcer is the occurrence of an event which will decrease the probability that the antecedent behaviour will be increased. Punishment is an example of negative reinforcement. If in positive reinforcement, the reinforcer is removed, it will lead to ‘extinction’.

In classical conditioning, (Pavlovian) a stimulus not intrinsically or ordinarily associated with a response may be used to induce that response. The organism ‘learns’ to take the once-neutral stimulus and respond according to the conditioning.

Operant or instrumental conditioning (by Skinner) occurs as the organism learns that behaviours are associated with positive or negative events. Behaviours in operant conditioning are initiated by the organism and associated events are less directly linked to immediate physiological reflexes than in classical conditioning.

In behaviour therapy, psychopathology is seen as persistent habits of learned unadaptive behaviour acquired in anxiety-generating situations.

One group of learning theorists (e.g., Tolman, Bandura, Dollard and Miller) believe that learning is more than reaction to association by contiguity. They believe that organisms form “cognitive maps” of the environmental situations by means of internal representation in the form of thoughts, signs and symbols.

Behavioural theorists focus their therapeutic strategies on the pathological behaviour themselves, using a variety of techniques to unlearn maladaptive behaviours, to inhibit unwanted states like anxiety and to introduce new learning through such techniques as shaping, modeling and creating through careful application of positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, extinction, new chains of habit, and adaptive behaviour.

Cognitive theorists believe that the beliefs and patterns of thinking is the cause and maintenance of psychiatric disorders. Particular attention is given to depression (and also anxiety neurosis). According to it, low mood leads to a number of changes in the pattern of thinking e.g., faulty generalizations (e.g., I did badly in that interview therefore I am useless and stupid) Cognitive therapy is aimed at confronting patients with the irrationality of their thoughts and seeking to change the pattern of thinking.

6. Social Theories :

Faris and Dunham first observed that schizophrenia has a higher prevalence amongst people of lower social class. Two alternative theories have been proposed to explain for such association. The first is that the lower social class is a factor in causing schizophrenia (the generation hypothesis). The second is the having schizophrenia has led to a drift towards lower social class (the drift hypothesis).

In the case of depression, however, the explanation for the higher rate in women of lower social class cannot be accounted for by the ‘drift hypothesis’. In this case, the depression appears to be caused by the lower social class. Brown and Harris proposed a model of the social causes of depression. Depression is seen as the result of a provoking agent acting on a vulnerable person.

The other social factors important in aetiology include:

i. Life Events:

Life events (e.g., changes in job, personal relationship etc.) have an important role in the causation of a psychiatric illness. Some of these factors act as vulnerability factors e.g., the absence of a close, intimate and confiding relationship: the loss of mother before the age of 11 years; unemployment.

ii. Role of Communication:

There is a long history of interest in the possibility that poor communications between family members can contribute to schizophrenia. Some of these factors include over-involvement, critical comments and hostility.

Family communication and relationships have been studies extensively with regard to child and adolescent problems and family therapy, in which change is brought about in the way family members interact with each other, is now a major form of treatment.

Predisposing Factors:

These factors interact with precipitating factors to result in mental illness. Predisposing factors determine an individual’s susceptibility to mental illness.

These factors are grouped into:

i. Biological e.g.., heredity, constitution, endocrinal, metabolic and biochemical abnormalities, physical defects and illnesses etc.

ii. Psychological e.g., personality type, tempera­ment, abnormal parent-child relationship, psychologically traumatic experiences during childhood, pre adolescence and adolescence.

Precipitating factors describe as “stress” may precipitate a mental illness in predisposed or vulnerable individual.

These factors are classified as:

i. Physical factors e.g., migration, starvation, natural calamities (e.g., war, famine, earth­quake, floods, cyclones, fire, urbanization etc.)

ii. Physiological factors e.g., pregnancy, child birth, menopause, puberty, involution, fever, drugs etc.

iii. Psychological factors e.g., strained inter­personal relationship, family and marital disharmony, sexual maladjustments, occupational and financial difficulties, political upheavals and social crisis, death of a family member etc.).

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Why Do We Need Psychology Theories?

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Sean is a fact-checker and researcher with experience in sociology, field research, and data analytics.

Why Theories Exist in Psychology

Types of theories, theoretical perspectives.

If you've ever taken a psychology class, then you've probably encountered many different psychological theories. Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, Erikson’s psychosocial theory, the Big Five theory, and Bandura’s social learning theory are just a few examples that might spring to mind.

So why do so many different psychological theories exist? What purpose do they serve? The answer is that psychology theories help provide an organized framework for studying and understanding human behavior. These theories can help us explain and predict a wide variety of behaviors.

At a Glance

Theories are more than just guesses. They act as frameworks that help researchers and psychologists accomplish different goals in psychology. They can help us explain different aspects of behavior. Theories can also help us to make predictions about what might happen in certain situations.

Learn more about different psychology theories can give you a better understanding of different aspects of human behavior and how researchers go about solving different types of problems.

These theories serve a number of important purposes. Let’s look at three key reasons why psychological theories exist.

Theories Provide a Basis for Understanding

Theories provide a framework for understanding human behavior, thought, and development. By having a broad base of understanding about the hows and whys of human behavior, we can better understand ourselves and others.

Each theory provides a context for understanding a specific aspect of the human experience.

Behavioral theories, for example, provide a basis for understanding how people learn new things. Through the lens of these theories, we can take a closer look at some of the different ways learning occurs and the factors that influence this type of learning.

Theories Inspire Future Research

Theories create a basis for future research. Researchers use theories to form hypotheses that can then be tested. As new discoveries are made and incorporated into the original theory, new questions and ideas can then be explored.

Theories Can Adapt and Evolve

Theories are dynamic and always changing. As new discoveries are made, theories are modified and adapted to account for new information. While theories are sometimes presented as static and fixed, they tend to evolve over time as new research is explored.

Attachment theory, for example, began with the work of John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth and has expanded and grown to include new descriptions of different attachment styles.  

There have been a number of key theoretical perspectives that have had an influence throughout psychology’s history. Even today, many psychologists tend to focus their research through the lens of a certain theoretical perspective.

Theories tend to fall into one of a few different types.

• Grand theories attempt to describe many aspects of the human experience. Examples include Freud’s psychoanalytic theory and Erikson’s psychosocial theory.
• Mini-theories , on the other hand, focus on describing just a narrow range of behaviors.
• Emergent theories are those that are newer and often involve combining different aspects of various mini-theories. Vygotsky's sociocultural theory is an example of an emergent theory.

Psychology theories can often categorized into a few main perspectives. These include:

Psychoanalytic Theories

Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory suggests that unconscious urges and desires drive human behavior. This perspective suggests that understanding these underlying and hidden thoughts can help alleviate different types of psychological discomfort and distress.

Behavioral Theories

The behavioral theories suggest that all human behavior can be explained by the learning processes. This approach to psychology emerged with the work of John B. Watson , who was interested in making psychology a more scientific discipline that focused exclusively on observable and measurable behaviors.

Biological Theories

Biological theories focus on understanding how biology affects human thought and behavior. Understanding the genetic factors that contribute to mental illness is an example of a biological theory.

Cognitive Theories

Cognitive theories suggest that internal cognitive stages play an important role in human behavior. These theories focus on understanding how the mind processes, stores, and utilizes information.

Humanist Theories

These theories are centered on the idea that humans are essentially good and that the desire to achieve fulfillment is a primary driver of human behavior.

Examples of Psychological Theories

Some examples of these theories include:

Classical and Operant Conditioning

Inspired by the work of Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, who had discovered and described the process of classical conditioning , Watson demonstrated how different behaviors could be conditioned. The later work of B.F. Skinner introduced the concept of operant conditioning , which looked at how reinforcement and punishment led to learning.

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget introduced another well-known grand theory. His theory of cognitive development described the intellectual growth of children from birth and into childhood. This theory suggests that children act much like little scientists as they actively construct their knowledge of the world.

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky proposed a sociocultural theory of development that is a good example of how new theories often build on older theories. Piaget influenced Vygotsky, but his theory suggested that much of learning results from the dynamic interaction between individuals and their culture.

What This Means For You

Understanding why theories exist can help give you a better idea about their importance. Such theories can give researchers a framework from which they can conduct research, make predictions, and develop interventions that can help improve people's lives.

Borghi AM, Fini C.  Theories and explanations in psychology .  Front Psychol.  2019;10:958. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00958

Longo G, Soto AM. Why do we need theories ?  Prog Biophys Mol Biol . 2016;122(1):4-10. doi:10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2016.06.005

Cassidy J, Jones JD, Shaver PR. Contributions of attachment theory and research: a framework for future research, translation, and policy .  Dev Psychopathol . 2013;25(4 Pt 2):1415‐1434. doi:10.1017/S0954579413000692

De Sousa A. Freudian theory and consciousness: a conceptual analysis** .  Mens Sana Monogr . 2011;9(1):210‐217. doi:10.4103/0973-1229.77437

Malone JC. Did John B. Watson really "found" behaviorism? .  Behav Anal . 2014;37(1):1‐12. doi:10.1007/s40614-014-0004-3

Marwaha S, Goswami M, Vashist B. Prevalence of principles of Piaget's theory among 4-7-year-old children and their correlation with IQ .  J Clin Diagn Res . 2017;11(8):ZC111‐ZC115. doi:10.7860/JCDR/2017/28435.10513

Vasileva O, Balyasnikova N. (Re)Introducing Vygotsky's thought: From historical overview to contemporary psychology .  Front Psychol . 2019;10:1515. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01515

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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A decade of theory as reflected in Psychological Science (2009–2019)

Jonathon mcphetres.

1 Durham University, Durham, United Kingdom

Nihan Albayrak-Aydemir

2 London School of Economics and Political Science, London, United Kingdom

Ana Barbosa Mendes

3 ITEC, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium

Elvina C. Chow

4 Pepperdine University, Malibu, California, United States of America

Patricio Gonzalez-Marquez

5 Quest University, Squamish, Canada

Erin Loukras

Annika maus.

6 University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom

Aoife O’Mahony

7 Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom

Christina Pomareda

8 University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom

Maximilian A. Primbs

9 Radboud University, Nijmegen, Netherlands

Shalaine L. Sackman

10 University of Regina, Regina, Canada

Conor J. R. Smithson

11 Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, United States of America

Kirill Volodko

Associated data.

All relevant data are available from the Open Science Framework (OSF) database ( osf.io/hgn3a ). The OSF preregistration is also available ( osf.io/d6bcq/ ).

The dominant belief is that science progresses by testing theories and moving towards theoretical consensus. While it’s implicitly assumed that psychology operates in this manner, critical discussions claim that the field suffers from a lack of cumulative theory. To examine this paradox, we analysed research published in Psychological Science from 2009–2019 ( N = 2,225). We found mention of 359 theories in-text, most were referred to only once. Only 53.66% of all manuscripts included the word theory , and only 15.33% explicitly claimed to test predictions derived from theories. We interpret this to suggest that the majority of research published in this flagship journal is not driven by theory, nor can it be contributing to cumulative theory building. These data provide insight into the kinds of research psychologists are conducting and raises questions about the role of theory in the psychological sciences.

“ The problem is almost anything passes for theory . ” -Gigerenzer, 1998, pg. 196 (1).

Introduction

Many have noted that psychology lacks the cumulative theory that characterizes other scientific fields [ 1 – 4 ]. So pressing has this deficit become in recent years that many scholars have called for a greater focus on theory development in the psychological sciences [ 5 – 11 ].

At the same time, it has been argued that there are perhaps too many theories to choose from [ 3 , 12 – 14 ]. One factor contributing to this dilemma is that theories are often vague and poorly specified [ 2 , 15 ], so a given theory is unable to adequately explain a range of phenomena without relying on rhetoric. Thus, psychology uses experimentation to tell a narrative rather than to test theoretical predictions [ 16 , 17 ]. From this perspective, psychology needs more exploratory and descriptive research before moving on to theory building and testing [ 18 – 20 ].

Despite these competing viewpoints, it is often claimed that psychological science follows a hypothetico-deductive model like most other scientific disciplines [ 21 ]. In this tradition, experiments exist to test predictions derived from theories. Specifically, researchers should be conducting strong tests of theories [ 22 – 24 ] because strong tests of theory are the reason some fields move forward faster than others [ 2 , 4 , 25 ]. That is, the goal scientists should be working towards is theoretical consensus [ 1 , 2 , 26 – 28 ]. At a glance, it would appear that most psychological research proceeds in this fashion, because papers often use theoretical terms in introduction sections, or name theories in the discussion section. However, no research has been undertaken to examine this assumption and what role theory actually plays in psychological research.

So, which is it? If there is a lack of theory , then most articles should be testing a-theoretical predictions or conducting descriptive and exploratory research. If there is too much theory , then almost every published manuscript should exist to test theoretically derived predictions.

To examine the role of theory in psychological research, we analysed articles published from 2009–2019 in the journal Psychological Science . We use this data to answer some specific questions. First, we are interested in distinguishing between specific and casual uses of theory. So, we analyse how often theory-related words are used overall and how often a specific theory is named and/or tested. Additionally, given that preregistration can help prevent HARKING [ 29 ], we examine whether articles that name and/or test a theory are more likely to be preregistered. Next, it’s possible that some subsets of psychological research might be more or less reliant on theory. To examine this, we investigate whether studies that name and/or test a theory are more likely to generate a specific kind of data. Finally, to provide greater context for these analyses, we examined how many theories were mentioned over this time period and how many times each was mentioned.

Disclosures

All analyses conducted are reported and deviations are disclosed at the end of this section. Our sample size was pre-determined and was based on the entire corpus of published articles. Finally, because this research does not involve human subjects, ethics approval was not sought.

Materials and methods

We accessed all the articles published in Psychological Science from 2009–2019. We chose this journal because it is the flagship journal of the Association for Psychological Science and one of the top journals in the field that publishes a broad range of research from all areas of the discipline. Additionally, this journal explicitly states that theoretical significance is a requirement for publication [ 30 , 31 ].

As preregistered https://osf.io/d6bcq/?view_only=af0461976df7454fbcf7ac7ff1500764 , we excluded comments, letters, errata, editorials, or other articles which did not test original data because they could not be coded or because, in some cases, they were simply replications or re-analyses of previously published articles. This resulted in 2,225 articles being included in the present analysis.

Many useful definitions and operationalisations of a scientific theory have been put forward [ 4 , 32 – 34 ] and we drew on these for the present work. The definition of a scientific theory for the purposes of this research is as follows:

A theory is a framework for understanding some aspect of the natural world. A theory often has a name—usually this includes the word theory , but may sometimes use another label (e.g., model, hypothesis). A theory can be specific or broad, but it should be able to make predictions or generally guide the interpretation of phenomena, and it must be distinguished from a single effect . Finally, a theory is not an untested prediction, a standard hypothesis, or a conjecture.

We used this definition in order to distinguish its use from colloquial and general uses of the word, not to evaluate the strength, viability, or suitability of a theory.

Text mining

Article PDFs were first mined for the frequency of the words theory , theories , and theoretical using the TM [ 35 ] and Quanteda [ 36 ] packages in R. Word frequencies were summed and percentages were calculated for each year and for the entire corpus. We did not search or code for the terms model or hypothesis because these are necessarily more general and have multiple different meanings, none of which overlap with theory (but see the Additional Considerations section for more on this).

After identifying the articles that used the words theory and theories , 10 trained coders further examined those articles. Instances of the word theoretical were not examined further because it is necessarily used generally (and because it was used less than, but often alongside, theory and theories ).

Each article was initially scored independently by two individual coders who were blind to the purpose of the study; Fleiss’ Kappa is report for this initial coding. Recommendations suggest that a kappa between .21-.40 indicates fair agreement, .41-.60 indicates moderate agreement, .61-.80 indicates substantial agreement, and .81–1.0 is almost perfect agreement [ 37 ].

After the initial round of coding, two additional blind coders and the first author each independently reviewed a unique subset of disagreements to resolve ties. This means that the ratings we analyse in the following section are the result of ratings only for which two independent coders (or two out of three coders) agreed 100%.

For each article, the following categories were coded:

Was a specific theory referred to by name?

For each article, the coder conducted a word-search for the string “theor” and examined the context of each instance of the string. We recorded whether each paper, at any point, referred to a specific theory or model by name. Instances of words in the reference section were not counted nor coded further. General references to theory (e.g., psychological theory) or to classes or groups of theories (e.g. relationship theories) were not counted because these do not allow for specific interpretations or predictions. Similarly, instances where a theory, a class of theories, or an effect common across multiple studies was cited in-text along with multiple references but not named explicitly—for example, “cognitive theory (e.g. Author A, 1979; Author B, 1996; Author C & Author D, 2004) predicts”—were also not counted because these examples refer to the author’s own interpretation of or assumptions about a theory rather than a specific prediction outlined by a set of theoretical constraints. Initial coder agreement was 78% (and significantly greater than chance, Fleiss’ kappa = .45, p < .001).

Did the article claim to test a prediction derived from a specific theory?

For each article, the coder examined the abstract, the section prior to introducing the first study, the results, and the beginning of the general discussion. We recorded whether the paper, at any point, explicitly claimed to test a prediction derived from a specific theory or model. As above, this would have been needed to be made clear by the authors to avoid categorising general predictions, auxiliary assumptions, indirect and verbal interpretations of multiple theories, models, or hypotheses derived from personal expectations as being theoretically derived. Initial coder agreement was 74% (and significantly greater than chance, Fleiss’ kappa = .24, p < .001).

What was the primary type of data generated by the study?

For each article, the coder examined the abstract, the section prior to introducing the first study, the results, and the beginning of the general discussion. The primary type of data used in the study was coded as either self-report/survey, physiological/biological, observational/behavioural (including reaction times), or other. In the case of multiple types of data across multi-study papers, we considered the abstract, the research question, the hypothesis, and the results in order to determine the type of data most relevant to the question. Initial coder agreement was 64% (and significantly greater than chance, Fleiss’ kappa = .42, p < .001).

Did the article include a preregistered study?

Preregistration is useful for restricting HARKing [ 29 ]. It is also useful for testing pre-specified and directional predictions, and hypotheses derived from competing theories. As such, we reasoned that preregistered studies may be more likely to test theoretical predictions.

We coded whether the article included a preregistered study. This was identified by looking for a badge as well as conducting a word search for the strings “prereg” and “pre-reg”. Initial coder agreement was 99% (and significantly greater than chance, Fleiss’ kappa = .97, p < .001).

Theory counting

The number of theories named directly in the text were recorded and summed by year to provide an overview of how frequently each theory was invoked. The goal of this was to simply create a comprehensive list of the names and number of theories that were referred to in the text at any point. To be as inclusive as possible, slightly different classification criteria were used (see S1 File ).

Transparency statement

Our original preregistered analysis plan did not include plans for counting the total number of theories mentioned in text, nor for examining the frequency of the words model and hypothesis . Additionally, coding the instances of the word hypothesis was not preregistered, but was added after a round of reviews. Finally, for simplicity, we have focused on percentages out of the total articles coded (rather than presenting separate percentages for frequencies of theory and theories ); complete counts and percentages are presented in the S1 File .

Question 1: How often are theory-related words used?

To begin, the complete corpus of articles was analysed ( N = 2,225). Between the years 2009 and 2019, the word theory was used in 53.66% of articles, the word theories was used in 29.80% of articles, and the word theoretical was used in 32.76% of articles (note that these categories are non-exclusive). Total percentages and raw counts by year are presented in the S1 and S2 Tables in S1 File .

Question 2: How often was a theory named and/or tested?

The 1,605 articles including the word theory or theories were further coded to examine the context of the word. Of these articles, only 33.58% of them named a specific theory—that is, 66.42% used the word superfluously. Further, only 15.33% of the 1,605 articles explicitly claimed to test a prediction derived from a theory.

To put this differently, only 24.22% of all the articles published over the 11-year period ( N = 2,225) actually named a specific theory in the manuscript. For example, they used “psychological theory” or “many theories…” instead of naming and citing a specific theory. This means that the remainder of those papers either 1) did not derive predictions, operationalisations, analytic strategies, and interpretations of their data from theory, or 2) did not credit previous theory for this information.

The words theories and theoretical showed similar patterns, but they were used less often than the word theory ; for simplicity, we present a detailed summary of these counts by year in the S2 Table in S1 File . The pattern of these effects by year is depicted in Fig 1 , below.

The percentage of articles that included the words theory/theories, mentioned a theory by name, and were preregistered was calculated out of the total number of articles published from 2009–2019 in Psychological Science excluding comments, editorials, and errata ( N = 2,225); note that for simplicity this figure counts all articles that received a preregistered badge (even if they were not coded in the present study).

Question 3: Are articles that name a specific theory more likely to be preregistered?

Because there were no preregistered articles prior to 2014, we considered only articles published from 2014 onwards (N = 737) for this part of the analysis. Articles that named a specific theory were no more or less likely to be preregistered. Specifically, 11.11% of articles that explicitly named a specific theory were preregistered. In contrast, 11.31% of articles that did not name a theory were preregistered.

Conversely, articles that actually tested a specific theory were only slightly more likely to be preregistered. Of the articles that were preregistered, 15.66% stated that they tested a specific theory. Of the articles that were not preregistered, 12.84% stated that they tested a specific theory. See S3 and S4 Tables in S1 File for full counts by year.

Question 4: Are studies that name and/or test theories more likely to generate a specific kind of data?

Of the 1,605 articles coded over the 11-year period, the overwhelming majority (55.26%) relied on self-report and survey data. Following this, 28.35% used observational data (including reaction times), 11.03% used biological or physiological data, and the remaining 5.30% used other types of data or methodologies (for example, they used computational modelling or presented a new method) to answer their primary research question.

However, it does not appear that studies using different types of data are any more or less prone to invoking theory. Of the studies that used self-report and survey data, 26.16% named a specific theory. Of the studies that used biological and physiological data, 19.77% named a specific theory. Of the studies that used observational or behavioural data, 22.20% named a specific theory. Of the studies that used other types of data, 25.88% named a specific theory. See S5 and S6 Tables in S1 File for complete counts.

Further, it does not appear that theoretically derived predictions are more conducive to any specific type of study. Only 17.36% of studies using self-report data, 11.86% of studies using biological/physiological data, 11.87% of studies using observational data, and 20% of studies using other types of data explicitly claimed to be testing theoretically derived predictions.

Question 5: How many theories were mentioned in this 11-year period?

We also counted the number of theories that were mentioned or referred to explicitly in each of the 2,225 manuscripts. As described in the S1 File , slightly different criteria were used for this task so as to be as inclusive as possible. A total of 359 theories were mentioned in text over the 11-year period. Most theories were mentioned in only a single paper ( mode = 1, median = 1, mean = 1.99). The full list of theories is presented in S7 Table in S1 File . For ease of reference, the top 10 most-mentioned theories are displayed below in Table 1 .

Exploratory analysis: Did authors use the word hypothesis in place of theory ?

One concern may be that authors are misusing the word hypothesis to refer to these formal, higher-level theories . That is, that authors are using the word hypothesis when they should be using the word theory . To examine this possibility, we mined all 2,225 documents for the word hypothesis and examined the immediate context surrounding each instance.

If the authors were referring to a formally named, superordinate hypothesis derived from elsewhere (e.g., if it satisfied the criteria for a theory) it was coded as 1. It was coded as 0 if the authors were using hypothesis correctly. Specifically, it received a code of 0 if the authors were referring to their own hypothesis or expectations (e.g., our hypothesis, this hypothesis, etc), if they were describing a statistical analysis (e.g. null hypothesis), or if they were describing an effect or pattern of results (e.g., the hypothesis that… ). Instances in the references were not counted. Two independent coders rated each instance of the word. Initial coder agreement was 89.5% and significantly greater than chance (Fleiss’ kappa = .61, p < .001). As before, after initial coder agreement was analysed, a third coder resolved any disagreements and the final ratings (consisting of scores for which at least two coders agreed) were analysed.

Of the 2225 articles published over the 11 years, 62% used the word hypothesis (n = 1,386). Of those, 14.5% (n = 202) used hypothesis in a way to refer to a larger, formal, or externally derived theory . Put differently, this constitutes 9% of the total corpus ( N = 2,225). Complete counts according to year are displayed in S8 Table in S1 File . Thus, it appears that this misuse of the word is not very common. However, even if we were to add this total count to our previous analysis of theory , it would not change our overall interpretation: the majority of papers published in Psychological Science are not discussing nor relying on theories in their research.

The Psychological Science website states that “The main criteria for publication in Psychological Science are general theoretical and empirical significance and methodological/statistical rigor” [ 30 , 31 ]. Yet, only 53.66% of articles published used the word theory , and even fewer named or claimed to test a specific theory. How can research have general theoretical significance if the word theory is not even present in the article?

A more pressing question, perhaps, is how can a field be contributing towards cumulative theoretical knowledge if the research is so fractionated? We identified 359 psychological theories that were referred to in-text (see S7 Table in S1 File for the complete list) and most of these were referred to only a single time. A recent review referred to this as theorrhea (a mania for new theory), and described it as a symptom stifling “the production of new research” [ 38 ]. Indeed, it’s hard to imagine that a cumulative science is one where each theory is examined so infrequently. One cannot help but wonder how the field can ever move towards theoretical consensus if everyone is studying something different—or, worse, studying the same thing with a different name.

These data provide insight into how psychologists are using psychological theories in their research. Many papers made no reference to a theory at all and most did not explicitly derive their predictions from a theory. It’s impossible to know why a given manuscript was written in a certain way, but we offer some possibilities to help understand why some authors neglected to even include the word theory in their report. One possibility is that the research is truly a-theoretical or descriptive. There is clear value in descriptive research—value that can ultimately amount to theoretical advancement [ 17 , 18 , 20 ] and it would be misguided to avoid interesting questions because they did not originate from theory.

It’s also possible that researchers are testing auxiliary assumptions [ 39 ] or their own interpretations (instead of the literal interpretations or predictions) of theories [ 40 ]. This strategy is quite common: authors describe certain effects or qualities of previous literature (e.g., the literature review) in their introduction to narrate how they developed a certain hypothesis or idea, then they state their own hypothesis. Such a strategy is fine, but certainly does not amount to a quantifiable prediction derived from a pre-specified theory. Further, given that psychological theories are almost always verbal [ 2 , 15 ], there may not even be literal interpretations or predictions to test.

An additional possibility is that researchers may be focusing on “effects” and paradigms rather than theories per se. Psychology is organized topically—development, cognition, social behaviour, personality—and these topics are essentially collections of effects (e.g., motivated reasoning, the Stroop effect, etc). Accordingly, researchers tend to study specific effects and examine whether they hold under different conditions. Additionally, a given study may be conducted because it is the logical follow-up from a previous study they conducted, not because the researchers are interested in examining whether a theory is true or not.

However, it’s also important to consider the qualities of the research that did use the word theory and why. Recall only 33.58% of articles using the word theory or theories said anything substantial about a theory. For the remaining articles, it’s possible that these words and phrases were injected post-hoc to make the paper seem theoretically significant, because it is standard practice, or because it is a journal requirement. That is, this may be indicative of a specific type of HARKing: searching the literature for relevant hypotheses or predictions after data analysis, known as RHARKing [ 29 ]. For example, some researchers may have conducted a study for other reasons (e.g., personal interest), but then searched for a relevant theory to connect the results to after the fact. It’s important to note that HARKing can be prevented by preregistration, but preregistration was only used in 11.11% of the papers that claimed to test a theory. Of course, it’s impossible to know an author’s motivation in absence of a preregistration, but the possibility remains quite likely given that between 27% and 58% of scientists admit to HARKing [ 29 ].

Finally, this data provides insight into the kind of research psychologists are conducting. The majority (55.26%) is conducted using self-report and survey data. Much less research is conducted using observational (28.35%) and biological or physiological (11.03%) data. While not as bleak as a previous report claiming that behavioural data is completely absent in the psychological sciences [ 41 ], this points to a limitation in the kinds of questions that can be answered. Of course, self-report data may be perfectly reasonable for some questions, but such questions are necessarily restricted to a narrower slice of human behaviour and cognition. Further, a high degree of reliance on a single method certainly contrasts with the large number of theories being referenced. It is worth considering how much explanatory power each of the theories have if most of them are discussed exclusively in the context of self-report and survey data.

Limitations and additional considerations

The present results describe only one journal: Psychological Science . However, we chose this journal because it is one of the top journals in the field, because it publishes research from all areas of psychology, and because it has explicit criteria for theoretical relevance. Thus, we expected that research published in this journal would be representative of some of the theoretically relevant research being conducted. So, we do not claim that the results described here statistically generalize to other journals, only that they describe the pattern of research in one of the top journals in psychology. One specific concern is that Psychological Science limits articles to 2,000 words, and this may have restricted the ability to describe and reference theories. This may be true, though would seem that the body of knowledge a piece of research is contributing towards would be one of the most important pieces of information to include in a report. That is, if the goal of that research were to contribute to cumulative knowledge, it does not require many words to refer to a body of theory by name.

An additional concern may be that, in some areas of psychology, “theories” may be referred to with a different name (e.g., model or hypothesis ). However, the terms model and hypothesis do not carry the formal weight that scientific theory does. In the hierarchy of science, theories are regarded as being the highest status a claim can achieve—that most articles use it casually and conflate it with other meanings is problematic for clear scientific communication. In contrast, model or hypothesis could be used to refer to several different things: if something is called model , then it’s not claiming to be a theory . Our additional analysis only identified a small minority of papers that used hypothesis in this fashion (9% of the total corpus). While this number is relatively small, this does highlight an additional issue: the lack of consistency with which theories are referred to and discussed. It is difficult and confusing to consistently add to a body of knowledge if different names and terms are used.

Another claim might be that theory should simply be implicit in any text; that it should permeate through one’s writing without many direct references to it. If we were to proceed in this fashion, how could one possibly contribute to cumulative theory? If theory need not be named, identified, or referred to specifically, how is a researcher to judge what body of research they are contributing to? How are they to interpret their findings? How is one even able to design an experiment to answer their research question without a theory? The argument has been made that researchers need theory to guide methods [ 5 , 6 , 9 ]—this is not possible without, at least, clearly naming and referencing theories.

A final limitation to note is one regarding the consistency of the coders. While the fair to moderate kappas obtained here may seem concerning at first, we believe this reflects the looseness and vaguery with which words like theory are used. Authors are often ambiguous and pad their introductions and discussion with references to models and other research; it is not often explicit whether a model is simply being mentioned or whether it is actually guiding the research. Further complicating things is that references to theories are often inconsistent. Thus, it can be a particularly difficult task to determine whether an author actually derived their predictions from a specific theory or whether they are simply discussing it because they later noted the similarities. Such difficulties could have contributed to the lower initial agreement among coders. Therefore, along with noting that the kappas are lower than would be ideal, we also suggest that future researchers should be conscious of their writing: it’s very easy to be extremely explicit about where one’s predictions were derived from and why a test is being conducted. We believe this to be a necessary component of any research report.

Concluding remarks

Our interpretation of this data is that the published research we reviewed is simultaneously saturated and fractionated, and theory is not guiding the majority of research published in Psychological Science despite this being the main criteria for acceptance. While many articles included the words theory and theories , these words are most often used casually and non-specifically. In a large subset of the remaining cases, the theoretical backbone is no more than a thin veneer of relevant rhetoric and citations.

These results highlight many questions for the field moving forward. For example, it’s often noted that psychology has made little progress towards developing clearly specified, cumulative theories [ 2 , 15 ] but what should that progress look like? What is the role of theory in psychological science? Additionally, while it is widely assumed that psychological research follows the hypothetico-deductive model, these data suggest this is not necessarily the case. There are many other ways to do research and not all of them involve theory testing. If the majority of research in a top journal is not explicitly testing predictions derived from theory, then perhaps it exists to explore and describe interesting effects. There is certainly nothing wrong with a descriptive approach, and this aim of psychology has been suggested for at least half a century [ 20 , 42 , 43 ].

To be clear, we are not suggesting that every article should include the word theory , nor that it should be a requirement for review. We are not even suggesting that research needs to be based in theory. Instead, we are simply pointing out the pattern of research that exists in one of the leading research journals with the hope that this inspires critical discussion around the process, aims, and motivation of psychological research. There are many ways to do research. If scientists want to work towards developing nomothetic explanations of human nature then, yes, theory can help. If scientists simply want to describe or explore something interesting, that’s fine too.

Supporting information

Funding statement.

The author(s) received no specific funding for this work.

Data Availability

• PLoS One. 2021; 16(3): e0247986.

Decision Letter 0

21 Dec 2020

PONE-D-20-28543

A decade of theory as reflected in Psychological Science (2009-2019)

Dear Dr. McPhetres,

Thank you for submitting your manuscript to PLOS ONE. After careful consideration, we feel that it has merit but does not fully meet PLOS ONE’s publication criteria as it currently stands. Therefore, we invite you to submit a revised version of the manuscript that addresses the points raised during the review process.

==============================

I would like to thank you for this submission, I speak for myself and hopefully both reviewers when I say it was a pleasure to read and looks to be a strong and impactful addition to the literature. I agree with the reviewers though that before acceptance some minor additions are required. There was no major conflicts between what the reviewers said, in fact I personally think they compliment each other quite well, so that addressing their concerns in one area should help the entire work overall. While I think that all the suggestions are valid, and they are not too onerous on you and your teams, I believe the most critical issues addressing reviewer 1's statements about the usage of the term "hypothesis", as they correctly point out how your lack of capture in your coding regime may overestimate the atheoretical nature of the field. I would also stress the need to address reviewers 2's concerns about the agreement scores between coders. Once these issues are addressed I believe this work will be strong enough to publish. I understand that, with the upcoming holidays for many institutions as well as Covid restrictions, it may be difficult for you and your team to address all these concerns quickly, therefore while I suggested approximately 48 days as time for resubmission (slightly more than the 45 that is typical), if you require more time please contact us and we can extend this deadline. We all understand that the current pace of the academic and non-academic world is not typical, and we do not want you or your time to feel constrained by this timeline. I thank you for your submission

Please submit your revised manuscript by January 29th 2021. If you will need more time than this to complete your revisions, please reply to this message or contact the journal office at gro.solp@enosolp . When you're ready to submit your revision, log on to https://www.editorialmanager.com/pone/ and select the 'Submissions Needing Revision' folder to locate your manuscript file.

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Academic Editor

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When submitting your revision, we need you to address these additional requirements.

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2. We note the study analyses publications from a single publication (Psychological Science) as part of this study. We note that you have acknowledged this as a limitation in the Discussion, and indicate that "we do not claim that the results described here statistically generalize to other journals".

However, some of the conclusions made do appear to suggest the results are generalizable to wider group, e.g. "We interpret this to suggest that most psychological research is not driven by theory, nor can it be contributing to cumulative theory building."

Please revise accordingly. This is required in order to meet PLOS ONE's 4th publication criterion, which states that 'Conclusions are presented in an appropriate fashion and are supported by the data.'

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Additional Editor Comments:

First off I would like to apologize for the delays and I thank you for your understanding and patiences. Second I wish to congratulate you on an overall very compelling and informative study. This line of inquiry is needed to help drive psychological research forward. That said I also agree with the reviewers on their most significant suggestions, especially the omission of "hypothesis" from your analysis as brought up by reviewer 1 and the moderate coder agreement scores brought forward by reviewer 2. I believe addressing these in the next version will greatly improve it and make it even more accessible to wider audience. I thank you all for this manuscript and I look forward to your re-submission.

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Reviewers' comments:

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Reviewer #1: Yes

Reviewer #2: Partly

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Reviewer #2: Yes

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Reviewer #1: Thank you for the opportunity to review this manuscript. The authors have chosen a fascinating topic and approached it in an elegant and innovative fashion. Their analytic approach is well considered and, given the constraints of their analysis, the conclusions they draw from their results are sound. I certainly believe that this submission contributes in a unique and meaningful way to the literature on theorizing in psychology, and I think it would make a fine addition to your outlet.

My only concern regards the authors’ decision to omit the term “hypothesis” from their analyses. Although the authors go to some lengths to justify this decision, I remain unconvinced by their argument. Anecdotally, I think it is common in the field to refer to theory and hypothesis interchangeably, and there are certain types of hypothesis that satisfy the sort of superordinate status the authors ascribe to “theory”. In the evolutionary psychological literature, for example, theories such as inclusive fitness are referred to as “first order hypotheses”, from which subsidiary, testable hypotheses or predictions can be derived. In a similar vein, it is widely recognised that psychology progresses via cumulative tests of lower-order hypotheses derived from higher-order theories – here, it is quite reasonable to expect that researchers only explicitly refer to the former (i.e., the subject of their analysis), rather than the broader theoretical framework from which their hypotheses are derived; nevertheless, progressive empirical support for lower-order hypotheses constitutes cumulative support for higher-order theories. In short, these two terms cannot be readily individuated. On the other hand, I am sympathetic to the fact that a hypothesis can also refer to its more trivial sense (i.e., specific, testable predictions), which would require a more nuanced, qualitative analysis and coding of target articles to differentiate the more substantive use of the term (i.e., theory) from its more trivial form (i.e., empirical predictions). Nevertheless, I believe that such an analysis is required to demonstrate, convincingly, whether psychological science operates in the atheoretical manner the authors describe.

Otherwise, another, minor suggestion is that the authors might like to consider complementing some of their results with inferential analyses (e.g., chi-square analyses), where appropriate. It would be interesting to see whether the differences they cite reach statistical significance.

In closing, I would like to congratulate the authors on a fascinating submission, and I wish them all the best in their future endeavours.

Reviewer #2: Overview: This manuscript explored mentions of theory in the past 10 years in the journal Psychological Science. This paper attempts to provide an answer about the extent to which modern psychological research is guided by theory. This manuscript is innovative, clever, and overall well-written. The authors present interesting findings about psychological research’s current lack of grounding in theory without necessarily prescribing a need for change. My primary concern is the low agreement between coders on what constitutes a reference to theory, as captured by the Fleiss’ kappas. While these values suggest coders agreed at better than chance rates, their agreement was only fair to moderate at best. This goes back to the authors’ question of how to identify a theory and thus a reference to theory. More detail and explanation for these low agreement scores is needed.

This manuscript examined

1. It would be helpful to readers to include the theories that were mentioned most often in the text section on how many theories were mentioned in addition to the supplemental information.

2. Psych Science article’s introduction and discussion sections are limited to 2000 words. The authors might consider whether this word limit could have contributed to lower rates of including references to theory.

3. The manuscript currently lacks information to interpret Fleiss’ kappa according to cut points (i.e., no agreement, slight agreement, fair agreement, etc.) to help the reader better understand the level of agreement between coders. Furthermore, according to cut points for Fleiss’ kappa, coders showed only moderate agreement for the initial question of referring to a specific theory and only fair agreement for testing a prediction from a specific theory. These low kappas are concerning. The authors should note this is a limitation and offer potential explanations for why coders showed these levels of disagreement. It would help to contextualize the kappas based on what other studies using this as a measure of agreement have found.

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Reviewer #1: No

Reviewer #2: No

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Author response to Decision Letter 0

11 Jan 2021

Response to comments

Editor comments

1. Please ensure that your manuscript meets PLOS ONE's style requirements, including those for file naming.

Response: I have reviewed the guidelines and believe that my files now satisfy these requirements.

Response: I have removed, to the best of my knowledge, statements that imply a generalisation to all of psychology. For example, I have reworded the statement you pointed out to read “that the research published in this flagship journal is not driven by theory”, in the beginning of the concluding remarks “the published research we reviewed” and “theory is not guiding the majority of research published in Psychological Science.”

Reviewer Comments

Reviewer #1: Thank you for the opportunity to review this manuscript. The authors have chosen a fascinating topic and approached it in an elegant and innovative fashion. Their analytic approach is well considered and, given the constraints of their analysis, the conclusions they draw from their results are sound. I certainly believe that this submission contributes in a unique and meaningful way to the literature on theorizing in psychology, and I think it would make a fine addition to your outlet.

Response: Thank you for the positive evaluation of our work.

1. My only concern regards the authors’ decision to omit the term “hypothesis” from their analyses. Although the authors go to some lengths to justify this decision, I remain unconvinced by their argument. Anecdotally, I think it is common in the field to refer to theory and hypothesis interchangeably, and there are certain types of hypothesis that satisfy the sort of superordinate status the authors ascribe to “theory”. In the evolutionary psychological literature, for example, theories such as inclusive fitness are referred to as “first order hypotheses”, from which subsidiary, testable hypotheses or predictions can be derived. In a similar vein, it is widely recognised that psychology progresses via cumulative tests of lower-order hypotheses derived from higher-order theories – here, it is quite reasonable to expect that researchers only explicitly refer to the former (i.e., the subject of their analysis), rather than the broader theoretical framework from which their hypotheses are derived; nevertheless, progressive empirical support for lower-order hypotheses constitutes cumulative support for higher-order theories. In short, these two terms cannot be readily individuated. On the other hand, I am sympathetic to the fact that a hypothesis can also refer to its more trivial sense (i.e., specific, testable predictions), which would require a more nuanced, qualitative analysis and coding of target articles to differentiate the more substantive use of the term (i.e., theory) from its more trivial form (i.e., empirical predictions). Nevertheless, I believe that such an analysis is required to demonstrate, convincingly, whether psychological science operates in the atheoretical manner the authors describe.

Response: We have included this additional analysis. I now detail the results in the “exploratory analysis” section and have included a table detailing this data by year. The results show that, while some people do use hypothesis in place of theory, this is a minority of papers (only 9% of the total corpus).

2. Otherwise, another, minor suggestion is that the authors might like to consider complementing some of their results with inferential analyses (e.g., chi-square analyses), where appropriate. It would be interesting to see whether the differences they cite reach statistical significance.

Response: We have not included inferential statistics because we have analysed the entire corpus of articles. Thus, there is no ‘population’ to generalise our results to with the interpretation of a p-value That is, because we have all the articles, everything is an actual difference if the numbers differ in their absolute value when you have the whole population and no p-values are needed to determine whether the numbers would differ significantly given a frequentist methodology and interpretation (e.g. what would happen if we repeated the study 100 times).

3. In closing, I would like to congratulate the authors on a fascinating submission, and I wish them all the best in their future endeavours.

Response: Thank you again for your constructive feedback!

Reviewer #2: Overview: This manuscript explored mentions of theory in the past 10 years in the journal Psychological Science. This paper attempts to provide an answer about the extent to which modern psychological research is guided by theory. This manuscript is innovative, clever, and overall well-written. The authors present interesting findings about psychological research’s current lack of grounding in theory without necessarily prescribing a need for change. My primary concern is the low agreement between coders on what constitutes a reference to theory, as captured by the Fleiss’ kappas. While these values suggest coders agreed at better than chance rates, their agreement was only fair to moderate at best. This goes back to the authors’ question of how to identify a theory and thus a reference to theory. More detail and explanation for these low agreement scores is needed.

Response: Thanks for pointing this out- I think this is the result of a miscommunication on my part. I have included additional text in the methods section to clarify how the data were coded by raters and why I do not believe the fair-to-moderate kappas to be a problem. I will also explain a bit more here, though.

First, just to clarify, the coding took place in two stages. Initially, two coders independently reviewed each article and recorded ratings. The kappa reported in the article was computed on this initial coding only. Then, in the second step, a third coder reviewed the disagreements and it was the ratings after this final round of coding which we analyse. So, the resulting code that we analysed for the main results was the result of codes on which one of the two conditions were satisfied: either a) two coders agreed 100% or b) two out of three coders agreed 100%.

This means that that lower level of agreement was corrected when the third coder independently reviewed the disagreements (ie the kappa doesn’t necessarily describe the data we analysed).

Thus, I do not think this is an issue because 1) agreement wasn’t too bad to begin with, it was still at moderate levels for the more complicated ratings, 2) more categories means lower agreement, and 3) the tie-breaker means the ratings are the result of agreement by at least two coders.

In response, I have made the following changes to the manuscript.

On page 3-4 where I describe the coding, I have reworded this to read as follows. Second, I have included some brief rules of thumb on pages 3-4. It now reads as follows:

“Each article was initially scored independently by two individual coders who were blind to the purpose of the study; Fleiss’ Kappa is report for this initial coding. Recommendations suggest that a kappa between .21-.40 indicates fair agreement, .41-.60 indicates moderate agreement, .61-.80 indicates substantial agreement, and .81-1.0 is almost perfect agreement (37).

After the initial round of coding, two additional blind coders and the first author each independently reviewed a unique subset of disagreements to resolve ties. This means that the ratings we analyse in the following section are the result of codes only for which two independent raters (or two out of three raters) agreed 100%. ”

Response: I have noted this in under the heading of “ Question 5: How many theories were mentioned…” (page 8). I have included a table with the top-10 most mentioned theories.

Response: Good point. At the beginning of the limitations sections I have stated the following:

“One specific concern is that Psychological Science limits articles to 2,000 words, and this may have restricted the ability to describe and reference theories. This may be true, though would seem that the body of knowledge a piece of research is contributing towards would be one of the most important pieces of information to include in a report. That is, if the goal of that research were to contribute to cumulative knowledge it, it does not require many words to refer to a body of theory by name.”

Response: I have included the rules of thumb for kappa in the methods section, as described earlier. This is related to my previous response regarding the calculation of the kappas. Namely, we only used the codes for which two raters agreed (e.g. after tie-breaking). However, there are a few other practical considerations to be made here.

First, these categories are extremely difficult to code. They may seem straightforward but 1) authors are often extremely vague, 2) we are coding something for which we expect there to be misuses of the word (which adds noise), and 3) coding multiple categories will necessarily reduce agreement.

The coders did almost perfectly when coding whether a study was pre-registered- had this not been the case, I would have been more concerned about the other categories.

Going into this project, I initially thought it would be straightforward to identify what a theory is, but it is not. People use this word so loosely that it makes any coding scheme feel inadequate. Authors contradict themselves and make ambiguous statements. I think this has more to do with the articles rather than the coders or the coding scheme. Some of these thoughts were already in the manuscript though. And I’m hesitant to put all of these thoughts into the paper, but I have added some discussion on this to the end of the limitations section.

Submitted filename: Response to comments.docx

Decision Letter 1

18 Feb 2021

A decade of theory as reflected in  Psychological Science (2009-2019)

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After reading your revisions the reviewers and myself all agree that we should accept your manuscript. Congratulations. I know this was a long time in the works and I apologize for that. I thank you for your patience

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Reviewer #1: The authors have done a fine job responding to the reviewers' concerns. I wish them all the best in their future endeavours.

Reviewer #2: The authors did a great job incorporating reviewer feedback into the revised document. The only other change I would suggest is tempering some of the strong language in the abstract and discussion somewhat to be more suggestive of potential implications of the findings. For example, in the abstract it states: “We interpret this to suggest that the majority of research published in this flagship journal is not driven by theory, nor can it be contributing to cumulative theory building.” Maybe instead say something like, “Given that the majority of research published in this flagship journal does not derive specific hypotheses from theory, we suggest that theory is not a primary driver of much of this research. Further, the research findings themselves may not be contributing to cumulative theory building“. From what I understand of the findings, several studies did reference theory, they just did not use theory to specifically derive their hypotheses.

7. PLOS authors have the option to publish the peer review history of their article ( what does this mean? ). If published, this will include your full peer review and any attached files.

Acceptance letter

25 Feb 2021

A decade of theory as reflected in Psychological Science  (2009-2019)

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What Are Psychological Theories?

Categories Theories

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Psychological theories are frameworks that help explain various aspects of human thought and behavior. Such theories are created as a way to explain, predict, and modify human behaviors. By using these theories, psychologists can create interventions and treatments to help people live and function more effectively.

Some of these theories are more historical in nature and not supported by current research. In other cases, these theories still play an essential role in our understanding of different aspects of psychology.

In either case, learning more about these theories can help you better understand psychological history and current perspectives on psychology.

Table of Contents

What Is a Psychology Theory?

A psychological theory acts as a framework to help understand and explain different aspects of the human mind and behavior. Such theories also serve an important role in that they can help researchers and mental health professionals make predictions about how people might respond in certain situations or under specific conditions.

Using these theories, experts might be able to make guesses about:

• How people will respond in certain situations
• How people will be affected by changes
• Treatments that might be effective
• What factors might play a role in causing a certain problem

Types of Psychological Theories

There are some main types of psychological theories: grand, mini, developmental, and emergent.

Grand Theories

This type of psychological theory strives to present an overarching framework that explains virtually all aspects of human behavior. Examples of grand theories include:

• Behaviorism
• Psychoanalysis
• Humanistic theory
• Cognitive theory
• Biopsychological theory

Mini-Theories

This type of psychological theory is much more focused and seeks to explain a much more specific aspect of human behavior.

For example, mini-theories may focus on areas such as motivation, emotion, or personality. Examples of mini-theories include:

• Cognitive dissonance theory
• Information processing theory
• Social learning theory
• Attachment theory
• Self-efficacy theory

Developmental Theories

Developmental theories focus on describing how people change and grow as they age. Such theories may focus on a specific aspect of development or a particular time period, such as early childhood. Some examples of developmental theories include:

• Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development
• Parenting Styles
• Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
• Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
• Nature vs. Nurture
• Attachment Styles

Emergent Theories

Emergent theories are those that incorporate new ideas and concepts, often drawing on disparate information from other disciplines. Such theories often don’t yet have a cohesive theory or explanation. Examples of emergent theories include:

• Intersectionality theory
• Social identity theory
• Evolutionary psychology
• Positive psychology
• Cross-cultural psychology

Major Theoretical Perspectives

Psycholgical theories are often rooted in one of the following perspectives:

Psychoanalytic Theories

Psychoanalysis was the school of thought founded by Sigmund Freud. This approach suggested that the human mind comprises the conscious mind and the unconscious mind. The conscious mind consists of everything we are aware of, while the unconscious mind is all the thoughts, feelings, memories, and urges that are kept out of awareness.

• What Is Psychoanalysis?
• Id, Ego, and Superego

Behavioral Theories

Behaviorism is a theory of learning that suggests that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner were among the prominent psychologists who advocated this approach.

For the first half of the 20th century, behaviorism became the dominant school of thought. While other theories eventually took precedence, techniques rooted in behavioral therapy are still used today to treat mental health conditions such as substance use, phobias, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). 

• What Is Behaviorism?
• Classical Conditioning
• Operant Conditioning
• Differences Between Classical and Operant Conditioning
• Schedules of Reinforcement
• Reinforcement
• Premack Principle

Cognitive Theories

Cognitive theories of psychology focus on explaining mental processes that influence behavior. These theories often center on topics such as memory, language, problem-solving, motivation, decision-making, thinking, and attention.

• What Is Cognitive Psychology?
• Cognitive Dissonance  
• Cognitive Bias
• Multiple Intelligences
• Memory Problems
• Choice blindness

Humanist Theories

During the 1950s, another approach called humanistic psychology emerged and became known as the “third force” in psychology. While psychoanalysis and behaviorism focused primarily on problems, humanism took a more positive approach to explaining and understanding human behavior.

Humanists such as Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow focused on individual strengths and the innate goodness of people. Many psychology theories that emerged from the humanist perspective continue to have an impact today, particularly in the field of positive psychology.

• What Is Humanistic Psychology?
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
• Self-Actualization
• Self-Efficacy

Biopsychological Theories

Theories that take a biopsychological perspective focus on understanding how biological processes influence human thought and behavior. This perspective often focuses on how things like genetics, brain structure, brain chemistry, and other biological factors affect the mind and body.

Personality Theories

Personality theories focus on understanding the patterns of feelings, thoughts, and behaviors that make each person unique. Such theories try to explain how personality develops and how it may change over life.

• What Is Personality Psychology?
• The Id, Ego, and Superego
• The Big 5 Theory of Personality
• Trait Theory of Personality
• Type A Personality
• What Is an Introvert?

Examples of Psychological Theories

It can be helpful to look at some specific examples of psychology theories to better see how such frameworks can help researchers better understand a specific phenomena.

Some popular theories in psychology include:

• Piaget’s theory of cognitive development : This theory focuses on explaining intellectual develop in kids starting at birth up through adolescense.
• Social learning theory : This theory focuses on how social influences contribute to learning processes.
• Classical conditioning : This theory explains how people learn through conditioned associations.
• Maslow’s hierarchy of needs : This theory explains human motivation by identifying different human needs, starting at the most basic and moving up to the more complex.

Importance of Psychological Theories

Psychological theories serve an important role. They can help guide research so that psychologists can better answer important questions about human thought and behavior.

Such theories can also:

• Help researchers determine which approaches are most successful for dealing with specific problems
• Help psychologists better understand the long-term effects of human behavior
• Provide answers about why people do the things they do
• Discover factors that play an important role in mental health and well-being

Key Points to Remember

• Psychological research has inspired many theories to explain how and why people think, act, and feel the way they do.
• Some significant psychological theories include psychoanalysis, behaviorism, humanism, cognitive theory, and biopsychological theories.
• Understanding these theories can help provide insight into how the field of psychology came to be where it is today.
• It can also help professionals better understand some of the factors that affect mental health.

Rawat, T., & Jain, S. (2022). Depression detection: Approaches, challenges and future directions. In  Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning, and Mental Health in Pandemics  (pp. 209–234). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-91196-2.00002-8

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

36 What Is Psychological Criticism?

One of the key principles of psychological criticism is the idea that literature can be used to explore and understand the human psyche, including unconscious and repressed desires and fears. For example, psychoanalytic criticism might explore how the characters in a work of literature are shaped by their early childhood experiences or their relationships with their parents.

Psychological criticism can be applied to any genre of literature, from poetry to novels to plays, and can be used to analyze a wide range of literary works, from classic literature to contemporary bestsellers. It is often used in conjunction with other critical approaches, such as feminist or postcolonial criticism, to explore the ways in which psychological factors intersect with social and cultural factors in the creation and interpretation of literary works.

Learning Objectives

• Deliberate on what approach best suits particular texts and purposes (CLO 1.4)
• Using a literary theory, choose appropriate elements of literature (formal, content, or context) to focus on in support of an interpretation (CLO 2.3)
• Be exposed to a variety of critical strategies through literary theory lenses, such as formalism/New Criticism, reader-response, structuralism, deconstruction, historical and cultural approaches (New Historicism, postcolonial, Marxism), psychological approaches, feminism, and queer theory. (CLO 4.2)
• Learn to make effective choices about applying critical strategies to texts that demonstrate awareness of the strategy’s assumptions and expectations, the text’s literary maneuvers, and the stance one takes in literary interpretation (CLO 4.4)
• Be exposed to the diversity of human experience, thought, politics, and conditions through the application of critical theory (CLO 6.4)

Excerpts from Psychological Criticism Scholarship

I have a confession to make that is likely rooted in my unconscious (or perhaps I am repressing something): I don’t much care for Sigmund Freud. But his psychoanalytic approach underpins psychological criticism in literary studies, so it’s important to be aware of psychoanalytic concepts and how they can be used in literary analysis. We will read a few examples of psychological criticism below, starting with a primary text, a theoretical explanation of psychoanalytic theory, Freud’s “First Lecture” (1920). In this reading, Freud gives a broad outline of the two main tenets of his theories: 1) that our behaviors are often indicators of psychic processes that are unconscious; and 2) that sexual impulses are at the root of mental disorders as well as cultural achievements. In the second and third readings, I share two example of literary criticism, one written by a medical doctor in 1910 that use Freud’s Oedipus complex theories to explicate William Shakespeare’s play Hamlet, and the second, a modern example of psychological theory applied to the same play. To appreciate how influential Freud’s theories have been on the study of  Hamlet , try a simple JSTOR search with “Freud” and “Hamlet” as your key terms. When I tried this in October 2023, the search yielded 7,420 results.

From “First Lecture” in  A General Introduction to Psychoanalysis by Sigmund Freud (1920)

With two of its assertions, psychoanalysis offends the whole world and draws aversion upon itself. One of these assertions offends an intellectual prejudice, the other an aesthetic-moral one. Let us not think too lightly of these prejudices; they are powerful things, remnants of useful, even necessary, developments of mankind. They are retained through powerful affects, and the battle against them is a hard one. The first of these displeasing assertions of psychoanalysis is this, that the psychic processes are in themselves unconscious, and that those which are conscious are merely isolated acts and parts of the total psychic life. Recollect that we are, on the contrary, accustomed to identify the psychic with the conscious. Consciousness actually means for us the distinguishing characteristic of the psychic life, and psychology is the science of the content of consciousness. Indeed, so obvious does this identification seem to us that we consider its slightest contradiction obvious nonsense, and yet psychoanalysis cannot avoid raising this contradiction; it cannot accept the identity of the conscious with the psychic. Its definition of the psychic affirms that they are processes of the nature of feeling, thinking, willing; and it must assert that there is such a thing as unconscious thinking and unconscious willing. But with this assertion psychoanalysis has alienated, to start with, the sympathy of all friends of sober science, and has laid itself open to the suspicion of being a fantastic mystery study which would build in darkness and fish in murky waters. You, however, ladies and gentlemen, naturally cannot as yet understand what justification I have for stigmatizing as a prejudice so abstract a phrase as this one, that “the psychic is consciousness.” You cannot know what evaluation can have led to the denial of the unconscious, if such a thing really exists, and what advantage may have resulted from this denial. It sounds like a mere argument over words whether one shall say that the psychic coincides with the conscious or whether one shall extend it beyond that, and yet I can assure you that by the acceptance of unconscious processes you have paved the way for a decisively new orientation in the world and in science. Just as little can you guess how intimate a connection this initial boldness of psychoanalysis has with the one which follows. The next assertion which psychoanalysis proclaims as one of its discoveries, affirms that those instinctive impulses which one can only call sexual in the narrower as well as in the wider sense, play an uncommonly large role in the causation of nervous and mental diseases, and that those impulses are a causation which has never been adequately appreciated. Nay, indeed, psychoanalysis claims that these same sexual impulses have made contributions whose value cannot be overestimated to the highest cultural, artistic and social achievements of the human mind. According to my experience, the aversion to this conclusion of psychoanalysis is the most significant source of the opposition which it encounters. Would you like to know how we explain this fact? We believe that civilization was forged by the driving force of vital necessity, at the cost of instinct-satisfaction, and that the process is to a large extent constantly repeated anew, since each individual who newly enters the human community repeats the sacrifices of his instinct-satisfaction for the sake of the common good. Among the instinctive forces thus utilized, the sexual impulses play a significant role. They are thereby sublimated, i.e., they are diverted from their sexual goals and directed to ends socially higher and no longer sexual. But this result is unstable. The sexual instincts are poorly tamed. Each individual who wishes to ally himself with the achievements of civilization is exposed to the danger of having his sexual instincts rebel against this sublimation. Society can conceive of no more serious menace to its civilization than would arise through the satisfying of the sexual instincts by their redirection toward their original goals. Society, therefore, does not relish being reminded of this ticklish spot in its origin; it has no interest in having the strength of the sexual instincts recognized and the meaning of the sexual life to the individual clearly delineated. On the contrary, society has taken the course of diverting attention from this whole field. This is the reason why society will not tolerate the above-mentioned results of psychoanalytic research, and would prefer to brand it as aesthetically offensive and morally objectionable or dangerous. Since, however, one cannot attack an ostensibly objective result of scientific inquiry with such objections, the criticism must be translated to an intellectual level if it is to be voiced. But it is a predisposition of human nature to consider an unpleasant idea untrue, and then it is easy to find arguments against it. Society thus brands what is unpleasant as untrue, denying the conclusions of psychoanalysis with logical and pertinent arguments. These arguments originate from affective sources, however, and society holds to these prejudices against all attempts at refutation.

Excerpts from “The Œdipus-Complex as an Explanation of Hamlet’s Mystery: A Study in Motive” by Ernest Jones (1910)

The particular problem of Hamlet, with which this paper is concerned, is intimately related to some of the most frequently recurring problems that are presented in the course of psycho-analysis [sic], and it has thus seemed possible to secure a new point of view from which an answer might be offered to questions that have baffled attempts made along less technical routes. Some of the most competent literary authorities have freely acknowledged the inadequacy of all the solutions of the problem that have up to the present been offered, and from a psychological point of view this inadequacy is still more evident. The aim of the present paper is to expound an hypothesis which Freud some nine years ago suggested in one of the footnotes to his Traumdeutung ,·so far as I am aware it has not been critically discussed since its publication. Before attempting this it will be necessary to make a few general remarks about the nature of the problem and the previous solutions that have been offered. The problem presented by the tragedy of Hamlet is one of peculiar interest in at least two respects. In the first place the play is almost universally considered to be the chief masterpiece of one of the greatest minds the world has known. It probably expresses the core of Shakspere’s [sic] philosophy and outlook on life as no other work of his does, and so far excels all his other writings that many competent critics would place it on an entirely separate level from them. It may be expected, therefore, that anything which will give us the key to the inner meaning of the play will necessarily give us the clue to much of the deeper workings of Shakspere’s mind. In the second place the intrinsic interest of the play is exceedingly great. The central mystery in it, namely the cause of Hamlet’s hesitancy in seeking to obtain revenge for the murder of his father, has well been called the Sphinx of modern Literature. It has given rise to a regiment of hypotheses, and to a large library of critical and controversial literature; this is mainly German and for the most part has grown up in the past fifty years. No review of the literature will here be attempted…. The most important hypotheses that have been put forward are sub-varieties of three main points of view. The first of these sees the difficulty in the performance of the task in Hamlet’s temperament, which is not suited to effective action of any kind; the second sees it in the nature of the task, which is such as to be almost impossible of performance by any one; and the third in some special feature in the nature of the task which renders it peculiarly difficult or repugnant to Hamlet…. No disconnected and meaningless drama could have produced the effects on its audiences that Hamlet has continuously done for the past three centuries. The underlying meaning of the drama may be totally obscure, but that there is one, and one which touches on problems of vital interest to the human heart, is empirically demonstrated by the uniform success with which the drama appeals to the most diverse audiences. To hold the contrary is to deny all the canons of dramatic art accepted since the time of Aristotle. Hamlet as a masterpiece stands or falls by these canons. We are compelled then to take the position that there is some cause for Hamlet’s vacillation which has not yet been fathomed. If this lies neither in his incapacity for action in general, nor in the inordinate difficulty of the task in question, then it must of necessity lie in the third possibility, namely in some special feature of the task that renders it repugnant to him. This conclusion, that Hamlet at heart does not want to carry out the task, seems so obvious that it is hard to see how any critical reader of the play could avoid making it…. It may be asked: why has the poet not put in a clearer light the mental trend we are trying to discover? Strange as it may appear, the answer is the same as in the case of Hamlet himself, namely, he could not, because he was unaware of its nature. We shall later deal with this matter in connection with the relation of the poet to the play. But, if the motive of the play is so obscure, to what can we attribute its powerful effect on the audience? This can only be because the hero’s conflict finds its echo in a similar inner conflict in the mind of the hearer, and the more intense is this already present conflict the greater is the effect of the drama. Again, the hearer himself does not know the inner cause of the conflict in his mind, but experiences only the outer manifestations of it. We thus reach the apparent paradox that the hero, the poet, and the audience are all profoundly moved by feelings due to a conflict of the source of which they are unaware [emphasis added]. The extensive experience of the psycho-analytic researches carried out by Freud and his school during the past twenty years has amply demonstrated that certain kinds of mental processes shew a greater tendency to be “repressed” ( verdrangt ) than others. In other words, it is harder for a person to own to himself the existence in his mind of some mental trends than it is of others. In order to gain a correct perspective it is therefore desirable briefly to enquire into the relative frequency with which various sets of mental processes are “repressed.” One might in this connection venture the generalisation that those processes are most likely to be “repressed” by the individual which are most disapproved of by the particular circle of society to whose influence he bas chiefly been subjected. Biologically stated, this law would run: ”That which is inacceptable to the herd becomes inacceptable to the individual unit,” it being understood that the term herd is intended in the sense of the particular circle above defined, which is by no means necessarily the community at large. It is for this reason that moral, social, ethical or religious influences are hardly ever ”repressed,” for as the individual originally received them from his herd, they can never come into conflict with the dicta of the latter. This merely says that a man cannot be ashamed of that which he respects; the apparent exceptions to this need not here be explained. The contrary is equally true, namely that mental trends “repressed” by the individual are those least acceptable to his herd; they are, therefore, those which are, curiously enough, distinguished as “natural” instincts, as contrasted with secondarily acquired mental trends. It only remains to add the obvious corollary that, as the herd unquestionably selects from the “natural” instincts the sexual ones on which to lay its heaviest ban, so is it the various psycho-sexual trends that most often are “repressed” by the individual. We have here an explanation of the clinical experience that the more intense and the more obscure is a given case of deep mental conflict the more certainly will it be found, on adequate analysis, to centre about a sexual problem. On the surface, of course, this does not appear so, for, by means of various psychological defensive mechanisms, the depression, doubt, and other manifestations of the conflict are transferred on to more acceptable subjects, such as the problems of immortality, future of the world, salvation of the soul, and so on. Bearing these considerations in mind, let us return to Hamlet. It should now be evident that the conflict hypotheses above mentioned, which see Hamlet’s “natural” instinct for revenge inhibited by an unconscious misgiving of a highly ethical kind, are based on ignorance of what actually happens in real life, for misgivings of this kind are in fact readily accessible to introspection. Hamlet’s self-study would speedily have made him conscious of any such ethical misgivings, and although he might subsequently have ignored them, it would almost certainly have been by the aid of a process of rationalization which would have enabled him to deceive himself into believing that such misgivings were really ill founded; he would in any case have remained conscious of the nature of them. We must therefore invert these hypotheses, and realise that the positive striving for revenge was to him the moral and social one, and that the suppressed negative striving against revenge arose in some hidden source connected with his more personal, “natural” instincts. The former striving has already been considered, and indeed is manifest in every speech in which Hamlet debates the matter; the second is, from its nature, more obscure and has next to be investigated. This is perhaps most easily done by inquiring more intently into Hamlet’s precise attitude towards the object of his vengeance, Claudius, and towards the crimes that have to be avenged. These are two, Claudius’ incest with the Queen, and his murder of his brother. It is of great importance to note the fundamental difference in Hamlet’s attitude towards these two crimes. Intellectually of course he abhors both, but there can be no question as to which arouses in him the deeper loathing. Whereas the murder of his father evokes in him indignation, and a plain recognition of his obvious duty to avenge it, his mother’s guilty conduct awakes in him the intensest horror. Now, in trying to define Hamlet’s attitude towards his uncle we have to guard against assuming offhand that this is a simple one of mere execration, for there is a possibility of complexity arising in the following way: The uncle has not merely committed each crime, he has committed both crimes, a distinction of considerable importance, for the combination of crimes allows the admittance of a new factor, produced by the possible inter-relation of the two, which prevents the result from being simply one of summation. In addition it has to be borne in mind that the perpetrator of the crimes is a relative, and an exceedingly near relative. The possible inter-relation of the crimes, and the fact that the author of them is an actual member of the family on which they were perpetrated, gives scope for a confusion in their influence on Hamlet’s mind that may be the cause of the very obscurity we are seeking to clarify.

Introduction to “Ophelia’s Desire” by James Marino (2017)

Every great theory is founded on a problem it cannot solve. For psychoanalytic criticism, that problem is Ophelia. Sigmund Freud’s Oedipal reading of Hamlet , mutually constitutive with his reading of Oedipus Rex , initiates the project of Freudian literary interpretation. But that reading must, by its most basic logic, displace Ophelia and render her an anomaly. If the Queen is Hamlet’s primary erotic object, why does he have another love interest? Why such a specific and unusual love interest? The answer that Freud and his disciples offer is that Hamlet’s expressions of love or rage toward Ophelia are displace-ments of his cathexis on the queen. That argument is tautological—one might as easily say that Hamlet displaces his cathected frustration with Ophelia onto the Queen—and requires that some evidence from the text be ignored—“No, good mother,” Hamlet tells the Queen, “here’s metal more attractive”—but the idea of the Queen as Hamlet’s primary affective object remains a standard orthodoxy, common even in feminist Freudians’ readings of Hamlet . Janet Adelman’s Suffocating Mothers , for example, takes the mother-son dyad as central, while Julia Reinhard Lupton and Kenneth Reinhard highlight the symbolic condensation of Ophelia with the Queen. The argument for Ophelia as substitute object may reach its apotheosis in Jacques Lacan’s famous essay on Hamlet, which begins with “that piece of bait named Ophelia” only to use her as an example of Hamlet’s estrangement from his own desire. Margreta de Grazia’s “Hamlet” without Hamlet has illuminated how the romantic tradition of Hamlet criticism, from which Freud’s own Hamlet criticism derives, focuses on Hamlet’s psychology at the expense of the play’s other characters, who are reduced to figures in the Prince’s individual psychomachia. While psychoanalytic reading objectifies all of Hamlet ’s supporting characters, Ophelia is not even allowed to be an object in her own right. Insistently demoted to a secondary or surrogate object, Ophelia becomes mysteriously super-fluous, like a symptom unconnected from its cause. Ophelia is the foundational problem, the nagging flaw in psychoanalytic criticism’s cornerstone. The play becomes very different if Ophelia is decoupled from the Queen and read as an independent and structurally central character, as a primary object of desire, and even as a desiring subject in her own right. I do not mean to describe the character as a real person, with a fully human psychology; Ophelia is a fiction, constructed from intersecting and contradicting generic expectations. But in those generic terms Ophelia is startlingly unusual, indeed unique, in ways that psychoanalytic criticism has been reluctant to recognize. If stage characters become individuated to the extent that they deviate from established convention, acting against type, then Ophelia is one of William Shakespeare’s most richly individual heroines. And if Shakespeare creates the illusion of interiority, or invites his audience to collaborate in that illusion, by withholding easy explanations of motive, Ophelia’s inner life is rich with mystery. Attention to the elements of Ophelia’s character that psychoanalytic readings resist or repress illuminates the deeper fantasies shaping psychoanalytic discourse. The literary dreams underpinning psychoanalysis are neither simply to be debunked nor to be reconstituted, but to be analyzed. If, as the debates over psychoanalysis over the last three decades have shown, much of Freudian thinking is not science, then it is fantasy; and fantasy, as Freud himself teaches, rewards strict attention. Ophelia, rightly attended, may tell us something about Hamlet, and about Hamlet, that critics have not always wished to know. To see Ophelia clearly would also make it clear how closely Hamlet resembles her and how faithfully his tragic arc follows hers.

Beyond Freud: Applying Psychological Theories to Literary Texts

Fortunately, we are not limited to Freud when we engage in psychological criticism. We can choose any psychological theory. Here are just a few you might consider:

• Carl Jung’s archetypes: humans have a collective unconscious that includes universal archetypes such as the shadow, the persona, and the anima/us.
• B.F. Skinner’s behaviorism: all behaviors are learned through conditioning.
• Jacques Lacan’s conception of the real, the imaginary, and the symbolic.
• Erik Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development: describes the effects of social development across a person’s lifespan.
• Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory of moral development: explains how people develop moral reasoning.
• Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs: people’s basic needs need to be met before they can pursue more advanced emotional and intellectual needs.
• Elisabeth Kübler-Ross’ s five stages of grief: a framework for understanding loss.
• Mamie Phipps Clark and Kenneth Bancroft Clark’s work on internalized racism.
• Derald Wing Sue and David Sue’s work with Indigenous spiritual frameworks and mental health.

It’s important to differentiate this type of criticism from looking at “mental health” or considering how the poem affects our emotions. When we are exploring how a poem makes us feel, this is subjective reader response, not psychological criticism. Psychological criticism involves analyzing a literary work through the lens of a psychological theory, exploring characters’ motivations, behaviors, and the author’s psychological influences. Here are a few approaches you might take to apply psychological criticism to a text:

• Psychological Theories: Familiarize yourself with the basics of key psychological theories, such as Freudian psychoanalysis, Jungian archetypes, or cognitive psychology. This knowledge provides a foundation for interpreting characters and their actions. It’s best to choose one particular theory to use in your analysis.
• Author’s Background: Research the author’s life and background. Explore how their personal experiences, relationships, and psychological state might have influenced the creation of characters or the overall themes of the text. Also consider what unconscious desires or fears might be present in the text. How can the text serve as a window to the author’s mind? The fictional novel  Hamnet  by Maggie O’Farrell uses the text of  Hamlet  along with the few facts that are known about Shakespeare’s life to consider how the play could be read as an expression of the author’s grief at losing his 11-year-old son.
• Character Analysis: Examine characters’ personalities, motivations, and conflicts. Consider how their experiences, desires, and fears influence their actions within the narrative. Look for signs of psychological trauma, defense mechanisms, or unconscious desires. You can see an example of this in the two literary articles above, where the authors consider Hamlet’s and Ophelia’s motivations and conflicts.
• Symbolism and Imagery: Analyze symbols and imagery in the text. Understand how these elements may represent psychological concepts or emotions. For example, a recurring symbol might represent a character’s repressed desires or fears.
• Themes and Motifs: Identify recurring themes and motifs. Explore how these elements reflect psychological concepts or theories. For instance, a theme of isolation might be analyzed in terms of its impact on characters’ mental states. An example of a motif in Hamlet would be the recurring ghost.
• Archetypal Analysis: Jungian analysis is one of my personal favorite approaches to take to texts. You can apply archetypal psychology to identify universal symbols or patterns in characters. Carl Jung’s archetypes , such as the persona, shadow, or anima/animus, can provide insights into the deeper layers of character development.
• Psychological Trajectories: Trace the psychological development of characters throughout the narrative. Identify key moments or events that shape their personalities and behaviors. Consider how these trajectories contribute to the overall psychological impact of the text.
• Psychoanalytic Concepts: If relevant, apply psychoanalytic concepts such as id, ego, and superego . Explore how characters navigate internal conflicts or succumb to unconscious desires. Freudian analysis can uncover hidden motivations and tensions.

Because psychological criticism involves interpretation, there may be multiple valid perspectives on a single text. When using this critical method, I recommend focusing on a single psychological approach (e.g. choose Freud or Jung; don’t try to do both).

Let’s practice with Emily Dickinson’s poem “A Narrow Fellow in the Grass,” using Freud’s psychoanalytic theories as our psychological approach. Read the poem first, then use the questions below to guide your interpretation of the poem.

A Narrow Fellow in the Grass* (1865)

BY  EMILY DICKINSON

A narrow fellow in the grass Occasionally rides: You may have met him, —did you not, His notice sudden is.

The grass divides as with a comb, A spotted shaft is seen; And then it closes at your feet And opens further on.

He likes a boggy acre. A floor too cool for corn. Yet when a child, and barefoot, I more than once, at morn,

Have passed, I thought, a whip-lash Unbraiding in the Sun.— When, stooping to secure it, It wrinkled, and was gone.

Several of nature’s people I know, and they know me; I feel for them a transport Of cordiality;

But never met this fellow, Attended or alone, Without a tighter breathing, And zero at the bone.

*I’ve used the “corrected” version published in 1865. Here is a link to the transcribed version from the original manuscript.

Here are a few questions to consider as you apply Freudian psychoanalysis to the poem.

• Imagery and Motifs: This poem is one of just 10 Emily Dickinson poems published during her lifetime. The editor chose a different title for the poem: “The Snake” .  How does adding this title change the reader’s experience with the poem? Which words in the poem seem odd in the context of this title? In a Freudian reading of the poem, what would the snake (if it is a snake) represent?
• Repression and Symbolism: How might the “narrow Fellow in the Grass” symbolize repressed desires or memories in the speaker’s subconscious? What elements in the poem suggest a hidden, perhaps uncomfortable, aspect of the speaker’s psyche?
• Penis Envy: In Freudian theory, penis envy refers to a girl’s desire for male genitalia. How does this concept apply to the poem? Dickinson’s handwritten version of the poem says “boy” instead of “child” in line 11. How does this change impact how we read the poem?
• Unconscious Fears and Anxiety (Zero at the Bone): The closing lines mention a “tighter Breathing” and feeling “Zero at the Bone.” How can Freud’s ideas about the unconscious and anxiety be applied here? What might the encounter with the Fellow reveal about the speaker’s hidden fears or anxieties, and how does it impact the speaker on a deep, unconscious level?
• Punctuation:  The manuscript versions of this poem do not use normal punctuation conventions. Instead, the author uses a dash. How does this change our reading of the poem? What does her use of dashes imply about her psychological state?

As with New Historicism, you’ll need to do some research and cite a source for the psychological theory you apply. Introduce the psychological theory, then use it to analyze the poem. Make sure to support your analysis with specific textual evidence from the poem. Use line numbers to refer to specific parts of the text.

You’ll want to come up with a thesis statement that you can support with the evidence you’ve found.

Freudian Analysis Thesis Statement: In Emily Dickinson’s poem “A Narrow Fellow in the Grass,” the encounter with a snake serves as a symbolic manifestation of repressed desires, unconscious fears, and penis envy, offering a Freudian exploration of the complex interplay between the conscious and unconscious mind.

How would this thesis statement be different if you had chosen a different approach–for example, Erik Erikson’s theory of child development? How does this analysis differ from a New Criticism approach? Do you think that a Freudian approach is useful in helping readers to appreciate this poem?

The Limitations of Psychological Criticism

While psychological criticism provides valuable insights into the human psyche and enriches our understanding of literary works, it also has its limitations. Here are a few:

• Subjectivity: Psychological interpretations often rely on subjective analysis, as different readers may perceive and interpret psychological elements in a text differently. The lack of objective criteria can make it challenging to establish a universally accepted interpretation. However, using an established psychological theory can help to address this concern.
• Authorial Intent: Inferring an author’s psychological state or intentions based on their work can be speculative. Without direct evidence from the author about their psychological motivations, interpretations may be subjective and open to debate.
• Overemphasis on Individual Psychology: Psychological criticism may focus heavily on individual psychology and neglect broader social, cultural, or historical contexts that also influence literature. This narrow focus may oversimplify the complexity of human experience.
• Stereotyping Characters: Applying psychological theories to characters may lead to oversimplified or stereotypical portrayals. Characters might be reduced to representing specific psychological concepts, overlooking their multifaceted nature. Consider the scholarly readings above and how Ophelia has traditionally been read as an accessory to Hamlet rather than as a fully developed character in her own right.
• Neglect of Formal Elements: Psychological criticism may sometimes neglect formal elements of a text, such as structure, style, and language, in favor of exploring psychological aspects. This oversight can limit a comprehensive understanding of the literary work.
• Inconsistency in Psychoanalytic Theories: Different psychoanalytic theories exist, and scholars may apply competing frameworks, leading to inconsistent interpretations. For example, a Freudian interpretation may differ significantly from a Jungian analysis.
• Exclusion of Reader Response: While psychological criticism often explores the author’s psyche, it may not give sufficient attention to the diverse psychological responses of readers. The reader’s own psychology and experiences contribute to the meaning derived from a text. In formal literary criticism, as we noted above, this type of approach is considered to be subjective reader response, but it might be an interesting area of inquiry that is traditionally excluded from psychological criticism approaches.
• Neglect of Positive Aspects: Psychological criticism may sometimes focus too much on negative or pathological aspects of characters, overlooking positive psychological dimensions and the potential for growth and redemption within the narrative (we care a lot more about what’s  wrong with Hamlet than what’s right with him).

Acknowledging these limitations helps balance the use of psychological criticism with other literary approaches, fostering a more comprehensive understanding of a literary work.

Psychological Criticism Scholars

There is considerable overlap in psychological criticism scholarship. With this type of approach, some psychologists/psychiatrists use literary texts to demonstrate or explicate psychological theories, while some literary scholars use psychological theories to interpret works. Here are a few better-known literary scholars who practice this type of criticism:

• Sigmund Freud, who used Greek literature to develop his theories about the psyche
• Carl Jung, whose ideas of the archetypes are fascinating
• Alfred Adler, a student of Freud’s who particularly focused on literature and psychoanalysis
• Jacques Lacan, a French psychoanalyst whose ideas of the real, the imaginary, and the symbolic provide interesting insights into literary texts.

Further Reading

• Adler, Alfred.  The Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler . Ed. Heinz and Rowena R. Ansbacher. New York: Anchor Books, 1978. Print.
• Çakırtaş, Önder, ed.  Literature and Psychology: Writing, Trauma and the Self . Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2018.
• Eagleton, Terry. “Psychoanalysis.”  Literary Theory: An Introduction . Minneapolis: U of Minnesota P, 1983. 151-193. Print
• Freud. Sigmund.  The Ego and the Id.  https://www.sas.upenn.edu/~cavitch/pdf-library/Freud_SE_Ego_Id_complete.pdf  Accessed 31 Oct. 2023. – A General Introduction to Psychoanalysis. Project Gutenberg eBook #38219.  https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/38219/pg38219.txt – The Interpretation of Dreams . 1900. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1999. https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Freud/Dreams/dreams.pdf
• Hart, F. Elizabeth (Faith Elizabeth). “The Epistemology of Cognitive Literary Studies.”  Philosophy and Literature , vol. 25 no. 2, 2001, p. 314-334.  Project MUSE ,  https://doi.org/10.1353/phl.2001.0031 .
• Ingarden, Roman, and John Fizer. “Psychologism and Psychology in Literary Scholarship.” New Literary History , vol. 5, no. 2, 1974, pp. 213–23. JSTOR , https://doi.org/10.2307/468392. Accessed 26 Oct. 2023.
• Jones, Ernest. “The Œdipus-Complex as an Explanation of Hamlet’s Mystery: A Study in Motive.” The American Journal of Psychology , vol. 21, no. 1, 1910, pp. 72–113. JSTOR , https://doi.org/10.2307/1412950 . Accessed 26 Oct. 2023.
• Knapp, John V. “New Psychologies in Literary Criticism.” Interdisciplinary Literary Studies , vol. 7, no. 2, 2006, pp. 102–21. JSTOR , http://www.jstor.org/stable/41209945 . Accessed 31 Oct. 2023.
• Marino, James J. “Ophelia’s Desire.” ELH , vol. 84, no. 4, 2017, pp. 817–39. JSTOR , https://www.jstor.org/stable/26797511 . Accessed 26 Oct. 2023.
• Willburn, David. “Reading After Freud.”  Contemporary Literary Theory.  Ed. G. Douglas Atkins and Laura Morrow. Amherst: U of Massachusetts P, 1989. 158-179.
• Shupe, Donald R. “Representation versus Detection as a Model for Psychological Criticism.” The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism , vol. 34, no. 4, 1976, pp. 431–40. JSTOR , https://doi.org/10.2307/430577 . Accessed 31 Oct. 2023.
• Zizek, Slavoj.  How to Read Lacan.  New York: Norton, 2007.

Critical Worlds Copyright © 2024 by Liza Long is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Cognitive, Cognitive Behavioral, and Reality Theory

This essay about the practical applications of Cognitive Theory, Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), and Reality Theory discusses how these psychological frameworks can influence everyday life. It explains that Cognitive Theory involves understanding how our internal dialogues shape our emotions and behaviors, highlighting the importance of perception in emotional response. CBT is presented as a method to actively change harmful thought patterns and adopt a problem-solving perspective, particularly useful for addressing issues like low self-esteem. Reality Theory is explored for its focus on personal choice and responsibility, emphasizing that our internal choices can dictate our happiness and fulfillment, regardless of external circumstances. The essay demonstrates how integrating these theories into daily practice can enhance personal development, improve mental health, and empower individuals to manage life’s challenges with greater control and optimism.

How it works

Psychological theories often seem abstract, but their applications can be vividly seen in everyday contexts—from the workplace to personal relationships. Here, we examine how Cognitive Theory, Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), and Reality Theory provide actionable insights that can transform our daily interactions and self-perceptions.

Cognitive Theory explains how our internal narratives shape our emotional responses and behaviors. It suggests that the stories we tell ourselves about our experiences deeply influence our reactions. For instance, viewing a work presentation as a potential disaster can pre-program feelings of anxiety and dread, whereas seeing it as an opportunity might inspire confidence and enthusiasm.

This theory illuminates the power of perception and invites us to sculpt our inner monologues to foster more positive outcomes.

Expanding on this foundation, Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) offers a hands-on approach to managing psychological stressors. It teaches strategies to reshape detrimental thought patterns and encourages a problem-solving attitude towards challenges. If someone struggles with low self-esteem due to negative self-talk, CBT techniques can help rewrite those internal criticisms into supportive affirmations, significantly altering emotional wellbeing and behavior.

Reality Theory adds another layer, emphasizing personal choice and responsibility in crafting our lived experiences. It champions the idea that, despite external circumstances, our internal choices dictate our happiness and fulfillment. This approach can be particularly empowering in environments we cannot change, prompting us to focus on what we can control—our responses and attitudes.

When these theories are woven into the fabric of daily life, they offer a robust toolkit for personal development and mental health management. From enhancing communication in relationships to fostering resilience against life’s ups and downs, the principles of Cognitive Theory, CBT, and Reality Theory are not just academic; they are profoundly practical.

Together, these theories challenge us to master our mental processes to lead lives that are not only reactive to external events but also shaped by deliberate, internal choices. They encourage a proactive approach to mental health and personal success, providing a psychological roadmap for anyone looking to navigate the complexities of life with greater agency and satisfaction.

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Psychological Theories, Essay Example

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Sigmund Freud and Burrhus Skinner have developed psychological theories, which support the idea that there was a certain connection between the environment people live in and crimes. Sigmund Freud believed that those people who do not receive enough love and attention from their parents usually become criminals. Burrhus Skinner thought, “criminal behavior was acquired and retained if people experience rewards from it, and it is abandoned if they experience punishments”. (Law Library, 2009) Based on Freud’s and Skinner’s works, several theories have been developed that people with mental illnesses or psychological disorders are disposed to committing crimes.

These theories had certain influence on criminology in 1960s as mentally ill people were put to prison if the special committee decided that whey were dangerous. Though the situation has changed a lot, mental disorders are considered to be weighty argument to isolate person. “It is not entirely clear whether this personality disorder is a cause of crime or whether the term “antisocial personality disorder” is just a fancy label that psychiatrists use to describe people who are criminals.” (Law Library, 2009) However, there is enough evidence to state that psychological theories have certain influence in contemporary criminology.

Law Library. (2009). Criminology: Intellectual History – Psychological Theories. Retrieved May 8, 2009 from http:/ /law.jrank.org/pages/912/Criminology-Intellectual-History-Psychological-theories.html.

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Psychological Theory Essay

— the scientific study of human behavior and mental processes — attempts to uncover why and how we do what we do. Different theories of psychology govern how different psychologists approach research into human behavior. Each of the following grand theories provides an overarching framework within which most psychological research is conducted. Each of these theories has a different point of emphasis when approaching the core psychological questions of why, how, and what. A lot of research and theory is based on one or more of these grand theories: •Biological: Focuses on the biological underpinnings of behavior and the effects of evolution and genetics. The premise is that behavior and mental processes can be explained by understanding human physiology and anatomy. Biological psychologists focus mostly on the brain and the nervous system. •Psychoanalytic: Emphasizes the importance of unconscious mental processes and early child-development issues as they relate to childish impulses, childish wishes, immature desires, and the demands of reality. •Behaviorism: Emphasizes the role of previous learning experiences in shaping behavior. Behaviorists don't traditionally focus on mental processes because they believe that mental processes are too difficult to observe and measure objectively. Behaviorism is involved in the ongoing controversy of the influence of television and videogame violence on children. •Cognitive: Focuses on the mental processing of information, including the specific functions of reasoning, problem solving, and memory. Cognitive psychologists are interested in the mental plans and thoughts that guide and cause behavior. •Humanistic and existential: Emphasize the uniqueness of each individual person and our ability and responsibility to make choices in our lives. Humanists believe that a person's free choice, free will, and understanding of the meaning of events in his or her life are the most important things to study. •Sociocultural: Focuses on the social and cultural factors that affect our behavior. The Show More

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Essay about Psychology Theories

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I chose Gestalt Psychology for my first perspective, it is how people experience objects and perceive things as a whole. Gestalt allows us to look at everyday objects and distinguish them from their surroundings. Without the Gestalt Theory people would see every atom that made up a whole object. As I look at my computer screen, I do not see every little atom, I see the screen as a whole. From this perspective, learning objects as a whole instead of each individual part is beneficial because it allows us to open our minds for new learning experiences. However, there may be things in life that do not provide enough visual clues to determine what it is supposed to be. The Functionalist Theory is based on behavior and mental life. It …show more content…

This allows us to be able to avoid waling into a hole or hitting our head on a door. Humanistic Personality Theory is more of a behavioral theory. I can say they both deal with the “here and now” issues though. The Functionalist Theory however is associated with the Humanistic Personality Theory because they are both behavioral and mental theories. Functionalism is based on experiences and how it affects our current behavior. With the Humanistic Theory and its beliefs of dealing with the present functionalism allows you to retrieve memories to help you make your decision. I believe that functionalism also contributes to self worth. My whole life I have been achieving accomplishments, whether big or small, and it gives me a self worth to look back at all of them. “Cognitive theory is focused on the individual's thoughts as the determinate of his or her emotions and behaviors and therefore personality. Many cognitive theorists believe that without these thought processes, we could have no emotions and no behavior and would therefore not function. In other words, thoughts always come before any feeling and before any action.” ("Cognitive theory in," 2004) Cognitive theory could have an effect on Gestalt Psychology because if a person has a learning disorder is can change how they perceive things. They may not be able to distinguish every day objects for what they truly are. My six year old cousin has down syndrome.

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Psychology of Personality: Theories Essay

Introduction.

Individuals convey different psychological lives depending on their environment, social status, among other factors. Nonetheless, just a few psychological behaviors are noticed easily. These include personality, among others. Personality defines the whole mental organization of humans at every stage of their development.

In this regard, various theorists, psychologists and psycho-socialists, as well as psychoanalysts have proposed several theories that they feel describe human behavior and personality. These theorists include Freud, Fromm, Erickson, Bandura, Skinner, Allport, and Rogers, among others. The theories they postulated include psychosexual theory, which was done by Freud and psychosocial theory, which was proposed by Erickson.

Others include behavioral analysis, by Skinner, Bandura’s social cognitive analysis, Allport’s ideas of the psychologically healthy personality, Adler’s Individual Psychology, Rogers’ “person of tomorrow” and Fromm’s Humanistic Psychoanalysis. Some of these theories are complex to understand as they sometimes vary in results depending on the individual. This paper will explore the similarities and differences of pairs of these theories as well as my views on them (Feist & Feist, 2009, p. 12-67).

Psychology of personality

Personality psychology is usually defined in terms of mental system of an individual. Moreover, the primary concern of personality is on the most noticeable parts of human’s psychological life. The noticeable parts of an individual form its main elements. Several definitions have come up to describe personality psychology. Most of these have mainly focused on the mental state of individuals. They try to bring out a description of the overall mental system or organization.

It may therefore refer to the complete organization of mentality of an individual at any stage of his/her development. It forms the sense of being human. Every individual conveys some form of personality. Among those usually shown concerns people who are sad or happy, dull or smart, and apathetic or energetic, among others. In essence, personality concerns itself with the pattern of operation of mental systems in individuals (Feist & Feist, 2009, p. 12-67).

Freud’s psychosexual theory of personality versus Erikson’s psychosocial theory of personality

Freud postulated his theory on psychosexual development with emphasis on people as pleasure seekers. According to him, people come into the world as seekers of pleasure. He points out that these pleasures are sought from erogenous zones. The zones are wide and require further categorization.

He categorizes the theory of psychosexual development into two ideas. These are the fact that one’s childhood experiences determines his future, that is a child’s first few years determines his whole life. This is mainly because the childhood experiences act as a blueprint to future functions. In addition he talks of the fact that development gives a story of how individuals can handle impulses that are antisocial through ways that are sociable. These are categorized in fixation and reaction formation (Feist & Feist, 2009, p. 12-67).

Freud’s psychosexual theory of personality

Freud states that people come into the world to seek pleasure. He proposed 5 stages of development, which he felt that people go through, even though he also stated that most people ended up tied to one stage of development than others. The stages of development he gives for this are the oral stage, Anal, Phallic, latency and genital.

The oral stage occurs between birth and one year. In this stage, one may get frustrated at waiting on others or depending on them. A fixation at this state would mean extreme use of oral stimulation. These may include excessive drinking, cigarettes, among others.

The second stage is Anal, which occurs between two to three years. Children are introduced to rules that they are to follow as well as regulations. Libido is therefore focused anally, leading to stinginess, messiness, or stubbornness, among others. These results are only achieved when one remains fixated at this stage. The third stage (phallic) starts between 4-5 years and is characterized with boys’ sexual desire for their mothers, combined with fear of the father’s suspicion and punishment.

This phase of phallic stage is known as Oedipus conflict. It is then followed by castration anxiety. In this phase, the boy ends up renouncing his sexual feelings for his mother for fear of punishment by his father. He then becomes the father’s friend and hopes to have relations with a woman like his father, some day (Feist & Feist, 2009, p. 12-67).

For girls, it is slightly different in the phallic stage, this is because they develop desire for penis and thinks that their mothers are penis less and therefore unworthy. However, just as the boys renounce their desire for mothers, girls also renounce their desire for fathers. The fourth stage is Latency, which starts from about age 7 to puberty. The stage is also known as a period of rest as there is no significant developmental occurrences.

The fifth and last, involves genital developments, which starts at puberty. The child begins to utilize the roles of libido and genitals. However, these feelings act as a source of anxiety since they remind them of feelings for their parents in earlier stages (Feist & Feist, 2009, p. 12-67).

Erikson’s psychosocial theory of personality

Erickson provided one of the best known stages of development in personality psychology. His main emphasis is on ego identity which is identified as a sense of self awareness. In this regard, Erickson postulates eight stages of development. These are majorly on conflicts. They include Trust vs. mistrust, Autonomy vs. Doubt and shame, Inferiority vs. industry, confusion vs. identity, isolation vs. intimacy, stagnation vs. generativity and integrity vs. Despair (Feist & Feist, 2009, p. 12-67).

Similarities

The two theorists have several similarities. These include the fact that just like Freud, Erickson believed that personality involves several stages of development (Feist & Feist, 2009, p. 12-67).

Differences

The two theories also have points of divergence. For instance, Freud speaks of 5 stages of development while Erickson talks of 8 stages of development (Feist & Feist, 2009, p. 12-67).

Skinner’s Behavioral analysis versus Bandura’s social cognitive theory

Skinner was one of the pioneers of behavioral analysis in his time. He spent his time on physiology and emphasized the need for experimental results as opposed to observation of phenomena studied. He therefore placed much of his behavioral analysis methods on control of experimental variables.

On the other hand, Bandura emphasizes on observation learning in his concept of social cognitive approach. He puts more efforts on the social origins of individual’s behavior. In addition to this, he considers the contributions to this behavior that arises from cognitive thought.

His theory on social cognitive approach diverges from the common theories that usually associate cognitive factors with human functioning. These theories usually convey cognitive factors to function in the absence of direct enforcement. Enforcement of laws and regulations in a society as well as punishment of those who violate it proves more relevant to performance than acquisition according to Bandura (Feist & Feist, 2009, p. 12-67).

Skinner’s Behavioral analysis

Skinner emphasized on control of experimental variables as opposed to observation of phenomenon. Through this, he was able to device apparatus that could control some specific behaviors of rats. Skinner was also able to distinguish his method of behavioral analysis from stimulus response postulated by Pavlov.

This he did by first acknowledging Pavlov’s work and then emphasizing on operant conditioning. In addition, Skinner tried his best to use his theories on making a better world. In this, he used his theory on operant technique the emphasized positive reinforcement (Feist & Feist, 2009, p. 12-67).

Bandura’s social cognitive theory

Bandura emphasizes on observation learning in his concept of social cognitive approach. He puts more efforts on the social origins of individual’s behavior. In addition to this, he considers the contributions to this behavior that arises from cognitive thought. His theory on social cognitive approach diverges from the common theories that usually associate cognitive factors with human functioning.

These theories usually convey cognitive factors to function in the absence of direct enforcement. Enforcement of laws and regulations in a society as well as punishment of those who violate it proves more relevant to performance than acquisition according to Bandura (Feist & Feist, 2009, p. 12-67).

Both theories of Bandura and Skinner dismiss performance through simple observation learning and instead focus on control as in Skinner’s theory and reinforcements as in Bandera’s theory (Feist & Feist, 2009, p. 12-67).

While Bandura emphasizes on enforcements such as laws to achieve performance and in the process utilize his approach of social cognitive theory, Skinner emphasizes on control of experimental variables behavioral analysis (Feist & Feist, 2009, p. 12-67).

Allport’s ideas of the psychologically healthy personality versus Rogers’ “person of tomorrow”

Gordon Allport’s main point of emphasis was on the uniqueness of every individual. He therefore used this to develop his theory of personality that stressed on making a psychologically healthy personality. To achieve this, he had to differ with other theorists, especially those who professed non-humanistic positions.

However, Allport also acknowledged other theorists by accepting a number of them. Rogers, on the other hand, is widely known for his client-centered therapy. He came up with a format if/then which je used in developing his theory (Feist & Feist, 2009, p. 12-67).

Allport’s ideas of the psychologically healthy personality

The main point of emphasis for Allport was on the uniqueness of every individual. He therefore used this to develop his theory of personality that stressed on making a psychologically healthy personality. In his theory of a psychologically healthy personality, Allport believed that these individuals (with psychologically healthy personality) were motivated by present. This is the commonly conscious drive. In addition, he believed that these individuals sought to reduce tensions as well as renew them.

Allport also believed that individuals were capable of conveying proactive behavior. This implied that people can behave in new and creative ways that may be instrumental in shaping their growth and subsequent changes. His theory differs with the traditional nomothetic science. He therefore defines personality as a vibrant association within a person. The structures of personality as entailed by Allport are personality proprium and dispositions.

In his theory, the source of motivation for psychologically healthy personality is out of their need to fit into the new environment. They are therefore very likely to engage in the following proactive behaviors: insight and humor, realistic view of surrounding, extension of self-sense, self-acceptance, unifying philosophy of life as well as warm relationships with neighbors or other individuals (Feist & Feist, 2009, p. 12-67).

Rogers’ “person of tomorrow”

Rogers, on the other hand, is widely known for his client-centered therapy. He came up with a format if/then which je used in developing his theory. He used his client-centered format to develop a person centered theory which emphasized on personality issues. The theory depends on two assumptions.

These are actualizing tendency as well as formative tendency. He believes that individuals have the capacity to grow and change, but only if certain favorable conditions are met. The theory therefore relies on optimism and encourages free choice, conscious motivation and uniqueness of persons, among others (Feist & Feist, 2009, p. 12-67).

The two theorists emphasize uniqueness of individuals when their methods are well followed. The two theories also focus on motivation which is essential in personality development (Feist & Feist, 2009, p. 12-67).

Rogers used his if/then format, which is client centered, to develop personality, while Allport emphasizes on Morphogenic Science to develop his theory. The format used by the two theorists differs widely on their research (Feist & Feist, 2009, p. 12-67).

View of personality development using Adler’s Individual Psychology and Fromm’s Humanistic Psychoanalysis

Adler’s individual psychology.

Adler developed theories on birth order. He believed that the order of birth in families affected children’s personality. In this regard, he holds that first-borns undergo more problems than the rest of the children. This, according to him, is due to the sudden change in attention, after considerable pampering, when the other siblings arrive.

He also believes that the middle born children tend to have it easy as they have the luxury of trying to achieve superiority over their elders as well as remaining well above their younger siblings. The last born, on the other hand, is likely to experience major personality problems, according to Adler. This is because they get more pampering than even the oldest children do. They are therefore significantly inferior to their siblings and unprepared to face the problems of the world (Feist & Feist, 2009, p. 12-67).

• Fromm’s Humanistic Psychoanalysis

Fromm describes three methods that would assist an individual to escape from freedom. These are Authoritarianism, destructiveness and Automaton conformity. Fromm explains that freedom forms the greatest problems to majority of people. He also believes that freedom comes with inability to gain authority as well as an overwhelming loneliness. According to him, people employ different methods of alleviating anxiety, which may be directly linked to their opinion of freedom.

These include individualization, destructiveness, conformity and automaton as well as authoritarianism. In authoritarianism, people tend to submit to entities that they believe are greater than them to escape freedom. They may also make themselves authoritative over those who, in their opinion are enemies. These authorities may be religious, political, or social leaders or beliefs (Feist & Feist, 2009, p. 12-67).

View of personality development

These theories are important in establishing the forces that drive individuals. For instance, Fromm, talks of our need to escape from freedom, which leads to anxiety and loneliness. He also talks of the techniques we employ to help us manage these problems. These include destructiveness, automaton conformity, as well as authoritarianism.

In concluding, he states that people should embrace freedom, as this is the only healthy way of dealing with their problems as well as attaining individuality. This is quite important in encouraging the world to be original and unique in their activities. This will make them poses the highly needed individuality. Adler, on the other hand, talks of the drive or motivational force on individuals.

He then explains that those who desire to be important people in society feel so out of inferiority in their respective desires. If this problem exceeds, one may experience inferiority complex, which is a complete opposite of striving for superiority. This theory applies to individuals who know their drives; the knowledge of what drives an individual helps him /her manage the goals. It also helps save people from developing inferiority complex due to unattainable objectives (Feist & Feist, 2009, p. 12-67).

Several theories have been brought forward to explain psychology of personality. These include individual psychology and humanistic psychoanalytic, psychosexuality, among others. These theories were developed by various theorists such as Freud, Adler, Erickson, Bandura, Rogers, Allport and Fromm, among others. The paper analyses various theories on psychology of personality including similarities and differences of their pairs, as well as my views on them (Feist & Feist, 2009, p. 12-67).

Reference List

Feist, J. & Feist, G. (2009). Theories of personality (7th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.

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