essay about theories of organization

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Organization theory: modern, symbolic, and postmodern perspectives

1998, Choice Reviews Online

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auntiga punriboon

THABO MOFOKENG

Journal of Advance Management and Accounting Research

Card Publication

Organization is a relatively young science in comparison with the other scientific disciplines. (Ivanko, 2013) Accounts of the growth of organizational theory usually start with Taylor and Weber, but, as Scott (1987) mentions, organizations were present in the old civilizations which goes back to Sumerians (5000, BC) and which experiences its maturation phase with Taylor, Fayol and Weber, continuing to come up to present with modern management methods and principles. The modern organization may be the most crucial innovation of the past 100 years and it is a theory which will never complete its evolution as the human being continues to exist. Understanding how organizations work has been the focus of scientists and scholars until the early part of the 20th century. Just as organizations have evolved, so to have the theories explaining them. These theories can be divided into 9 different " schools " of thought (Shafritz, Ott, Jang, 2005): Classical Organization Theory, Neoclassical Organization Theory, Human Resource Theory, or the Organizational Behavior Perspective, Modern Structural Organization Theory, Organizational Economics Theory, Power and Politics Organization Theory, Organizational Culture Theory, Reform Though Changes in Organizational Culture and Theories of Organizations and Environments. This introductory paper will concentrate on the classical to modern structural organization theory and is divided as follows: The introduction talks about the developments of the organization and organization theory from its early stages with detailed definitions. In section 2, theoretical roots in other words literature review on the subject will be presented. At further section, by looking at the perspectives of the 29 pioneering people, main principles of the classical to modern organization theory are presented one by one. Section 4 discusses and concludes the paper.

Noida de Guzman Castro

Over the years, organization theory has advanced into a form of thinking and writing that tries to describe, explain and influence what goes on in organizations. It became increasingly diverse in terms of the perspectives that theorists use to study the important social phenomena that affect many aspects of our lives (McAuley, Duberley, & Johnson, 2007, p.2). This paper introduces the reader to organization theory by primarily considering the perspectives of formal models - the structural, systems, bureaucratic, rational, and hierarchical. The essay discusses in five parts, where I explore and critically analyse, the characteristics of the formal models and explains how each type influences human behavior, including organisational management. In doing so, I refer to other known literatures/sources. The discourse culminates with a synopsis of the communal benefits of recognising the different features of the formal models.

Anna Forest

salman rahman

Advances in Environmental Biology

saeideh seyadat

Article history: Received 25 September 2014 Received in revised form 26 October 2014 Accepted 25 November 2014 Available online 15 January 2015

The Oxford Handbook of Organization Theory

Robert Chia

This article seeks to offer a comprehensive and critical exposition of the postmodern imperative and its implications both for the understanding of organization as a theoretical object and its consequences for organization theory as an academic discipline. The central argument made here is that postmodernism must not be understood as a cynical or nihilistic tendency in contemporary thought but as a subtle and complex attempt at reworking the metaphysical bases of modern knowledge. This article begins by examining the roots of Western metaphysics and the manner in which it has shaped modern scientific thought. It then identifies the key axioms and imperatives associated with the modernist impulse. Thus, the study of dominant modes of thought, processes of individuation and identity creation, strategies of objectification and institutionalization, the development of codes of behaviour, social mannerisms, rules of law, and disciplines of knowledge form a part of this extended field of ...

International Journal of Management and Sustainability

Naveed Rehman

The theory consists of principles that describe relationships observed in association with phenomenon. The primary role of theory is to provide a description as well as explanation of the phenomenon. This means that organization theory can help us in understanding us; what is organizations, how organization behaves in a given environment and how they may behave in a different set of circumstances. The organization theory has been developed as a result of systematic study of organizations. Therefore, it has general applications to all type of organizations. It provides way of thinking about organization and managing the organizations. Organization theory deals primarily with the organization level phenomenon such as organizational change and growth, planning and design, development, politics, culture and structure. In the context of organization level phenomenon, this research study deals with effectiveness of the organization. The study is aimed to investigate the complexity of coor...

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Organization Theory

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• Description
• Aims and Scope
• Editorial Board
• Abstracting / Indexing
• Submission Guidelines

Organization Theory (OT), published in collaboration with the European Group for Organizational Studies (EGOS), is a global, peer-reviewed, open-access journal that publishes the best theory and review work in the domain of organization and management studies. Watch the Organization Theory launch video here .

Broad in Scope

OT publishes theory papers on different subjects within organization and management studies, including work within subject areas such as strategy, organizational behavior, work and employment relations, human resource management, international business, general management, public administration, entrepreneurship, creativity and innovation, ethics, and gender and diversity.

The journal offers a platform for theory development and theory-related discussions that significantly deepen our understanding of different subject areas; critiquing or deepening received views, and identifying significantly new ways of researching and understanding a particular subject.

OT is European at heart, but global in coverage and reach. The journal aims to cover and disclose to a broad audience the intellectual breadth of theoretical work on organizations and organizing that is carried out around the world.

Look to OT for the best theoretical work in each of these subject areas as well as for work that transcends the boundaries of particular subjects to speak to a broader audience.

A Range of Perspectives and Styles

OT is a multi-disciplinary journal, rooted in the social sciences, inspired by diversity and paradigmatic plurality, and open to commentary and debate.

Given this pluralistic ethos, papers can adopt different theory building styles and can be written up as research articles or perspective-taking essays, in both longer and shorter formats.

Besides regular articles, OT publishes review papers and a series of commissioned essays that speak to the bigger theoretical topics and debates in the field (see our Submission Guidelines for more details on these journal related features).

OT is an open access journal. Publication in the journal is free for authors as the article processing charge (APC) for accepted articles is waived by Sage and/or financed by EGOS.

Organization Theory  aims to promote the understanding of organizations, organizing, and the organized in and between societies, through the publication of double-blind peer-reviewed, top quality theoretical papers.

Organization Theory publishes work in all areas of organization theory, including papers that develop new substantive theories or offer theoretical extensions, papers on the history and philosophy of management and organizational theory, meta-theoretical inquiries into the core underpinnings of existing theories, critiques of theories and theoretical developments, and theory-driven reviews of important areas of research.

As a theory journal, OT does not publish papers that draw on empirical data to make data-driven theoretical claims. Such empirical papers are published in Organization Studies – another journal under the auspices of the European Group for Organizational Studies (EGOS) – and authors are encouraged to submit their empirical manuscript to this journal.

Manuscript Submission Guidelines: Organization Theory

Organization Theory (OT) publishes work in all areas of organization theory, including papers that develop new substantive theories or offer theoretical extensions, papers on the history of organization and management theory, meta-theoretical inquiries into the core underpinnings of existing theories, critiques of theories and theoretical developments, and theory-driven reviews of important areas of research.

Given the pluralistic ethos of the journal, papers that are written on a subject can take a variety of forms and lengths. Whatever the format and style in which papers are written, the general hallmark of papers published in OT is that (a) a theoretical argument is coherently developed and laid out; and in a way that (b) significantly contributes to our understanding of organizations and management. Meaningful new implications or insights for theory must be present in all work published in the journal, regardless of whether such implications or insights are derived from the development of novel ideas into new theory, from a critique of received theory, or from a conceptual synthesis of recent advances. Submissions should therefore also clearly signal and communicate the nature of their theoretical contribution in relation to the existing literature.

• Open Access
• Article processing charge (APC)
• What do we publish? 3.1 Aims & Scope 3.2 Article types 3.3 Writing your paper
• Editorial policies 4.1 Peer review policy 4.2 Authorship 4.3 Acknowledgements 4.4 Funding 4.5 Declaration of conflicting interests
• Publishing policies 5.1 Publication ethics 5.2 Contributor’s publishing agreement
• Preparing your manuscript 6.1 Formatting 6.2 Artwork, figures and other graphics 6.3 Supplemental material 6.4 Reference style 6.5 English language editing services 6.6 Identifiable Information
• Submitting your manuscript 7.1 How to submit your manuscript 7.2 Title, keywords and abstracts 7.3 ORCID 7.4 Information required for completing your submission 7.5 Permissions
• On acceptance and publication 8.1 Sage Production 8.2 Online publication 8.3 Promoting your article
• Further information
• Appealing the publication decision

OT is a member of the Committee on Publication Ethics .

Please read the guidelines below then visit the journal’s submission site https://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/ot  to upload your manuscript. Please note that manuscripts not conforming to these guidelines may be returned. Remember you can log in to the submission site at any time to check on the progress of your paper through the peer review process.

If you have any questions about publishing with Sage, please visit the  Sage Journal Solutions Portal . For any questions related to OT, please reach out to the journal’s editorial team at  [email protected] .

Only manuscripts of sufficient quality that meet the aims and scope of OT will be reviewed. As part of the submission process you will be required to warrant that you are submitting your original work, that you have the rights to the work, it is not being considered for publication elsewhere and has not already been published elsewhere, and that you have obtained and can supply all necessary permissions for the reproduction of any copyright works not owned by you.

OT may accept submissions of papers that have been posted on pre-print servers; please alert the Editorial Office when submitting (contact details are at the end of these guidelines) and include the DOI for the preprint in the designated field in the manuscript submission system. Authors should not post an updated version of their paper on the preprint server while it is being peer reviewed for possible publication in the journal. If the article is accepted for publication, the author may re-use their work according to the journal's author archiving policy.

If your paper is accepted, you must include a link on your preprint to the final version of your paper.

1. Open Access

Organization Theory is an open access, peer-reviewed journal. Each article accepted by peer review is made freely available online immediately upon publication, is published under a Creative Commons license and will be hosted online in perpetuity.

For general information on open access at Sage please visit the Open Access page or view our Open Access FAQs.

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2. Article processing charge (APC)

There are no fees payable to submit or publish in this journal.

3. What do we publish?

3.1 Aims & Scope

Before submitting your manuscript to OT, please ensure you have read the Aims & Scope .

3.2 Article types

Submissions to OT fall in three categories: regular full-length submissions (‘theory article’); review papers (‘review article’), and shorter, essay-style contributions to a debate or conversation regarding a theoretical problem or issue (‘controversies and conversations’).

Before submitting your manuscript to OT, please ensure you have read the  Aims & Scope  section.

3.2.1 Theory Article

OT publishes theory articles on different subjects within the broad domains of organizations (in their environment), processes of organizing, and the organized, including work within subject areas such as strategy, organizational behavior, work and employment relations, human resource management, international business, general management, public administration, entrepreneurship, creativity and innovation, ethics, and gender and diversity.

Submissions to OT may feature different approaches to theory development, including approaches centred on proposition development, process theorizing, or on a theoretical critique and synthesis of the existing literature.

Each submission should therefore explicitly signal its theoretical aims and position and maintain congruity with this approach throughout the paper. The openness of OT to different styles and approaches, at the same time, encourages authors to make their articles accessible to the journal’s wide-ranging readership. Whilst submissions may be focused on a particular specialized area or set of ideas, they should be written in such a way that our general readers are able to access and understand the ideas and arguments presented.

3.2.2 Review Article

OT routinely publishes papers that provide a comprehensive and theory-driven review of a particular research field. These review articles provide a theoretically-informed review and integration of an important area of research, and offer significant implications for subsequent theory development and research.

In other words, formative reviews published in OT have to be strongly theory-led, either in the design of the review (e.g., comparing and synthesizing different streams of theorizing and research on a topic), or in the implications for theory derived from the study.

Because of this specific expectation, authors are asked to clearly elaborate the theoretical contributions of their review and the strong implications they see for further research in an area.

The submission and review processes for these reviews are identical to those for regular submissions.

3.2.3 Controversies and Conversations

Essays in this section of OT feature commentary and debate on important theoretical topics in the field. Sets of authors may engage in a conversation about a topic in a complementary manner, for example by highlighting alternative but compatible viewpoints or ways of researching a subject. In other instances, the communication between the two sides may take the form of a debate around competing viewpoints (controversies), but similarly with the constructive aim of fostering new or revised ways of thinking about and researching organizations.

The initiative for the development of a controversies and conversations contribution may come from the editors, the journal’s editorial board, or through an informal proposal from authors to a member of the editorial team. On receiving such a proposal, the editorial team will evaluate the proposal and, if it is approved, will ask for a more formal proposal which describes the relevance, scope and contribution of the essays, including the different positions of the respective authors on the issue or topic and the proposed outcome of the conversation or debate.

Proposals for this section are received on a rolling basis, and can be formally submitted via the manuscript central system. When preparing a proposal, we advise authors to read previous examples of debates featured in the journal to get a good understanding of what is required.

Please visit our Sage Author Gateway for guidance on producing visual and/or video abstracts.

3.3 Writing your paper

The Sage Author Gateway has some general advice and on how to get published , plus links to further resources. Sage Author Services also offers authors a variety of ways to improve and enhance your article including English language editing, plagiarism detection, and video abstract and infographic preparation.

3.3.1 Making your article discoverable

For information and guidance on how to make your article more discoverable, visit our Gateway page on How to Help Readers Find Your Article Online

4. Editorial policies

4.1 Peer review policy

All manuscripts are reviewed initially by the editors, and only those papers that meet the scientific and editorial standards of the journal, and fit within the aims and scope of the journal, will be sent for outside review.

The journal’s policy is to have manuscripts reviewed by two expert reviewers. OT adheres to a rigorous double-blind reviewing policy in which the identity of both the reviewer and author are always concealed from both parties. To ensure anonymity in the double-blind refereeing process, the author’s name should not appear anywhere on the manuscript.

As part of the review process, reviewers provide comments and feedback to the author as well as recommendations to one of the Co-Editors-in-Chief or any of the Associate Editors, who will make the final decision on the manuscript.

Sage does not permit the use of author-suggested (recommended) reviewers at any stage of the submission process, be that through the web-based submission system or other communication.

Reviewers should be experts in their fields and should be able to provide an objective assessment of the manuscript. Our policy is that reviewers should not be assigned to a paper if:

• The reviewer is based at the same institution as any of the co-authors;
• The reviewer is based at the funding body of the study or material on which the paper is based;
• The reviewer has provided a personal (e.g. gmail/yahoo/hotmail) email account and an institutional email account cannot be found after performing a basic Google search (name, department and institution).

Editors or members of the Editorial Board may occasionally submit their own manuscripts for possible publication in OT. In these cases, the peer review process will be managed by alternative members of the Board and the submitting Editor/Board member will have no involvement in the decision-making process.

4.2 Authorship

All parties who have made a substantive contribution to the article should be listed as authors. Principal authorship, authorship order, and other publication credits should be based on the relative scientific or professional contributions of the individuals involved, regardless of their status. A student is usually listed as principal author on any multiple-authored publication that substantially derives from the student’s dissertation or thesis.

Please note that AI chatbots, for example ChatGPT, should not be listed as authors. For more information see the policy on Use of ChatGPT and generative AI tools .

4.3 Acknowledgements

All contributors who do not meet the criteria for authorship should be listed in an Acknowledgements section. Examples of those who might be acknowledged include a person who provided purely technical help, or a department chair who provided only general support.

Please supply any personal acknowledgements separately to the main text to facilitate anonymous peer review.

Per ICMJE recommendations, it is best practice to obtain consent from non-author contributors who you are acknowledging in your paper.

4.3.1 Third party submissions

Third party submissions – that is, instances in which an individual who is not listed as an author submits a manuscript on behalf of the author(s) – are not considered for publication in OT.

4.3.2 Writing assistance

Individuals who provided writing assistance, e.g. from a specialist communications company, do not qualify as authors and so should be included in the Acknowledgements section. Authors must disclose any writing assistance – including the individual’s name, company and level of input – and identify the entity that paid for this assistance. It is not necessary to disclose use of language polishing services.

4.4 Funding

OT requires all authors to acknowledge their funding in a consistent fashion under a separate heading.  Please visit the Funding Acknowledgements page on the Sage Journal Author Gateway to confirm the format of the acknowledgment text in the event of funding, or state that: This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. 

4.5 Declaration of conflicting interests

OT encourages authors to include a declaration of any conflicting interests and recommends you review the good practice guidelines on the Sage Journal Author Gateway .

5. Publishing policies

5.1 Publication ethics

Sage is committed to upholding the integrity of the academic record. We encourage authors to refer to the Committee on Publication Ethics’ International Standards for Authors and view the Publication Ethics page on the Sage Author Gateway .

5.1.1 Plagiarism

OT and Sage take issues of copyright infringement, plagiarism or other breaches of best practice in publication very seriously. We seek to protect the rights of our authors and we always investigate claims of plagiarism or misuse of published articles. Equally, we seek to protect the reputation of the journal against malpractice. Submitted articles may be checked with duplication-checking software. Where an article, for example, is found to have plagiarized other work or included third-party copyright material without permission or with insufficient acknowledgement, or where the authorship of the article is contested, we reserve the right to take action including, but not limited to: publishing an erratum or corrigendum (correction); retracting the article; taking up the matter with the head of department or dean of the author's institution and/or relevant academic bodies or societies; or taking appropriate legal action.

5.1.2 Prior publication

If material has been previously published, it is not generally acceptable for publication in a Sage journal. However, there are certain circumstances where previously published material can be considered for publication. Please refer to the guidance on the Sage Author Gateway or if in doubt, contact the Editors at the address given below.

5.2 Contributor’s publishing agreement

Before publication, Sage requires the author as the rights holder to sign a Journal Contributor’s Publishing Agreement. Organization Theory publishes manuscripts under Creative Commons licenses . The standard license for the journal is Creative Commons by Attribution Non-Commercial (CC BY-NC), which allows others to re-use the work without permission as long as the work is properly referenced and the use is non-commercial. For more information, you are advised to visit Sage's OA licenses page . Alternative license arrangements are available at the author’s request.

6. Preparing your manuscript

6.1 Formatting

The preferred format for your manuscript is Word. LaTeX files are also accepted. Word and (La)Tex templates are available on the Manuscript Submission Guidelines page of our Author Gateway.

• Submissions should generally not exceed 11,000 words (including references), although in some cases longer versions may be accepted.
• Manuscripts should be accompanied by an abstract of 300 words (maximum), and by 3-10 keywords from the OT ScholarOne keyword list.
• Within the manuscript, text should be formatted as double-spaced in 12-point Times New Roman type. Tables may be single spaced and in smaller fonts, if necessary, for formatting. Use footnotes sparingly.
• Organize the manuscript by using primary, secondary, and tertiary headings (see a recent OT issue for examples), rather than numbered headings.

6.2 Artwork, figures and other graphics

Add each table or figure on separate pages at the end of the manuscript after the references, rather than inserting these directly in the text. Include a reference in the manuscript (i.e., Insert table 1 about here) in the appropriate place.

Please ensure that you have obtained any necessary permission from copyright holders for reproducing any illustrations, tables, figures or lengthy quotations previously published elsewhere. For further information including guidance on fair dealing for criticism and review, please see the Copyright and Permissions page on the  Sage Author Gateway .

For additional guidance on the preparation of illustrations, pictures and graphs in electronic format, please visit Sage’s Manuscript Submission Guidelines  

Figures supplied in color will appear in color online.

6.3 Supplemental material

This journal is able to host additional materials online (e.g. datasets, podcasts, videos, images etc) alongside the full-text of the article. For more information please refer to our guidelines on submitting supplemental files .

6.4 Reference style

OT adheres to the APA reference style. View the APA guidelines to ensure your manuscript conforms to this reference style.

6.5 English language editing services

Authors seeking assistance with English language editing, translation, or figure and manuscript formatting to fit the journal’s specifications should consider using Sage Language Services. Visit Sage Language Services on our Journal Author Gateway for further information.

6.6 Identifiable Information

Where a journal uses double-anonymised peer review, authors are required to submit:

• A version of the manuscript which has had any information that compromises the anonymity of the author(s) removed or anonymized. This version will be sent to the peer reviewers.
• A separate title page which includes any removed or anonymised material. This will not be sent to the peer reviewers.

See https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/Manuscript-preparation-for-double-anonymized-journal for detailed guidance on making an anonymous submission.

7. Submitting your manuscript

7.1 How to submit your manuscript

OT is hosted on Sage Track, a web based online submission and peer review system powered by ScholarOne™ Manuscripts. Visit https://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/ot to login and submit your article online.

IMPORTANT: Please check whether you already have an account in the system before trying to create a new one. If you have reviewed or authored for the journal in the past year it is likely that you will have had an account created.  For further guidance on submitting your manuscript online please visit ScholarOne Online Help .

7.2 Title, keywords and abstracts

Please supply a title, short title, an abstract of 300 words (maximum) and 3-10 keywords from the OT ScholarOne keyword list to accompany your article. The title, keywords and abstract are key to ensuring readers find your article online through online search engines such as Google. Please refer to the information and guidance on how best to title your article, write your abstract and select your keywords by visiting the Sage Journal Author Gateway for guidelines on How to Help Readers Find Your Article Online.

As part of our commitment to ensuring an ethical, transparent and fair peer review process Sage is a supporting member of ORCID, the Open Researcher and Contributor ID . ORCID provides a unique and persistent digital identifier that distinguishes researchers from every other researcher, even those who share the same name, and, through integration in key research workflows such as manuscript and grant submission, supports automated linkages between researchers and their professional activities, ensuring that their work is recognized. We encourage all authors and co-authors to link their ORCIDs to their accounts in our online peer review platforms. It takes seconds to do: click the link when prompted, sign into your ORCID account and our systems are automatically updated. We collect ORCID iDs during the manuscript submission process and your ORCID iD then becomes part of your accepted publication’s metadata, making your work attributable to you and only you. Your ORCID iD is published with your article so that fellow researchers reading your work can link to your ORCID profile and from there link to your other publications.

If you do not already have an ORCID iD please follow this link to create one or visit our ORCID homepage to learn more.

7.4 Information required for completing your submission

You will be asked to provide contact details and academic affiliations for all co-authors via the submission system and identify who is to be the corresponding author. These details must match what appears on your manuscript. The affiliation listed on the manuscript should be the institution where the research was conducted. If an author has moved to a new institution since completing the research, the new affiliation can be included in a manuscript note at the end of the paper. At this stage please ensure you have included all the required statements and declarations and uploaded any additional supplementary files (including reporting guidelines where relevant).

7.5 Permissions

Please ensure that you have obtained any necessary permission from copyright holders for reproducing any illustrations, tables, figures or lengthy quotations previously published elsewhere. For further information including guidance on fair dealing for criticism and review, please see the Copyright and Permissions page on the Sage Journal Author Gateway .

8. On acceptance and publication

If your paper is accepted for publication after peer review, you will first be asked to complete the contributor’s publishing agreement. Once your manuscript files have been checked for Sage Production, your article will be prepared for publication and can appear online within an average of 30 days.

8.1 Sage Production

Your Sage Production Editor will keep you informed as to your article’s progress throughout the production process. Proofs will made available to the corresponding author via our editing portal Sage Edit, or by email to the corresponding author and should be returned promptly. Authors are reminded to check their proofs carefully to confirm that all author information, including names, affiliations, sequence and contact details are correct, and that Funding and Conflict of Interest statements, if any, are accurate.

8.2 Online publication

One of the many benefits of publishing your research in an open access journal is the speed to publication. With no page count constraints, your article will be published online in a fully citable form with a DOI number as soon as it has completed the production process. At this time it will be completely free to view and download for all.

8.3 Promoting your article

After publication, you can help disseminate your paper and ensure it is as widely read and cited as possible. The Sage Author Gateway has numerous resources to help you promote your work. Visit the Promote Your Article page on the Gateway for tips and advice. In addition, Sage is partnered with Kudos, a free service that allows authors to explain, enrich, share, and measure the impact of their article. Find out how to maximize your article’s impact with Kudos .

9. Further information

Any correspondence, queries or additional requests for information on the Manuscript Submission process should be sent to the OT editorial office as follows:

Sophia Tzagaraki, Managing Editor E-mail: [email protected]

10 Appealing the publication decision

Editors have very broad discretion in determining whether an article is an appropriate fit for their journal. Many manuscripts are declined with a very general statement of the rejection decision. These decisions are not eligible for formal appeal unless the author believes the decision to reject the manuscript was based on an error in the review of the article, in which case the author may appeal the decision by providing the Editor with a detailed written description of the error they believe occurred.

If an author believes the decision regarding their manuscript was affected by a publication ethics breach, the author may contact the publisher with a detailed written description of their concern, and information supporting the concern, at [email protected]

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Theories of Organizational Stress

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During the past two decades, the nature of work has changed dramatically, as more and more organizations downsize, outsource and move toward short-term contracts, part-time working and teleworking. The costs of stress in the workplace in most of the developed and developing world have risen accordingly in terms of increased sickness absence, labour turnover, burnout, premature death and decreased productivity. This book, in one volume, provides all the major theories of organizational stress from the leading researchers and writers in the field. It is a guide to identifying the sources of pressures in jobs and the workplace so that we may be able to intervene to change and manage the growing problem of organizational stress.

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Contingency Theory of Organizations

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Otenyo, E.E. (2018). Contingency Theory of Organizations. In: Farazmand, A. (eds) Global Encyclopedia of Public Administration, Public Policy, and Governance. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-20928-9_58

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Essay On Organizational Theories

Type of paper: Essay

Topic: Government , Management , Workplace , Culture , Employee , Human , Organization , Theory

Words: 3250

Published: 12/15/2019

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Organizational theories date back to the era when human beings first stated engaging in commercial activities. Despite this fact, these theories are still relevant in the present day economic environment though modern day theorists are working on either advancing them or formulating new ones. These theories are specifically directed at the organizational management because they are decision-making tools. However, it must be mentioned that neither of these theories is conclusive when applied singularly because each of the theories have weaknesses. This thesis shall briefly look at the classical, neoclassical, human resource, organizational cultural reforms and organizational environment theories. The paper shall also briefly touch on some of the major theorists as far as organizational theories are concerned and finally how these theories can be effectively applied in the public sector.

Classical organization theory

This is one of the oldest theories of organization and dates back to the origin of commercial activities. Though, impact of this theory on organizations was not felt till between 1900 and the 1930s when industrial revolution was at its peak. Some of these pioneers include F.W. Taylor, Henri Fayol, Max Weber and Luther Gulick. The theory asserts that organizations are created for the sole purpose of meeting production and economic goals. The classical organization theory is based on the following major assumptions. First, the theory assumes that the relationship between employees and the management is solely dependent on and defined by formal communication channels, predefined tasks and accountability as well as official stipulations and regulations to minimize disagreements in this relationship. Second, the theory also assumes that employees are “economic” in nature and thus can only be motivated by financial incentives. Finally, the classical theory assumes that employees are considered as the “cog in the wheel of production.” In this case, employees and the workforce in general are viewed upon as elements of production.This third assumption asserts that organizations should work the same way machineries do while making use of people, capital and machines as their parts. Taylor is acknowledged as the father of “the scientific management movement.” To this effect, his pioneer studies are referred to as “Taylorism” or “Taylor system.” Taylor’s contribution to the classical organization theory is based on the fact that he believed that production practices could be planned and systematically manipulated through the expertise of scientific principles hence ensuring that organizations maximized their profits, increased productivity and effectively dealt with the union menace that was common in his days. This school of thought was based on the fact that there is no single best way of maximizing on factors of productivity and thus the need for scientific methodologies to help the management adapt the “fastest, most efficient, and least fatiguing production methods.” Henri Fayol’s (1841-1925) work on the other hand was solely based on the effective management of labor. In fact the first ever comprehensive management theory is accredited to Fayol. His works were based on 6universally applicable principles which include technical, commercial, fiscal, security, accounting and managerial factors. Though, Fayol mostly focused on the coordination, control, planning, and command of the workforce to meet production and financial objectives of an organization. Weber on the other hand was ardent supporter of the “Taylor System,” though his work was based on the effects of bureaucracy on organizational human resource management. Finally, Gullick furthered on the studies of Fayol and thus his works defined the role played by the management class in organizations. These roles include “Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing, Coordinating, Reporting and Budgeting.” Thus it is clear that the classical organizational theory can be used in improving public administration in the following major way. Since, public administration is characterized by limited availability of funds, the theory can be used to determine the best applicable scientific methodologies and models to increase efficiency based on financial constraints. This is the case because the classical theory of organization narrows down the factors of production to management of labor in terms of division and time-allocation.

Neoclassical organization theory

This theory can be traced back to the post-World War2 era that is between the years 1945 and 1950. The neoclassical theory can be basically termed as a theory directed at dealing with the weaknesses posed by the classical theory. Specifically, the theory was advanced to meet the inadequacies arising from “the humanness of organizational members, the coordination needs among administrative units, the operation of internal-external organizational relations, and the processes used in decision making.” This is because according to the neoclassical theorists, classical theorists oversimplified factors of production and the role played by the management in meeting organizational financial objectives. Thus, the neoclassical theory is based on the tenet that an organization is not an island. This implies that an organization cannot exist independent of other external environment which includes the market factors. Thus; the neoclassical theory heavily relied on sociological theories to meet the deficiencies posed by the simplistic and superficial monopolistic dominance by the classical theorists in in organizational management. It is also important to mention that this theory paved the way for other theories that had major differences from the school of thought advanced by the popular classical theory of organization. Some of the major contributors to the neoclassical theory include Chester Bernard, Robert Merton, Herbert A Simon, Philip Selznick, Melvin Dalton, and William F. Whyte. Bernard’s organization theory focused on cooperation amongst the employees within an organization. He asserted that some production tasks were better performed on a group-basis rather than on individual-basis. To this effect, Bernard defined the management’s role as visionary in a moral rather than an intellectual perspective. The management is also tasked with the responsibility of establishing official and unofficial channels of communication and finally the management should ensure that goodwill is present to facilitate cooperation within an organization. Also, Bernard advanced the notion that employee motivation is not limited to economic incentives but also include behavioral incentives targeting attitudes and motives of the employees. Merton’s organizational studies were based on the criticism of Weber’s theory on bureaucracy. He asserted that bureaucracy is susceptible to dysfunctional characteristics that negatively impacted the employees within an organization hence breeding grounds for inefficiencies. Simon’s critic of the classical theory focused on “inconsistent, conflicting, and inapplicability of the classical theory to many of the administrative situations facing managers.” He also disputed the validity the fourteen principles of an organization advanced by classical theorists. He thus went ahead to develop scientific quantitative methodologies that the management uses presently in the decision-making process. Simon is thus considered as the father of administrative decision-making studies and practices. The studies and works of Selznick(Foundations of the Theory of Organization) mainly focused on the irrational behavioral organizational characteristics and factors. His works went further to assert that the labor force was not just an element of production that the management can manipulate at their own discretion to achieve organizational financial goals. Instead, Selznick views the employees as individual people with perceptions, attitudes and beliefs that might be necessarily related to the organizations formal structure, objectives and goals. Thus, Selznick is renowned for advancing the integration of all these diverse perceptions that individual employees hold into the decision-making process of the organization so as to avoid conflicts and liabilities that will arise if they are ignored. Most aspects of the neoclassical theory can be used to increase efficiency in public administration especially the models and practices applicable in the decision-making process and the decisive management of negative impacts of bureaucracy that the public sector is renowned for. Also, public administrator can treat their subordinates more humanely and thus motivating them to work more efficiently and under minimal financial incentives. Finally, public administrators can also effectively tap into the vast resource-base outside their organizational jurisdictions to advance professionalism within the public sector. This includes partnerships with both the private sector and the public in general.

Human resource theory and the organizational behavior perspective

This theory of organization was advanced forth in the year 1957. Unlike the previous theories, this theory is based on the tenet that organizations exist solely for the purposes of meeting human needs and not vice versa. Thus, there exists a mutual relationship between people organizations whereby people are in need of employment opportunities and the perks they come with while the organizations are in desperate need of the human resource to advance their financial goals. Whenever one party is shortchanged in this relationship, both parties are adversely affected and it also holds that both parties mutually benefit if this relationship is healthy and considerate of the needs of both employees and the organization. Thus, this theory is basically based on how to best achieve a mutually benefiting and healthy relationship between employees and the organization they are affiliated to. Henceforth, studies in theory mainly focus on the behavioral aspects of leadership, motivation, individuals in teams and groups, effects of the work environment, power and influence and organizational change. Some of the major contributors to this theory include Mary Parker Follett, Fritz J. Roethlisberger, Abraham H. Maslow, Douglas Murray McGregor, and Irving L. Janis. In her works, The Giving Orders, Follett assert the fact that it is human nature to hate being ordered around regardless of the circumstances and to try every means possible to control other people. Therefore, she is of the notion that orders should be given in such a manner that advocates for consensus building and is sensitive and adheres to the specific situational circumstances defining the interaction between the management and their employees. Roethlisberger on the other hand advanced the notion that human problems need human solutions in an organizational setting. Thus his studies were specifically linked to employee motivation and behavior and how to identify and deal with consequent challenges. Maslow on the other hand categorized the basic human needs into “physiological, safety, love, esteem, and self-actualization” needs. He also asserts that these needs are strongly correlated and their order of priority varies in people. Thus according to Maslow, any threat to any of these basic needs is the major source of conflicts within an organization. Also, he is of the opinion that if the lower hierarchy basic employees’ needs are met, then the management should use the higher hierarchy needs to motivate their labor-force to worker harder. In his works,The Human Side of Enterprise, McGregor links Theory X and Y to an organization. Theory X advances the notion that people by nature hate working and thus will devise any possible ways to avoid working while Theory Y is of the opinion that people also derive fulfillment and satisfaction from work and commitment to an organization’s objectives helps employees stay focused on works. Thus, for one to effectively manage human resources, they must consider both the Theory X and Y. Finally, Janis analyzes group psychology and the resultant effects on the management as well as the workforce in general. His works basically assert that group psychology suppresses dissensions and people will go to any length to subscribe to the school of thought favored by the grouping they belong to henceforth ignoring other tenable alternatives. Public administrators can use this theory to address the power imbalances that are common in the public sector by focusing on mutually benefiting relationships with their juniors. From this theory, it is also evident that it is the responsibility and initiative of the public administrators to create these mutually benefiting relations with their subordinates. Finally, this theory can be used to minimize conflict within the public sector and enhance motivation and teamwork.

Theories of organizational culture and change

Studies on these theories can be traced to as early as the 1950s and 1960s though they were widely adapted and accepted in the 1980s.These theories relate the dynamics of organizational culture to factors of production. Basically, organizational culture can be defined as the informal characteristics of an organization that complement its structure and operation practices. These include organizational values, beliefs, customs, perceptions, behavioral norms, artifacts and patterns of behavior. Basically, these theories assert that for organizational reforms to be successful and effective they must be simultaneously carried out with organizational cultural reforms. This is because negative organizational cultural practices such as rigidity, power imbalance and abuse and exclusive groupings can retard reforms targeting organizational structure and practices. This is the case because people have tendency to resist change and cling on the tried, tested and approved beliefs and methodologies. These theories also emphasize the fact that organizational culture is an attribute of the workforce the management can only shape the direction they take. Some of the major contributors to these theories include Edgar H. Schein, Joanne Martin, John R. P. French and Bertram Raven, James March, Henry Mintzberg and Jeffrey Pfeffer. Though, it must be mentioned that French and Raven, March, Mintzberg and Pfeffer focused on the on the power and politics aspects of organizational culture. The five theorists assert that for there to be reforms in an organization, there must be reforms as far as the culture of power and politics is concerned in that specific organization. Schein on the other hand categorizes organizational culture into group, organizational and occupational cultures. Thus, he proposed that the management can use these categories to pinpoint as well as solve challenges emanating from organizational culture. In addition, Schein also proposes that it is difficult for outsiders to ascertain the true nature of an organization culture. This implies that organizational culture is specific to a given entity and is an attribute of perceptions and assumptions a group of people learn experientially. Martin on the other hand seeks to determine what constitutes culture and what doesn’t by the use “the intellectual traditions of functionalism, critical theory, and postmodernism.” Thus according to Martin, cultural studies are distinct from other studies in the willingness to go beyond the superficial and face value outlook of how different people interpret and manifest the various meanings of work. She also advances the notion that cultural practices can either be consistent or inconsistent, clear or marred with ambiguity and finally singular or multiple. Public administrators can use these theories to change the culture of inefficiencies for them to reform the public sector. In addition, these theories are useful in restructuring the public sector in terms of power relations and the role of politics in the delivery of services as well as the management of the workforce. Public administrators can also apply these theories to ascertain the effects of the private sector and the public at large on the public sector. They can also determine how best they can use this influence to complement public sector reforms. Thus, these theories are useful in developing and formulating tools of reform in the public sector.

Theories of Organizations and Environments

These theories were more common between 1966 and 1967. The system theories emphasize the concept of closed versus open organization. However, more studies tend to favor the external dynamics of an organization. Thus, these theories view organizations as complex systems of dynamically interlinked elements that include production, capital, market factors and feedback mechanisms. These theories are cause-effect orientated in their methodologies. To this effect, they are strongly correlated to theories advanced by Taylor. While Taylor used scientific quantitative methodologies to determine the best way to maximize production, these theories use quantitative scientific methodologies to ascertain the cause-effect relationships amongst various variables of production and henceforth determine the best possible management practices. As a result, these theories form what is commonly referred to as management science studies. Resource dependence theories on the other hand emphasize on how organizations exchange resources with their environments. Finally, institutional theories advance the notion that organizations are products of human ideas and imaginations. Thus just like human perceptions, organizations are also influenced by a wide range of both internal and external factors. Some of the major theorists who contributed significantly to these theories include Daniel Katz and Robert L. Kahn, James D. Thompson, John W. Meyer and Brian Rowan, Jeffrey Pfeffer and Gerald R. Salancik and finally Glenn R. Carroll and Michael T. Hannan. Katz and Kahn contrast open systems approaches with common sense approaches. Thus, they assert the notion that open system approaches have downplayed the inter-linkages and interactions between organizations and their external environments. This implies that for an organization to effectively survive the dynamic economic environment there is need to focus on both strategies directed at both internal and external functioning of organizations. Thompson’s works and studies focused on how to effectively bridge the gap between open and closed systems. Adequate management strategies are based on open-system models but subject to influence by environmental factors. Meyer and Rowan focus on the effect of cultural and institutional environments on organizations. Whilst Pfeffer and Salancik are of the opinion that one can only fully understand on organization by studying the environment in which it operates. This implies that organizations are not self-dependent systems thus they rely on resource exchanges with their external environment. They also suggest that organizational challenges arise from the management’s inaccurate evaluation of the external environment. Finally, Carroll and Hannan rely on organizational ecology to study the demographic characteristics of an organization. This is strictly based on organizational-environment interactions and relationships. This implies that the environment selectively advances the survival of fit organization based on the dynamics of human resources. Public administrators can use these theories to foster and enhance the relationship between the public and private sectors. This is because these theories are a mash up of all the pervious theories and thus the most adequate of all organizational theories. For example public managers can now imitate effective models that have been tried and tested in the private sector such as employee acquisition, motivation and retention. Thus, this can help public administrators mitigate the brain drain that is now common from the public to the private sectors. Public administrators can also use these theories to better understand the external and internal characteristics of the public sector and how best to change these traits to enhance efficiency within the public sector. These include the nature of bureaucracy within the public sector and the public perceptions and receptions towards the public sector. Finally, public administrators can use these theories to advance resource self-sufficiency within the public sector.

Conclusions

All the aforementioned theories can be effectively applied to streamline the public sector. However, it is important to note that all these theories have weaknesses of their own and hence none of the theories is conclusive if applied on its own. These theories are relevant in today’s economic landscape and there is a high probability that they will continue to stand the test of time. Finally, the effectiveness of these theories is highly dependent on how the public sector managers incorporate their situational circumstances in the implementation of these theories.

Works Cited

Shafritz, J. M., S. J. Ott and Y. S. Jang. Classics of Organizational Theory (7th ed.). Belmont, California: Wadsworth, 2011.

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The Principles and Theories of Organizational Psychology Expository Essay

It is the desire of managers in any organization to provide an enabling environment for workers to operate at their full potential. This is driven by the realization that there are aspects transcending qualifications and skills that determine an individual’s output. Organizational psychology functions to foster this effectiveness in the work place.

It is essentially the study of workers and the workplace environment with the aim of improving performance through efficient utilization of human capital. It involves the application of principles and theories in psychology to explore interactions between people who fall through the structure of an organization. Organizational psychology is practiced in the processes of recruitment, on-the-job training, personnel competency assessment and organizational communication systems (Doyle, 2004).

Studies and applications of organizational psychology evidently precede its recognition as a fully grown discipline. Brief examples include the concept of specialization of labor which has its foundations in the works of Aristotle and Machiavelli’s books that explored ways of instituting structures of authority in an organization.

The turn of the twentieth century saw the idea become formally conceived by scholars of the time such as Walter Dill Scott who encouraged business leaders in Chicago to employ elements of psychology in advertising and marketing.

Hugo Munsterberg added the scientific taste to it by applying psychological discoveries derived from experiments in laboratories to the industrial environment. From that early period to the present day, theory, practice and research in organizational psychology have experienced tremendous growth (Doyle, 2004).

Research and statistics have definitive roles in organizational psychology. Research is used to lay credence to any practice through scientific evidence accumulated and analyzed using statistical tools. In the process of collecting potential data used by organizational psychologists to formulate policies, researchers need to be fully aware of statistical concerns that determine the validity of their findings.

For example, using generalized information from models developed by similar organizations may lead to mistakes and rigidities in application (Aamodt, 2009). Popular research methods used in the workplace include survey methods and observational techniques.

Statistics gives a reflective picture of an organization in its ‘nakedness’. It goes beyond face value to expose the true state of affairs in the organization. This is important when formulating organizational policies that, in this case, peg on the workforce potential. It is from accumulated statistics that psychologists derive the variables they use to analyze data and make credible conclusions (Doyle, 2004).

Techniques in psychology need to be based on real-life examples in order to have meaning that can subsequently be applied to real-life situations; these examples are collected through statistical processes. Psychological theories derived from analyzed evidence are more effective in the workplace (Aamodt, 2009).

Indicators of job performance and stress levels among employees are based on the accuracy and reliability of statistics collected in an organization; facilitating the need for proper and accurate statistical methods for the efficacy of organizational psychology to be realized.

Research and statistics are essential for psychologists to make valid assumptions and determine how groups work and respond to different situations and therefore give indications on how these groups would approach emerging circumstances.

It is difficult to make conclusions from the behavioral practices of individuals and groups without extensive observations and studies that are backed by research methods which improve validity of findings. Here, techniques such as participant observation, in-depth interviews and case studies are used to collect data. Qualitative research methods are also used to construct behaviorally-anchored rating scales (BARS) for workers (Doyle, 2004).

There are several ways through which organizational psychology can be used for the ultimate goal of enhancing productivity in an organization. Derived from and based on collected and analyzed data, it can be used to formulate policies, create procedures and institute structures that foster growth.

It helps employees realize and achieve their full potential as well as identify and further their career interests. Organizational psychology is essential in ‘succession-planning’ where future leaders are identified and prepared for leadership responsibilities. It can also be used to help individual workers harness new technology that improves work optimization (Aamodt, 2009).

Problem-solving also benefits from the practice of organizational psychology in several ways: It is used to study why some employees do not work well when grouped together and are conversely more effective when placed in a different group. It can also explore workers’ displeasure at the workplace and how this affects output and turnover. It may help organizations respond to periods of transition and change. Human resource managers use it to tackle sensitive issues such as gender and sexuality in the workplace (Doyle, 2004).

The basic tenets of organizational psychology can be used by the top management in an organization to motivate and inspire workers. Through letting them in on the importance of their work, workers get a sense of value for their contribution to the growth of the organization which stimulates hard work.

Demonstrating confidence in the capability of employees to perform specified duties can just be the drive needed for them to accomplish tasks satisfactorily. Individual talks with workers to evaluate their experiences in the workplace may also turn the negatives of challenges into resounding positives. On the overall, organizational psychology is important for any organization that needs to grow beyond the conventional reach of traditional growth strategies.

Aamodt, M. G. (2009). Industrial/Organizational Psychology: An Applied Approach. Stamford: Cengage Learning.

Doyle, C. (2004). Work and Organizational Psychology: An Introduction with Attitude. London: Routledge.

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