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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Environmental Justice: Approaches, Dimensions, and Movements

Introduction, general overviews.

• The Roots of Environmental Justice—History of the US Movement against Environmental Racism
• Global and International Perspectives
• Environmental Justice Issues and Empirical Case Studies
• Transnational Issues
• Theorization of Environmental Justice
• Theological Perspectives
• Legal Perspectives
• Labor and Environmental Justice
• Indigenous Perspectives
• Feminist Perspectives
• Organizations
• Methods of Environmental Justice Research

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Environmental Justice: Approaches, Dimensions, and Movements by Leah Temper LAST REVIEWED: 17 October 2022 LAST MODIFIED: 27 February 2019 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199830060-0209

Environmental justice (EJ) is the struggle for access to a safe and healthy environment free from pollution and for access to the environmental resources needed for survival, well being, and social reproduction. The term environmental justice was originally born in the United States from the resistance of African American communities linked to the civil rights movement protesting toxic dumping and the siting of hazardous facilities in their communities. Scholars soon joined activists, concerned citizens, and religious leaders and communities to systematically document injustices and demonstrate that “pollution is not color blind” by demonstrating that disparities of environmental exposure exist among racial lines. EJ provided a powerful challenge to the mainstream current of the environmentalism definition of environment and nature, which focused on wilderness conservation and natural areas, such as national parks and endangered species. Environmental justice considers the inseparability of the environment from everyday life and redefines the environment as “the places where people live, work, and play.” Over time, the environmental justice framing has continually expanded to engage with multiple spatialities and forms of inequalities and has brought a far wider range of issues under the umbrella of what is the environment. In the early 21st century, environmental justice can best be understood as a shared frame and coalition of anti-toxics; labor, civil rights, indigenous, environmental, and feminist movements; and radical scholars, among others. Their common conviction is that environmental problems are largely structural and political issues that cannot be solved apart from social and economic justice and that these call for a transformative approach and the restructuring of dominant economic models, social relations, and institutional arrangements. From an initial focus on the socio-spatial distribution of “bads” (emissions, toxins) and then “goods,” (parks, green spaces, services, healthy food), environmental justice in the early 21st century encompasses a huge array of issues and has increasingly taken on transnational and transdisciplinary character and has become a meeting place for action-research among a growing network of activists, scholars, and nongovernmental organizations. EJ can be said to be a “theory in practice,” in constant coevolution and redefinition by many activist groups, international coalitions, and intellectuals.

Environmental justice (EJ) as a field of study is, by its very nature, transdisciplinary, and the overview works here come from a broad range of scholars from fields including geography, sociology, law, public health, anthropology, political science, urban and regional studies, ecology, environmental ethics, communications, etc. They include single- and multiple-authored and edited collections. For a comprehensive introduction to the field, see Holifield, et al. 2017 ; for a links between environmental justice and sustainability, see Agyeman, et al. 2003 ; for a critical assessment of the movement up to the early 21st century, see Pellow and Brulle 2005 ; and for new perspectives from critical and feminist perspectives, respectively, see the edited collections Holifield, et al. 2010 and Stein 2004 . More succinct reviews of the field can be found in Mohai, et al. 2009 , and from a social movement perspective, Szasz and Meuser 1997 . For the most recent comprehensive study on health and pollution globally, see Landrigan, et al. 2017 . Many of these works are aimed toward both activist and academic audiences and would be appropriate for undergraduate students.

Agyeman, J., R. D. Bullard, and B. Evans, eds. 2003. Just sustainabilities: Development in an unequal world . Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press.

A collection of essays from authors across disciplines that argues for centering questions of equity and social justice within sustainability discourses, introducing the concept of just sustainability that requires sustainability to take on a redistributive function. Touches on case studies from the United States and beyond on themes such as toxic waste dumps, mining, bioprospecting, petroleum exploration, and governance. Geared toward upper-level undergraduate and graduate courses.

Cole, L. W., and S. R. Foster. 2001. From the ground up: Environmental racism and the rise of the environmental justice movement . New York: New York Univ. Press.

Cole and Foster write on several US-based case studies as activist participant observers. They develop a deliberative model of governance and put forward EJ’s transformative potential for radicalizing individuals, communities, and institutions. Includes chapters written by both academics and activists. The book addresses controversial issues seldom dealt with in the movement itself as well as a set of recommendations toward its improved effectiveness.

Holifield, R., J. Chakraborty, and G. Walker, eds. 2017. The Routledge handbook of environmental justice . London: Routledge.

A large volume that provides a broad overview of the field. Can serve as an introduction and reference to the most important debates, controversies, and questions in current research. Primarily geared toward academics and students.

Holifield, R., M. Porter, and G. Walker, eds. 2010. Spaces of environmental justice . Antipode Book Series 25. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.

A critical geographical perspective. Includes chapters on actor-network analysis; on the need for in-depth gender analysis in environmental justice research; and on state theories, highlighting the significant role the state plays in shaping racialized patterns of spatial injustice. Includes several case studies from the United States, Ghana, and England.

Landrigan, P. J., R. Fuller, N. J. Acosta, et al. 2017. The Lancet Commission on pollution and health. The Lancet 391.10119: 462–512.

DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(17)32345-0

The most comprehensive assessment of global pollution and its health and economic effects to date. The report shows that pollution is linked to nine million deaths in 2015 (one in six), and that 92 percent of pollution-associated mortality occurs in low- and middle-income countries and that it is most prevalent among ethnic minorities and the marginalized. The report calls for urgent action, arguing that pollution can no longer be viewed as an isolated environmental issue.

Mohai, P., D. Pellow, and J. T. Roberts. 2009. Environmental justice. Annual Review of Environment and Resources 34:405–430.

DOI: 10.1146/annurev-environ-082508-094348

A comprehensive review article. Situates the movement in its historical context and provides a broad definition. Discusses methodological problems in documenting evidence and considers mechanisms that lead to inequitable exposure to harm, from multiple perspectives. Summarizes a wide range of case studies and lists principles of environmental justice.

Pellow, D. N., and R. J. Brulle. 2005. Power, justice, and the environment . Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press.

This book continues a dialogue that started with a special panel at the 2002 annual meeting of the American Sociological Association, at which social movement and environmental justice scholars appraised the record of the environmental justice movement. Its contribution includes a critical assessment of the movement’s effectiveness through an analysis of its strategies, practices, and ideology.

Stein, R., ed. 2004. New perspectives on environmental justice: Gender, sexuality and activism . New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers Univ. Press.

An edited collection that applies novel theoretical perspectives to environmental justice, including queer theory, ecofeminism, eco-criticism, literary and film criticism, and more. A much-needed call for addressing issues of chauvinism and homophobia related to the environment as well as within environmental movements.

Szasz, A., and M. Meuser. 1997. Environmental inequalities: Literature review and proposals for new directions in research and theory. Current Sociology 45.3: 99–120.

DOI: 10.1177/001139297045003006

A review of the literature from sociology. The authors assess what the intimate link between research and social movement has meant for environmental justice research and the silences that this has provoked. In particular, they critique the emphasis on race versus class, direct attention to studying the upper classes, and redefine global historical sociological phenomena as environmental justice issues.

Taylor, D. 2000. The rise of the environmental justice paradigm. American Behavioral Scientist 43.5: 508–580.

Uses social movement theory to comment on the appeal of the environmental justice frame and the reasons for its success. Compares the environmental justice paradigm with other environmental paradigms, such as the new environmental paradigm, and notes that its pluralism in its concepts, foci, strategies, and actions have led to its resonance with a wide range of constituencies.

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Environmental Justice Research: Contemporary Issues and Emerging Topics

Environmental justice (EJ) research seeks to document and redress the disproportionate environmental burdens and benefits associated with social inequalities. Although its initial focus was on disparities in exposure to anthropogenic pollution, the scope of EJ research has expanded. In the context of intensifying social inequalities and environmental problems, there is a need to further strengthen the EJ research framework and diversify its application. This Special Issue of the International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (IJERPH) incorporates 19 articles that broaden EJ research by considering emerging topics such as energy, food, drinking water, flooding, sustainability, and gender dynamics, including issues in Canada, the UK, and Eastern Europe. Additionally, the articles contribute to three research themes: (1) documenting connections between unjust environmental exposures and health impacts by examining unsafe infrastructure, substance use, and children’s obesity and academic performance; (2) promoting and achieving EJ by implementing interventions to improve environmental knowledge and health, identifying avenues for sustainable community change, and incorporating EJ metrics in government programs; and (3) clarifying stakeholder perceptions of EJ issues to extend research beyond the documentation of unjust conditions and processes. Collectively, the articles highlight potentially compounding injustices and an array of approaches being employed to achieve EJ.

Environmental justice (EJ) research seeks to document and redress the disproportionate environmental burdens and benefits associated with social inequalities. Although its initial focus was on anthropogenic pollution, the scope of EJ research has expanded significantly in recent years to encompass other phenomena—for example, access to healthful food and climate change—with disparate negative impacts on particular social groups. Dimensions of social inequality examined have expanded beyond race and socioeconomic status to focus to some degree on ethnicity, immigration status, gender, sexual orientation, age, as well as intersections between dimensions of inequality. In the context of intensifying social inequalities and environmental problems, there is a need to further strengthen the EJ research framework and diversify its application. This Special Issue of the International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (IJERPH) incorporates 19 articles that collectively advance EJ scholarship in conceptual, methodological, and empirical terms.

These articles demonstrate how the scope and purpose of EJ research have broadened significantly in recent years and continue to expand in new directions, both topically and geographically. Several articles in this Special Issue break new ground by extending the EJ research framework to consider emerging issues such as energy [ 1 , 2 ], food [ 3 ], drinking water [ 4 , 5 ], flooding [ 6 , 7 ], sustainability initiatives [ 8 , 9 ], and gender dynamics [ 10 ], including EJ concerns in Canada [ 5 , 11 ], the UK [ 12 ], and Eastern Europe [ 13 ]. Finley-Brook and Holloman [ 1 ] explore the EJ implications of energy production in the U.S. Their study demonstrates how the transition from high carbon energy sources such as coal and oil contribute to environmental injustices, and proposes priorities for a new energy justice research agenda that combines advocacy, activism, and academics. Kyne and Bolin [ 2 ] focus on nuclear hazards associated with both the U.S. weapons programs and civilian nuclear power. Their article argues that nuclear power plants, uranium mining, and waste disposal raise a variety of EJ issues that encompass distributive, procedural, recognition, and intergenerational justice. Carrel et al. [ 3 ] examine the EJ impacts of animal feeding operations in Iowa, USA. Their findings underscore the need to understand the structural, political, and economic factors that create an environmentally unjust landscape for swine production in the U.S. Midwest. Galway [ 4 ] investigates access to safe and reliable drinking water in First Nations communities in Ontario, Canada, based on drinking water advisory data. The study highlights the prevalence of drinking water advisories as a growing problem that needs to be addressed. Campbell et al. [ 5 ] focus on the governmental failures in treating the municipal water system that led to the poisoning of hundreds of children and adults in Flint, Michigan, USA, and discuss how such tragic events can be prevented in the future. Maldonado et al. [ 6 ] examine if Hispanic immigrants are disproportionately exposed to flood hazards compared to other racial/ethnic groups in the Houston and Miami metropolitan areas, USA, based on household-level survey data. Their divergent findings for these two urban areas suggest that future EJ research on flooding should distinguish between Hispanic subgroups based on nativity status and other local contextual factors. Muñoz and Tate [ 7 ] focus on the EJ consequences of disaster recovery, based on a case study of three communities in Iowa, USA, that were affected by severe flooding in 2008. Their analysis of the two federal programs that funded property acquisitions indicated that households in socially vulnerable areas were less likely to obtain full financial compensation and endured longer waiting periods before receiving acquisition funds. Jennings et al. [ 8 ] examine another emerging issue in EJ research: advancing sustainability by ensuring that urban ecosystem services and related health benefits are equally distributed across all population groups. Their article integrates complementary concepts from multiple disciplines to illustrate how cultural ecosystem services from urban green spaces are associated with equity and social determinants of health. Hornik et al. [ 9 ] explore how people conceptualize the connection between EJ and sustainability, based on analyzing stakeholder perspectives in Milwaukee, WI, USA. Bell [ 10 ] addresses an important gap in prior EJ research by providing a gender perspective and exploring women’s experience of EJ, based on a review of the existing literature and her own prior experiences as a scholar and activist. Bell’s analysis confirms that women tend to experience inequitable environmental burdens and are less likely than men to have control over environmental decisions, both of which lead to disproportionate health impacts.

In addition to broadening the scope of EJ scholarship by exploring these new frontiers, our Special Issue contributes to three specific research themes: (a) documenting connections between unjust environmental exposures and health impacts; (b) promoting and achieving EJ; and (c) clarifying stakeholder perceptions of EJ issues. These themes and related articles are described below.

Documenting connections between unjust environmental exposures and health impacts : As the EJ framework has expanded in new directions, recent research has emphasized the need to examine health outcomes and health disparities associated with exposure to environmental hazards, thus extending EJ to environmental health justice. Several articles in this Special Issue advance environmental health justice scholarship by documenting linkages between unequal environmental exposure and adverse health impacts associated with unsafe infrastructure and homes [ 5 , 14 ], substance use and addiction [ 15 ], and children’s obesity and academic performance [ 16 ]. Campbell et al. [ 5 ] provide a detailed assessment of the recent drinking water crisis and lead poisoning in Flint, USA. In addition to describing how this tragedy happened and why socially disadvantaged populations are at particularly high risk for lead exposure, Campbell et al. discuss how childhood lead exposure and Flint-like events can be prevented from occurring in the future. Mankikar et al. [ 14 ] examine whether participation in a two-month long environmental education intervention program reduces exposure to homebased environmental health hazards and asthma-related medical visits. Their home intervention program in southeastern Pennsylvania, USA, focused on low-income households where children had asthma, were at risk for lead poisoning, or faced multiple unsafe housing conditions. Cleaning supplies (e.g., a microfiber cloth, soap), safety supplies (e.g., CO detector, fire alarm) and pest management tools (e.g., caulk, roach bait) were provided along with educational materials and face-to-face instruction. Their findings indicate that low-cost comprehensive home interventions are effective in reducing environmental home hazards and improve the health of asthmatic children in the short term. Mennis et al.’s [ 15 ] review article seeks to extend EJ research by including environmental factors influencing substance use disorders—one of the most pressing global public health problems. They demonstrate why inequities in risky substance use environments should be considered as an EJ issue and conclude that future research needs to examine where, why, and how inequities in risky substance use environments occur, the implications of such inequities for disparities in substance use disorders and treatment outcomes, and the implications for tobacco, alcohol, and drug policies as well as prevention and treatment programs. Clark-Reyna et al. [ 16 ] focus on chemicals known as metabolic disruptors that are of specific concern to children’s health and development. Their article examines the effect of residential concentrations of metabolic disrupting chemicals on children’s school performance in El Paso, Texas, USA. Results indicate that concentrations of metabolic disruptors are significantly associated with lower grade point averages directly and indirectly through body mass index. Findings from this study have important implications for future EJ research and chemical policy reform in the U.S.

Promoting and achieving EJ : While EJ scholars often focus on describing the injustices experienced by socially disadvantaged communities, several articles in this Special Issue direct attention toward efforts to achieve EJ through implementation of interventions to improve environmental knowledge and health [ 14 , 17 ], identification of avenues for sustainable and just community and societal change [ 1 , 8 , 9 , 13 ], and incorporation of EJ metrics in government programs [ 12 ]. In the area of interventions, Ramirez-Andreotta et al. [ 17 ] examine parental perceptions of the “report back” process after an exposure assessment. Results showed that parents coped with their challenging circumstances using data and that they made changes to reduce children’s exposure to contaminants. The findings suggest that providing information to EJ community members could be an effective strategy to reduce exposure, when immediate wider scale remediation is not possible. While Mankikar et al. [ 14 ] was summarized above, what is relevant here is that low income communities disproportionately face challenges from poor quality housing, especially renters. The promise of the type of intervention conducted by Mankikar et al. for achieving EJ is that it works to improve the environmental health of children. In terms of identifying avenues for change, Hornik et al. [ 9 ] examine stakeholder beliefs about how positive change should be made to ameliorate injustices related to water pollution in Milwaukee, WI, USA. In order to work towards EJ, the authors argue that is important to build mutual understanding among stakeholders and acknowledge the potential for complex interactions across scales of governance in order to mitigate conflicts. Related to avenues for achieving EJ, Finley-Brook and Holloman [ 1 ] emphasize the importance of involving communities in the participatory design of solutions and fairly distributing benefits. The energy case studies they review suggest that empowering approaches are feasible, but also highlight the potential for conflict between what is “green” and what is “just”. Petrescu-Mag et al. [ 13 ] explore EJ issues in a Roma community in Romania beset by environmental challenges associated with a landfill. Researchers engaged community residents in discussions about potential action options, and residents strongly preferred improving local on-site living opportunities at the dump. An examination of the process of selecting this option suggests that negotiations among stakeholders are required in order to begin to address environmental injustices. Jennings et al. [ 8 ] argue that it is critical for all communities to have access to cultural ecosystem services that influence social determinants of health in order to achieve health equity and promote physical and psychological well-being. Taking a different approach, Fairburn et al. [ 12 ] trace the development and diffusion of indices of multiple deprivation (IMD). EJ scholars have impacted public policy through the incorporation of environmental data into IMD in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland, and evidence suggests that IMD are potential catalysts for EJ as they enable decision-makers to make more equitable decisions.

Clarifying stakeholder perceptions of EJ issues : The EJ research framework has focused on objectively documenting conditions and processes that constitute environmental injustices. Based on this materialist foundation, less emphasis in EJ research has been placed on people’s subjectivities. Several articles in this Special Issue advance EJ research by examining and clarifying stakeholder subjectivities regarding EJ issues [ 9 , 11 , 18 , 19 ], which extends the research framework beyond the documentation of unjust conditions and processes. In Hornik et al.’s [ 9 ] study, which clarifies community group perceptions of EJ in the context of water sustainability initiatives in Milwaukee, WI, USA, stakeholders shared similar perspectives on environmental injustice as an everyday experience. However, they had divergent perspectives on how environmental injustices are produced and most effectively redressed, which has implications for promoting initiatives for EJ and sustainability. Teixeira and Zuberi [ 18 ] examine neighborhood perceptions of environmental health hazards among black youth in Pittsburgh, PA, USA. Youth identified the intersection of race and poverty, poor waste management, housing abandonment, and crime as salient neighborhood environmental concerns, and understood correctly (based on the authors’ analysis of secondary spatial data) that black vs. white neighborhoods in the city are characterized by unequal environments. Findings suggest that environmental conditions provide clearly recognizable indicators of injustice for youth, and, furthermore, that youth interpret the lack of response to unjust conditions to imply that no one cares. Songsore and Buzzelli [ 11 ] examine the role of Ontario, Canada media in amplifying people’s perceptions of wind energy development (WED) health risks and injustices. Scientific evidence for negative health effects of wind turbines is contested, yet provincial media legitimated concerns about serious health impacts, which amplified public health risk perceptions and aroused claims of procedural injustice regarding the lack of community participation in Ontario’s WED process. Findings highlight the importance of media in shaping perceptions of environmental injustice, and reveal how public perceptions of injustice may be cultivated to impede societal transitions toward renewable energy sources. Ard et al. [ 19 ] use multilevel models in a US national study of the roles of neighborhood social capital and exposure to industrial air pollution in explaining the racial gap in self-rated health between black, Hispanic, and white individuals. They found that individuals’ feelings of trust in neighbors of different social standing and perceptions of political empowerment largely accounted for lower self-rated health among African Americans (and partially accounted for it among Hispanics) relative to whites, while exposure to industrial air pollution was statistically irrelevant. Results suggest that people’s perceptions of well-being may be shaped largely by their social contexts, and that harmful environmental exposures may not always be of paramount importance in shaping those perceptions. Taken together, these articles underscore how people’s subjectivities deeply matter: they influence which phenomena are contested as EJ issues and condition possibilities for redressing environmentally unjust arrangements.

The wide array of environmental health hazards, communities, and countries represented in this Special Issue reflect the expanding scope and purpose of EJ research, which has broadened and transformed significantly in recent years. The articles cover topics ranging from energy, food, water, obesogenic chemicals, landfills, and greenspace. They document connections between unjust environmental exposures and health impacts; provide ideas for how to promote and achieve EJ; and clarify stakeholder perceptions of EJ issues. In doing so, the Special Issue illustrates the existence of multiple and compounding marginalities, but also the wide variety of approaches being employed to achieve EJ, in its many diverse forms.

Author Contributions

All three authors contributed to the organization, writing, and editing of this manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

News from the Columbia Climate School

Why Climate Change is an Environmental Justice Issue

September 21-27 is Climate Week in New York City. Join us for a series of online events and blog posts covering the climate crisis and pointing us towards action.

While COVID-19 has killed 200,000 Americans so far, communities of color have borne disproportionately greater impacts of the pandemic. Black, Indigenous and LatinX Americans are at least three times more likely to die of COVID than whites. In 23 states, there were 3.5 times more cases among American Indian and Alaskan Native communities than in white communities. Many of the reasons these communities of color are falling victim to the pandemic are the same reasons why they are hardest hit by the impacts of climate change.

How communities of color are affected by climate change

Climate change is a threat to everyone’s physical health, mental health, air, water, food and shelter, but some groups—socially and economically disadvantaged ones—face the greatest risks. This is because of where they live, their health, income, language barriers, and limited access to resources. In the U.S., these more vulnerable communities are largely the communities of color, immigrants, low-income communities and people for whom English is not their native language. As time goes on, they will suffer the worst impacts of climate change, unless we recognize that fighting climate change and environmental justice are inextricably linked.

The U.S. is facing warming temperatures and more intense and frequent heat waves as the climate changes. Higher temperatures lead to more deaths and illness, hospital and emergency room visits, and birth defects. Extreme heat can cause heat cramps, heat stroke, heat exhaustion, hyperthermia, and dehydration.

Disadvantaged communities have higher rates of health conditions such as heart disease, diabetes, asthma, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Heat stress can exacerbate heart disease and diabetes, and warming temperatures result in more pollen and smog, which can worsen asthma and COPD. Heat waves also affect birth outcomes. A study of the impact of California heat waves from 1999 to 2011 on infants found that mortality rates were highest for Black infants. Moreover, disadvantaged communities often lack access to good medical care and health insurance.

African Americans are three times more likely than whites to live in old, crowded or inferior housing; residents of homes with poor insulation and no air conditioning are particularly susceptible to the effects of increased heat. In addition, low-income areas in cities have been found to be five to 12 degrees hotter than higher income neighborhoods because they have fewer trees and parks, and more asphalt that retains heat.

Extreme weather events

While climate change cannot be definitively linked to any particular extreme weather event, incidents of heat waves, droughts, wildfires, heavy downpours, winter storms, floods and hurricanes have increased and climate change is expected to make them more frequent and intense.

Extreme weather events can cause injury, illness, and death. Changes in precipitation patterns and warming water temperatures enable bacteria, viruses, parasites and toxic algae to flourish; heavy rains and flooding can pollute drinking water and increase water contamination, potentially causing gastrointestinal illnesses like diarrhea and damaging livers and kidneys.

Extreme weather events also disrupt electrical power, water systems and transportation, as well as the communication networks needed to access emergency services and health care. Disadvantaged communities are particularly at risk because subpar housing with old infrastructure may be more vulnerable to power outages, water issues and damage. Residents of these communities may lack adequate health care, medicines, health insurance, and access to public health warnings in a language they can understand. In addition, they may not have access to transportation to escape the impacts of extreme weather, or home insurance and other resources to relocate or rebuild after a disaster. Communities of color are also less likely to receive adequate protection against disasters or a prompt response in case of emergencies. In addition to physical hardships, the stress and anxiety of dealing with these impacts of extreme weather can end up exacerbating mental health problems such as depression, post-traumatic stress and suicide.

Poor air quality

While climate change does not cause poor air quality , burning fossil fuels does; and climate change can worsen air quality. Heat waves cause air masses to remain stagnant and prevent air pollution from moving away. Warmer temperatures lead to the creation of more smog, particularly during summer. And wildfires, fueled by heat waves and drought, produce smoke that contains toxic pollutants.

Living with polluted air can lead to heart and lung diseases, aggravate allergies and asthma and cause premature death. People who live in urban areas with air pollution, or who have medical conditions such as hypertension, diabetes, asthma or COPD, are particularly vulnerable to the impacts of air pollution.

Black people are three times more likely to die from air pollution than white people. This is in part because they are 70 percent more likely to live in counties that are in violation of federal air pollution standards. A University of Minnesota study found that, on average, people of color are exposed to 38 percent higher levels of nitrogen dioxide outdoor air pollution than white people. One reason for the high COVID-19 death rate among African Americans is that cumulative exposure to air pollution leads to a significant increase in the COVID death rate, according to a new peer-reviewed study.

More people of color live in places that are polluted with toxic waste, which can lead to illnesses such as cancer, heart disease, high blood pressure and asthma. These pre-existing conditions put people at higher risk for the more severe effects of COVID-19.

The fact that disadvantaged communities are in some of the most polluted environments in the U.S. is no coincidence. Communities of color are often chosen as sites for landfills, chemical plants, bus terminals and other dirty businesses because corporations know it’s harder for these residents to object. They usually lack the connections to lawmakers who could protect them and can’t afford to hire technical or legal help to put up a fight. They may not understand how they will be impacted, perhaps because the information is not in their native language. A 1987 report showed that race was the single most important factor in determining where to locate a toxic waste facility in the U.S. It found that “Communities with the greatest number of commercial hazardous waste facilities had the highest composition of racial and ethnic residents.”

For example, while Blacks make up only 13 percent of the U.S. population, 68 percent live within 30 miles of a coal plant. LatinX people are 17 percent of the population, but 39 percent of them live near coal plants. A new report found that about 2,000 official and potential highly contaminated Superfund sites are at risk of flooding due to sea level rise; the areas around these sites are mainly communities of color and low-income communities.

The link between climate change and environmental justice

Mary Annaïse Heglar , a climate justice essayist and former writer-in-residence at the Earth Institute, asserts that climate change is actually the product of racism. “It started with conquest, genocides, slavery, and colonialism,” she wrote . “That is the moment when White men’s relationship with living things became extractive and disharmonious. Everything was for the taking; everything was for sale. The fossil fuel industry was literally built on the backs and over the graves of Indigenous people around the globe, as they were forced off their land and either slaughtered or subjugated — from the Arab world to Africa, from Asia to the Americas. Again, it was no accident.”

The harmful impacts of climate change are linked to historical neglect and racism. When Black people migrated North from the South in the early 20th century, many did not have jobs or money; consequently they were forced to live in substandard housing. Jim Crow laws in the South reinforced racial segregation, prohibiting Blacks from moving into white neighborhoods. In the 1930s through the 1960s, the federal government’s “redlining” policy denied federally backed mortgages and credit to minority neighborhoods. As a result, African Americans had limited access to better homes and all the advantages that went with them—a healthy environment, better schools and healthcare, and more food options.

Prime examples of environmental injustice

Poor sanitation in the U.S.

Catherine Flowers,  founder of the Center for Rural Enterprise and Environmental Justice and a senior fellow for the Center for Earth Ethics , which is affiliated with the Earth Institute, is from Lowndes County, Alabama. As a child growing up in a poor, mostly Black rural area with less than 10,000 residents, she used an outhouse before her family installed indoor plumbing. After leaving to get an education, Flowers returned to Alabama in 2002 and still saw extreme disparities in rural wastewater treatment. She visited many homes with sewage backing up into their homes or pooling in their yards, as many residents couldn’t afford onsite wastewater treatment. She is still advocating for proper sanitation in Lowndes. As a result of her work, Baylor College’s National School of Tropical Medicine conducted a peer-reviewed study which showed that over 30 percent of Lowndes County residents had hookworm and other tropical parasites due to poor sanitation.

”We’re also seeing that there is a relationship between [wastewater and] COVID infections,” added Flowers. “We don’t know exactly what it is yet—but you can actually measure wastewater to determine the level of infections in the community before people start showing up with the illness.” In Lowndes, one of every 18 residents has COVID-19; it is one of the highest infection rates in the U.S.

Today, Flowers works at the intersection between climate change and wastewater throughout the U.S. “The more we see sea level rise, the more we’re going to have wastewater problems,” she said. Her new book, Waste, One Woman’s Fight Against America’s Dirty Secret , due out in November, shows how proper sanitation is essential as climate change will likely bring sewage to more backyards everywhere, not just in poor communities.

Cancer Alley

An 85-mile stretch along the Mississippi River between Baton Rouge and New Orleans, Louisiana, hosts the densest concentration of petrochemical companies in the U.S. There have been so many cases of cancer and death in the area that it became known as “Cancer Alley.”

Most of these petrochemical plants are situated near towns that are largely poor and Black. There are 30 large plants within 10 miles of mostly Black St. Gabriel, with 13 within three miles. St. James Parish, whose population is roughly half Black and half white, has over 30 petrochemical plants, but the majority are located in the district that is 80 percent Black.

These plants not only emit greenhouse gases that are exacerbating climate change, but the particulate matter they expel can contain hundreds of different chemicals. Chronic exposure to this air pollution can lead to heart and respiratory illnesses and diabetes. As such, it is no surprise that St. James Parish is among the 20 U.S. counties with the highest per-capita death rates from COVID-19.

Despite efforts of the residents to fight back, seven new petrochemical plants have been approved since 2015; five more are awaiting approval.

Hurricane Katrina

In 2005, Hurricane Katrina, a Category 3 storm, caused extensive destruction in New Orleans and its environs. More than half of the 1,200 people who died were Black and 80 percent of the homes that were destroyed belonged to Black residents. The mostly Black neighborhoods of New Orleans East and the Lower Ninth Ward were hit hardest by Katrina because while the levees in white areas had been shored up after earlier hurricanes, these poorer neighborhoods had received less government funding for flood protection. After the hurricane, when initial plans for rebuilding were in process, white neighborhoods again got priority, even if they had experienced less flooding. Eventually federal funds were directed toward the rebuilding of parts of the Lower Ninth Ward and New Orleans East and the strengthening of their levees.

In 2014, the city of Flint, MI, whose population is 56.6 percent Black, decided to draw its drinking water from the polluted Flint River in order to save money until a new pipeline from Lake Huron could be built. Previously the city had brought in treated drinking water from Detroit. Because the river had been used by industry as an illegal waste dump for many years, the water was corrosive, but officials failed to treat it. As a result, the water leached lead from the city’s aging pipelines. Officials claimed the water was safe, but more than 40 percent of the homes had elevated lead levels. As almost 100,000 residents — including 9,000 children — drank lead-laced water, lead levels in the children’s blood doubled and tripled in some neighborhoods, putting them at high risk for neurological damage.

In October, 2015, the city began importing water from Detroit again. An ongoing project to replace lead service pipes is expected to be complete by the end of November. And just recently, Flint victims were awarded a settlement of $600 million, with 80 percent of it designated for the affected children.

Steps to achieve environmental justice

As the founder of the Center for Rural Enterprise and Environmental Justice, Catherine Flowers works to implement the best practices to reduce environmental injustice. Here are some key strategies she prescribes.

• Acknowledge the damage and try to repair it.
• Clean up sites where environmental damage has been done.
• Create an equitable system for decision-making so there is not an undue burden placed on disadvantaged communities. “Lobbyists that represent these [polluting] companies shouldn’t have more influence than the people who live in the area that are impacted by it,” said Flowers. “We need to make sure that the people that live in the community are sitting at the table when decisions are being made about what’s located in their community.”
• Call out the officials who are making decisions that are not in the best interest of the people they represent.
• Vote to put in place representatives that listen to their constituents rather than the people and companies that donate to them.
• Provide climate training to help people become more engaged. For example, the Climate Reality Project (Flowers sits on its board of directors) trains everyday people to fight for solutions and change in their communities.
• Partner with universities to conduct peer-reviewed studies of health impacts to help validate and draw attention to the experiences of disadvantaged communities.
• Build cleaner and greener. “We cannot discount the impact this could have on communities around the world,” said Flowers. “If we don’t pollute and we have a Green New Deal to build better, cleaner, and greener, then we won’t have these environmental justice issues.”

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Injustice of any kind? It really does not matter. Unless people change their idea of materialism madness and understand the fact that they are threatened, we will get nowhere. When was the last time humans have done much of anything out of compassion if it would alter their own lifestyles?

I wonder if governments (particularly of modernized nations like America, the UK and China) have purposely chosen to ignore the issue of climate change? I agree that most of it falls on things like industrial shipping, transportation and processing, but governemnt incentivization is another issue with climate justice as a whole.

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Home > Environmental Studies > Student Theses 2001-2013

Student Theses 2001-2013

Theses/dissertations from 2017 2017.

The Disappearing Wetland Act: Climate Change, Development, and Protection , Jessica P. Doughty

Theses/Dissertations from 2013 2013

The Centrality of Ecological Design: Achieving Sustainability in an Era of Free-Market Capitalist Framework , Eddy Andrade

A Vicious CERCLA, Or The Twilight of the Superfund , Donald Borenstein

Saving the World’s Remaining Tigers: Panthera’s Work and the Role of Non-Profits in Wildlife Conservation , John Byrne

New York City’s Water Challenges: History, Politics, and Design , Jessica Crowley

Giving Back to the Community: Addressing the Environmental Literacy Gap Through Socially and Environmentally Responsible Business Practices , David Garcia

Wasting Plates: Addressing Food Waste in the United States , Sarah Geuss

Too Pig to Fail: Considering Regulatory Solutions to the Environmental Damages Caused by Industrial Hog Farms in North Carolina , Samir Hafez

Sandy and the City: The Need for Coastal Policy Reform , Jonathan Hilburg

Drilling for Arctic Oil: Is it Worth the Risk? , Emily Kain

The Pedestrianization of New York City: An Environmental History and Critique of Urban Motorization and A Look at New York City’s New Era of Planning , Anna Kobara

Hurricane Sandy: Using Environmental History, Economics, Politics and Urban Planning to Prepare For the Next One , Julia Maguire

Our Failing Food System: Productivity Versus Sustainability , Alyson Murphy

Exploring the Drivers of CSR and Creating a Sustainable Corporate Institution: Environmental Education, Politics, and Business Practices , Eric Osuna

Composting Food Waste: A Method That Can Improve Soil Quality and Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions , Gentiana Quni

Assessment of Impact of Socioeconomic Factors on Conservation Awareness in the Tarangire-Manyara Ecosystem , Karianne Rivera

The Sustainable Future of the Metropolis: Greening New York City Building By Building , Lizbeth Sanchez

Trash Talk: Solid Waste Disposal in New York City , Alexander Williams

Hurricane Sandy: A Chance to Identify Vulnerabilities, Learn from the Past, and Increase Future Resiliency , Julianne Yee

Theses/Dissertations from 2012 2012

Going Green at New York-Presbyterian: Hospitals As Sustainable Businesses , Samantha Allegro

A Stronger Role For the United States President in Environmental Policy , Elizabeth Anderson

Simulating Climate Risk Into Markets and Policies: A New Approach to Financial Analysis and Policy Formation , Miguel Bantigue

Environmental Education Reform: Using Experiential Learning to Influence Environmental Policy-Making By Fostering a Sense of Environmental Citizenship and Eco-Literacy , Nicol Belletiere

Internship Report: Earthjustice & the Fracking Battle in New York's Marcellus Shale , John Byrne

Coal: How We Achieved Our Dependency and Its True Cost , Kelly Caggiano

Recycling Furniture: The Ecological, Economic and Social Benefits , Michele Calabrese

Internship Report UNEP: The Effects of Climate Change in Arctic Zones , Diana Cartaya-Acosta

Environmental Racism in South Africa: A Sustainable Green Solution , Danielle Darmofal

The Bronx, Beavers and Birthrights: The Case For Urban Wildlife , Richard Day

The Economics of Biodiversity , Paige Doyle

Environmental Communications: Case Study of New York City's Double Crested Cormorant , Marisa Galdi

Not a Walk In the Park: Environmental Justice in New York City , Lindsey Grier

The Economic and Environmental Justice Implications of Hydraulic Fracturing in 21st Century North America , Katie Medved

The Bottling Craze: Exposing the Environmental Effects of Bottled Vs. Tap Water , Michele Paccagnini

How the United States Will Find a Sustainable Future Through Increased Nuclear Productivity , Ian Pruitt

Group For the East End: The Role of Childhood Environmental Education in Improving Learning Behaviors and the Health of Humans and the Environment , Brian Riley

The Role of Modern Zoos in Wildlife Conservation: From the WCS to the Wild , John Scott

Global Climate Change Vs. Global Warming: What Is the Difference "Global Climate Change" and "Global Warming"? , Nadia Seeteram

Lost in Translation: Environmental Communication Issues in Media and Politics , Carolyn Wegemann

Theses/Dissertations from 2011 2011

The Ins and Outs of Corporate Greenwashing , Jennifer Bender

A River Runs Through It: Community Access to the Bronx River in Tremont and Hunts Point , Matthew Bodnar

The Future is Green; Urban Agriculture in the Bronx , Patty Gouris

All in Our Backyard: Exploring how Environmental Discrimination Affects Health and Social Conditions in the South Bronx , Mireille Martineau

Theses/Dissertations from 2010 2010

The Bronx River Alliance: A Model Community Action Organization And an Internship in Development , John Hinck

Enrique Reef: Degradation and Protective Measures , Dana Mitchell

The Human Population Growth and its Ecological Consequences on Kenya and Tanzania , Lauren Noll

Environmental Consciousness: Human Motivation for Thinking Ecologically , Rob Pigue

Economics of Carbon Regulation: An Exploration to the Nuance of Carbon Regulation , Timothy J. Schwartz

New York Botanical Garden Internship: From Photography to Policy , Christine Willeford

Theses/Dissertations from 2009 2009

Environmental Health and Climate Change: The Case of Lyme Disease , Matthew Abad

Recycling Tendencies of Fordham University's Population , Jeremy Aiss, Vincent Ammirato, Anamarie Beluch, and Christopher Torres

The Business of Sustainability , Andrea Brady

Waste Mismanagement: Fighting Environmental Injustice in Mott Haven and Hunts Point , Elizabeth Friedrich

Environmental Internship & The Fordham Eco-Roof Proposal , Anthony Giovannone

The Putnam Railroad Corridor Restoration Project: A Comprehensive Plan for Paired Ecological Restoration and Greenway Construction , Patrick J. Hopkins Jr.

Land Use Policy and Development on Long Island , Richard Murdocco

From the Bronx into the Wild! My Adventurous Experience at the Bronx Zoo , Lauren Noll

For the Birds! , Robert Patterson

Managing Infestation of the Invasive Viburnum Leaf Beetle (Pyrrhalta viburni) at the New York Botanical Garden , Gregory Russo

Environmental History of Japan , Amy Seagroves

Theses/Dissertations from 2008 2008

A Healthy Environment is a Healthy Body , Matthew Abad

Stormwater Runoff, Combined Sewer Overflow, and Environmental Justice in the Bronx , Natalie Collao

Solving a Crisis: Water Quality & Storm Water Infrastructure in New York City , Kelsey Ripper

The New Social Movement: Environmental Justice in the Bronx , Kelsey Ripper

Environmental Justice and Street Science: A Fusion of Community Knowledge and Environmental Health Justice to Address the Asthma Epidemic in Urban Communities , Natalie Robiou

Urban Wildlife and Leopold’s Land Ethic: “The squirrels on a college campus convey the same lesson as the redwoods. . . .” , Natalie Robiou

Unpasteurized Milk and Soft Cheese Outbreaks: An Overview of Consumer Safety , Taygan Yilmaz

Theses/Dissertations from 2007 2007

The Environmental Justice Movement in the United States , Harrison Delfin

Natural River Restoration in Urban Ecology: The Bronx River , Samuel P. Loor

Theses/Dissertations from 2006 2006

The H5N1 Avian Influenza Virus: Globalization, Climate Change, and Other Anthropogenic Factors in New Emergent Diseases , Quan Luong

The Environmental Effects of War , Philip Swintek

Theses/Dissertations from 2005 2005

Identification of Genetically Modified Organisms in Foodstuffs , Anamarie Beluch

The Moral Dilemma of Genetically Modified Foods (GMOs) , Anamarie Beluch

Theses/Dissertations from 2003 2003

The History of Community Gardens in New York City: The Role of Urban Agriculture and Green Roofs in Addressing Environmental Racism , Rosamarie Ridge

Theses/Dissertations from 2002 2002

Bronx River Restoration: Report and Assessment , Teresa Crimmens

Environmental Audit of the Rose Hill Campus , Nicole Marshall, Maria Nissi, Brian Flaherty, Carl Van Ostrand, and Ian McClelland

Theses/Dissertations from 2001 2001

Bronx River Restoration: Report and Assessment , Nicole Marshall

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Environmental studies theses and dissertations.

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• AN ACCUMULATION OF CATASTROPHE: A POLITICAL ECONOMY OF WILDFIRE IN THE WESTERN UNITED STATES  Dockstader, Sue ( University of Oregon , 2024-03-25 ) This dissertation is an environmental sociological study of wildland fire in what is now the western United States. It examines wildfire management from roughly the 1900s to the present time employing a Marxist historical ...
• Managing Life's Future: Species Essentialism and Evolutionary Normativity in Conservation Policy, Practice, and Imaginaries  Maggiulli, Katrina ( University of Oregon , 2024-01-10 ) Folk essentialist and normative understandings of species are not only prevalent in popular layperson communities, but also end up undergirding United States conservation policy and practice due to the simplistic clarity ...
• Unsettled Ecologies: Alienated Species, Indigenous Restoration, and U.S. Empire in a Time of Climate Chaos  Fink, Lisa ( University of Oregon , 2024-01-10 ) This dissertation traces environmental thinking about invasive species from Western-colonial, diasporic settlers of color, and Indigenous perspectives within U.S. settler colonialism. Considering environmental discourses ...
• Futuremaking in a Disaster Zone: Everyday Climate Change Adaptation amongst Quechua Women in the Peruvian Cordillera Blanca  Moulton, Holly ( University of Oregon , 2024-01-10 ) Indigenous women in Peru are often labeled “triply vulnerable” to climate change due to race, gender, and economic marginalization. Despite Peru’s focus on gender, Indigeneity, and intersectionality in national adaptation ...
• Land Acts: Land's Agency in American Literature, Law, and History from the Colonial Period to Removal  Keeler, Kyle ( University of Oregon , 2024-01-10 ) This dissertation examines land’s agency and relationships to land in the places now known as the United States as these relationships appear in literature and law from early colonization to the removal period. Land Acts ...
• PALEOTEMPERATURE, VEGETATION CHANGE, FIRE HISTORY, AND LAKE PRODUCTIVITY FOR THE LAST 14,500 YEARS AT GOLD LAKE, PACIFIC NORTHWEST, USA  Baig, Jamila ( University of Oregon , 2024-01-09 ) The postglacial history of vegetation, wildfire, and climate in the Cascade Range (Oregon) is only partly understood. This study uses high-resolution analysis from a 13-meter, 14,500-year sediment core from Gold Lake to ...
• On Western Juniper Climate Relations  Reis, Schyler ( University of Oregon , 2022-10-26 ) Western juniper woodlands are highly sensitive to climate in terms of tree-ring growth, seedling establishment and range distribution. Understanding the dynamics of western juniper woodlands to changes in precipitation, ...
• Stories We Tell, Stories We Eat: Mexican Foodways, Cultural Identity, and Ideological Struggle in Netflix’s Taco Chronicles  Sanchez, Bela ( University of Oregon , 2022-10-26 ) Food is a biological necessity imbued with numerous social, cultural, and economic implications for identity production and everyday meaning-making. Food television is a unique medium for the meanings of food and foodways ...
• Soil Nutrient Additions Shift Orthopteran Herbivory and Invertebrate Community Composition  Altmire, Gabriella ( University of Oregon , 2022-10-26 ) Anthropogenic alterations to global pools of nitrogen and phosphorus are driving declines in plant diversity across grasslands. As such, concern over biodiversity loss has precipitated a host of studies investigating how ...
• Multispecies Memoir: Self, Genre, and Species Justice in Contemporary Culture  Otjen, Nathaniel ( University of Oregon , 2022-10-04 ) Liberal humanism articulates an individual, rational, autonomous, universal, and singularly human subject that possesses various rights and freedoms. Although the imagined subject at the heart of liberal humanist philosophy ...
• Understanding How Changes in Disturbance Regimes and Long-Term Climate Shape Ecosystem and Landscape Structure and Function  Wright, Jamie ( University of Oregon , 2022-10-04 ) Long-term and anthropic climatic change intersecting with disturbances alters ecosystem structure and function across spatiotemporal scales. Quantifying ecosystem responses can be convoluted, therefore utilizing multiproxy ...
• Ikpíkyav (To Fix Again): Drawing From Karuk World Renewal To Contest Settler Discourses Of Vulnerability  Vinyeta, Kirsten ( University of Oregon , 2022-10-04 ) The Klamath River Basin of Northern California has historically been replete with fire-adapted ecosystems and Indigenous communities. For the Karuk Tribe, fire has been an indispensable tool for both spiritual practice and ...
• Grassland Restoration in Heterogeneous, Changing, and Human Dominated Systems  Brambila, Alejandro ( University of Oregon , 2022-10-04 ) Ecological restoration is a powerful tool to promote biodiversity and ecosystem function. Understanding underlying system variability and directional change can help predict outcomes of restoration interventions. Spatial ...
• Restoring What? And for Whom? Listening to Karuk Ecocultural Revitalization Practitioners and Uncovering Settler Logics in Ecological Restoration.  Worl, Sara ( University of Oregon , 2022-05-10 ) What does it mean to restore a landscape degraded by settler colonialism? How might a well intentionedprocess like ecological restoration end up causing harm from underlying settler colonial logics? This thesis explores ...
• Instigating Communities of Solidarity: An Exploration of Participatory, Informal, Temporary Urbanisms  Meier, Briana ( University of Oregon , 2021-11-23 ) This dissertationexamines the potential for participatory, informal urbanisms to buildcollaborative relations across ontological, cultural, and political difference. This research contributes to thefield of urban, environmental ...
• The Holy Oak School of Art and Ecology: A Proposal for Arts-Based Environmental Education Programming  Best, Krysta ( University of Oregon , 2021-11-23 ) The following is a proposal for arts-based environmental education programming in elementary schools, after-school programs, and day-camp programs, entitled the Holy School of Art and Ecology. Ecophenomenological, arts-based ...
• Settler Colonial Listening and the Silence of Wilderness in the Boundary Waters Canoe Area  Hilgren, Bailey ( University of Oregon , 2021-11-23 ) The Boundary Waters Canoe Area soundscape in northern Minnesota has a long and contested history but is most often characterized today as a pristine and distinctly silent wilderness. This thesis traces the construction and ...
• Species Dynamics and Restoration in Rare Serpentine Grasslands under Global Change  Hernandez, Eliza ( University of Oregon , 2021-11-23 ) Conserving rare serpentine grasslands is a challenge with ongoing nitrogen deposition. Nutrient-poor patches are fertilized by nitrogen-rich smog and exotic grasses can rapidly spread. Water resources are also being altered ...
• Place-making and Place-taking: An Analysis of Green Gentrification in Atlanta Georgia  Okotie-Oyekan, Aimée ( University of Oregon , 2021-11-23 ) Despite the benefits of urban greenspace, Atlanta’s Westside Park is causing gentrification and displacement pressures in Grove Park, a low-income African-American community in northwest Atlanta, Georgia. This study used ...
• Prairie Plant Responses to Climate Change in the Pacific Northwest  Reed, Paul ( University of Oregon , 2021-09-13 ) Understanding how plants respond to climate change is of paramount importance since their responses can affect ecosystem functions and patterns of biodiversity. At the population level, climate change may alter phenology ...

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Christopher Flavelle reported from a decommissioned aircraft carrier in Alameda, Calif. He spoke with scientists, environmentalists and government officials.

• Published April 2, 2024 Updated April 3, 2024, 12:19 p.m. ET

A little before 9 a.m. on Tuesday, an engineer named Matthew Gallelli crouched on the deck of a decommissioned aircraft carrier in San Francisco Bay, pulled on a pair of ear protectors, and flipped a switch.

A few seconds later, a device resembling a snow maker began to rumble, then produced a great and deafening hiss. A fine mist of tiny aerosol particles shot from its mouth, traveling hundreds of feet through the air.

It was the first outdoor test in the United States of technology designed to brighten clouds and bounce some of the sun’s rays back into space, a way of temporarily cooling a planet that is now dangerously overheating. The scientists wanted to see whether the machine that took years to create could consistently spray the right size salt aerosols through the open air, outside of a lab.

If it works, the next stage would be to aim at the heavens and try to change the composition of clouds above the Earth’s oceans.

As humans continue to burn fossil fuels and pump increasing amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, the goal of holding global warming to a relatively safe level, 1.5 degrees Celsius compared with preindustrial times, is slipping away. That has pushed the idea of deliberately intervening in climate systems closer to reality.

Universities, foundations, private investors and the federal government have started to fund a variety of efforts, from sucking carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere to adding iron to the ocean in an effort to store carbon dioxide on the sea floor.

“Every year that we have new records of climate change, and record temperatures, heat waves, it’s driving the field to look at more alternatives,” said Robert Wood, the lead scientist for the team from the University of Washington that is running the marine cloud brightening project. “Even ones that may have once been relatively extreme.”

Brightening clouds is one of several ideas to push solar energy back into space — sometimes called solar radiation modification, solar geoengineering, or climate intervention. Compared with other options, such as injecting aerosols into the stratosphere, marine cloud brightening would be localized and use relatively benign sea salt aerosols as opposed to other chemicals.

And yet, the idea of interfering with nature is so contentious, organizers of Tuesday’s test kept the details tightly held, concerned that critics would try to stop them. Although the Biden administration is funding research into different climate interventions, including marine cloud brightening, the White House distanced itself from the California study, sending a statement to The New York Times that read: “The U.S. government is not involved in the Solar Radiation Modification (SRM) experiment taking place in Alameda, CA, or anywhere else.”

David Santillo, a senior scientist at Greenpeace International, is deeply skeptical of proposals to modify solar radiation. If marine cloud brightening were used at a scale that could cool the planet, the consequences would be hard to predict, or even to measure, he said.

“You could well be changing climatic patterns, not just over the sea, but over land as well,” he said. “This is a scary vision of the future that we should try and avoid at all costs.”

Karen Orenstein, director of the Climate and Energy Justice Program at Friends of the Earth U.S., a nonprofit environmental group, called solar radiation modification “an extraordinarily dangerous distraction.” She said the best way to address climate change would be to quickly pivot away from burning fossil fuels.

On that last point, the cloud researchers themselves agree.

“I hope, and I think all my colleagues hope, that we never use these things, that we never have to,” said Sarah Doherty, an atmospheric scientist at the University of Washington and the manager of its marine cloud brightening program.

She said there were potential side effects that still needed to be studied, including changing ocean circulation patterns and temperatures, which might hurt fisheries. Cloud brightening could also alter precipitation patterns, reducing rainfall in one place while increasing it elsewhere.

But it’s vital to find out whether and how such technologies could work, Dr. Doherty said, in case society needs them. And no one can say when the world might reach that point.

In 1990, a British physicist named John Latham published a letter in the journal Nature, under the heading “Control of Global Warming?,” in which he introduced the idea that injecting tiny particles into clouds could offset rising temperatures.

Dr. Latham later attributed his idea to a hike with his son in Wales, where they paused to look at clouds over the Irish Sea.

“He asked why clouds were shiny at the top but dark at the bottom,” Dr. Latham told the BBC in 2007 . “I explained how they were mirrors for incoming sunlight.”

Dr. Latham had a proposal that may have seemed bizarre: create a fleet of 1,000 unmanned, sail-powered vessels to traverse the world’s oceans and continuously spray tiny droplets of seawater into the air to deflect solar heat away from Earth.

The idea is built on a scientific concept called the Twomey effect: Large numbers of small droplets reflect more sunlight than small numbers of large droplets. Injecting vast quantities of minuscule aerosols, in turn forming many small droplets, could change the composition of clouds.

“If we can increase the reflectivity by about 3 percent, the cooling will balance the global warming caused by increased C02 in the atmosphere,” Dr. Latham, who died in 2021 , told the BBC. “Our scheme offers the possibility that we could buy time.”

A version of marine cloud brightening already happens every day, according to Dr. Doherty.

As ships travel the seas, particles from their exhaust can brighten clouds, creating “ship tracks,” behind them. In fact, until recently, the cloud brightening associated with ship tracks offset about 5 percent of climate warming from greenhouse gases, Dr. Doherty said.

Ironically, as better technology and environmental regulations have reduced the pollution emitted by ships, that inadvertent cloud brightening is fading, as well as the cooling that goes along with it.

A deliberate program of marine cloud brightening could be done with sea salts, rather than pollution, Dr. Doherty said.

Brightening clouds is no easy task. Success requires getting the size of the aerosols just right: Particles that are too small would have no effect, said Jessica Medrado, a research scientist working on the project. Too big and they could backfire, making clouds less reflective than before. The ideal size are submicron particles about 1/700th the thickness of a human hair, she said.

Next, you need to be able to expel a lot of those correctly sized aerosols into the air: A quadrillion particles, give or take, every second. “You cannot find any off-the-shelf solution,” Dr. Medrado said.

The answer to that problem came from some of the most prominent figures in America’s technology industry.

In 2006, the Microsoft founder, Bill Gates, got a briefing from David Keith, one of the leading researchers in solar geoengineering, which is the idea of trying to reflect more of the sun’s rays. Mr. Gates began funding Dr. Keith and Ken Caldeira, another climate scientist and a former software developer, to further their research.

The pair considered the idea of marine cloud brightening but wondered if it was feasible.

So they turned to Armand Neukermans, a Silicon Valley engineer with a doctorate in applied physics from Stanford and 74 patents. One of his early jobs was at Xerox, where he devised a system to produce and spray ink particles for copiers. Dr. Caldeira asked if he could develop a nozzle that would spray not ink, but sea salt aerosols.

Intrigued, Dr. Neukermans, who is now 83, lured some of his old colleagues out of retirement and began research in a borrowed lab in 2009, with $300,000 from Mr. Gates. They called themselves the Old Salts.

The team worked on the problem for years, eventually landing on a solution: By pushing air at extremely high pressure through a series of nozzles, they could create enough force to smash salt crystals into exceedingly small particles of just the right size.

Their work moved to a larger laboratory at the Palo Alto Research Center, a former Xerox research facility now owned by SRI International, a independent nonprofit research institute. Dr. Medrado became the lead engineer for the project two years ago. By the end of last year, the sprayer had been assembled and was waiting in a warehouse near San Francisco.

The machine was ready. The team needed somewhere to test it.

As the researchers were perfecting the sprayer, a profound transformation was happening outside their laboratory.

Since Dr. Latham first proposed the idea of marine cloud brightening, the concentration of heat-trapping gases in the atmosphere has increased by about 20 percent. Last year was the hottest in recorded history and the World Meteorological Organization projects that 2024 will be another record year . Global ocean temperatures have been at record highs for the past year.

As the effects of climate change continue to grow, so has interest in some sort of backup plan. In 2020, Congress directed the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration to study solar radiation modification. In 2021, the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine published a report saying the United States should “cautiously pursue” research into the idea. Last month, scientists from NOAA and other federal agencies proposed a road map for researching marine cloud brightening.

Interest is growing overseas, as well. In February, an Australian team of researchers at Southern Cross University, which was advised by Dr. Neukermans, conducted a monthlong experiment off the country’s northeast coast, spraying aerosols from a ship and measuring the response of clouds.

Daniel P. Harrison, the lead researcher, called the tests “the smallest of baby steps aimed at confirming and refining the underpinning theory in the real world.” He said it was too early to discuss any findings.

Private funding is also growing. Kelly Wanser is a former technology executive who helped establish the marine cloud brightening project at the University of Washington. In 2018 she created SilverLining , a nonprofit organization to advance research into what she calls “near-term climate interventions” like cloud brightening.

Ms. Wanser’s group is contributing part of the funding for the research at the University of Washington and SRI, which is budgeted at about $10 million over three years, she said. That includes the study aboard the Hornet, which is expected to cost about $1 million a year.

Finding money for that work has gotten easier as record heat has “really shifted attitudes” among funders, Ms. Wanser said. Donors include the Quadrature Climate Foundation, the Pritzker Innovation Fund and the Cohler Charitable Fund, established by the former Facebook executive Matt Cohler, according to Ms. Wanser.

Last year, Ms. Wanser spoke with a member of the board that runs the Hornet, which now operates as a museum affiliated with the Smithsonian. Would they host a first-of-its-kind study?

The museum agreed. The test was a go.

The flight deck of the Hornet rises 50 feet above the shore of Alameda, a small town on the east side of San Francisco Bay. On Tuesday, it held a series of finely calibrated sensors, perched atop a row of scissor lifts reaching into the air.

Underneath a United States flag at the far end of the flight deck was the sprayer: Shiny blue, roughly the shape and size of a spotlight, with a ring of tiny steel nozzles around its three-foot-wide mouth. The researchers call it CARI, for Cloud Aerosol Research Instrument.

On one side of the sprayer was a box the size of a shipping container that housed a pair of compressors, which fed highly pressurized air to the sprayer through a thick, black hose. On the other side was a tank of water. A series of switches, turned in careful sequence, fed the water and air into the device, which then shot a fine mist toward the sensors.

The goal was to determine whether the aerosols leaving the sprayer, which had been carefully manipulated to reach a specific size, remained that size as they rushed through the air in different wind and humidity conditions. It will take months to analyze the results. But the answers could determine whether marine cloud brightening would work, and how, according to Dr. Wood.

Ms. Wanser said she hoped the testing, which could continue for months or longer, will demystify the concept of climate intervention technologies. Toward that aim, the equipment will remain on the Hornet and be on display during hours when the ship is open to the public. Even if the equipment is not ultimately used to cool the planet, the data it generates can add to the understanding of how pollution and other aerosols interact with clouds, the researchers said.

Dr. Wood estimated that scientists could need another decade of tests before they were in a position to potentially use marine cloud brightening at the scale required to cool the Earth.

Ms. Wanser is already looking ahead to the next phase of that research. “The next step is go out to the ocean,” she said, “aim up the spray a little higher, and touch clouds.”

Christopher Flavelle is a Times reporter who writes about how the United States is trying to adapt to the effects of climate change. More about Christopher Flavelle

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In memoriam: Bunyan Bryant (1935–2024)

Bunyan Bryant, a pioneer in the field of environmental justice and a beloved professor at the University of Michigan School for Environment and Sustainability (SEAS) who for four decades shepherded and inspired thousands of social and racial justice advocates, died peacefully at home in Ann Arbor on March 28, 2024, after a short battle with cancer. He was 89.

Jean Rae Carlberg, Bryant’s loving companion of 63 years and wife of 31 years, was by his side.

Countless former students, colleagues, friends, and activists are mourning Bryant, who had a profound influence not only at SEAS, where he helped to establish the nation’s first environmental justice program, but on the broader environmental justice community, which continues to follow Bryant’s lead of advocating for people of color and marginalized communities that are fighting against systemic racism and environmental hazards.

“The world has been a better place with Bunyan’s vision, determination, compassion and involvement,” said SEAS Professor Paul Mohai, Bryant’s longtime friend and collaborator of more than 30 years. “He had a deep compassion for other people and humanity at large, and I will miss him greatly.”

“Bunyan’s legacy of advancing environmental justice will not be forgotten,” added SEAS Dean Jonathan Overpeck. “For more than four decades, Bunyan taught and mentored SEAS students, modeling for them how to be effective advocates for equity and justice in communities that face environmental racism. Thanks to Bunyan’s tireless passion for creating change, his legacy as an environmental justice pioneer will live on in future generations of advocates.”

Bryant joined SEAS in 1972 and was the first African American professor on the faculty. Known then as the School of Natural Resources (SNR), Bryant and SEAS Professor Emeritus and Dean Emeritus James Crowfoot were recruited to begin the school’s Environmental Advocacy Program, a student-driven initiative that blended environmental courses with social justice activism. It later became the Environmental Justice program in 1992, the first program of its kind in the nation to offer undergraduate and graduate degree specializations.

In his 2022 memoir, “Educator and Activist: My Life and Times in the Quest for Environmental Justice,” Bryant noted that he “knew nothing about natural resources or the environment, nor was he interested in these topics.” Still, his interest was piqued enough that he decided to give a presentation to students and faculty as part of the interview process. 

“We were being asked to build from scratch a program unlike any other program in the nation; there were no models to emulate,” Bryant wrote in his memoir. “Sometimes, I thought it would be exciting to be a trailblazer in uncharted waters, while at other times, I felt it was foolhardy because the probability of failure would be higher than average. I’d also heard there had been quite a heated discussion as to whether environmental advocacy belonged in the school. It was not just me as an individual who was at issue, but also the program that Jim and I were hired to build.

“Nonetheless, I accepted the offer to join SNR,” he added. “Thus began a 40-year academic connection that would change my life forever.”

Born on March 6, 1935, in Little Rock, Arkansas, during the Great Depression, Bryant grew up in a loving, close-knit family in a “Black neighborhood sandwiched between two white communities.” Though Bryant described a somewhat idyllic childhood in his memoir, he also noted there was a “world of dangers surrounding a young Black boy growing up in the American South in the 1930s and 1940s. And despite the best efforts of my family to shelter me, it didn’t take long for me to become aware of those dangers.” 

As Bryant grew older, he began to see evidence of a segregated South that was visible everywhere—from posted signs that indicated “For Whites Only” or “Colored Served at the Rear” to “rules of subservience that a young Black male had to obey if he hoped to survive.”

Lured by the promise of better-paying jobs, Bryant and his family moved north to Flint, Michigan, in 1943, where, as part of the Great Migration, they sought better economic and social conditions. Bryant was 8 years old.

He graduated from Flint Northern High School and worked briefly at General Motors before earning a BS in social science from Eastern Michigan University. Bryant went on to earn two degrees from U-M: a master’s degree in social work and a PhD in education.

As a U-M student in the 1960s, Bryant became involved in civil rights activism—even filing a complaint with the Michigan Civil Rights Commission about a racially discriminatory housing policy after he was refused rental of an apartment unit in Ann Arbor—and befriended another activist, Jean Carlberg, who would later become his wife and lifelong partner. Carlberg is a retired teacher of history, mathematics and French who previously served on the Ann Arbor City Council and other commissions.

It was while completing his doctoral thesis at U-M’s School of Education that Bryant and his eventual collaborator Jim Crowfoot were approached about developing the curriculum for the Environmental Advocacy Program at SEAS, which would combine Bryant’s background in education, social work, and the civil rights movement with Crowfoot’s expertise in organizational psychology.

“Both of us were shaping our careers to be involved in processes of social change involving equity and justice,” Crowfoot recalled about he and Bryant’s beginnings. “We had worked together for a few years in a graduate student-led research and action group at U-M that was doing intervention work and research on reform in schools, particularly high schools in the United States. That’s how Bryant and I met each other and came to work together.

“As I look back on my career,  the Environmental Advocacy Program was a life-changing opportunity, and core to it was my collaboration with Bryant,” added Crowfoot, who worked side by side with Bryant for 10 years before becoming dean. 

“Bryant had an incredible vision about the potential for change, and he was a fantastic educator. He also had an incredible ability to collaborate and move forward under very trying circumstances. Certainly being the only Black faculty member in the School of Natural Resources at that time and for several years afterwards, was a tremendous act of courage and skill on his part. He kept working in innovative ways with students and constituencies beyond the university when his home base was anything but hospitable.”

The Environment Advocacy Program grew to national prominence under Bryant’s leadership and in partnership with Paul Mohai, another environmental justice scholar with expertise in quantitative research skills. Mohai joined the SEAS faculty in 1987. 

In what Bryant called a “seminal year,” he and Mohai organized and led the groundbreaking 1990 Michigan Conference on Race and the Incidence of Environmental Hazards, held on the U-M campus that January. 

Twelve scholar-activists, mostly people of color, were invited to present papers at the conference, which proved to be an “intense and electrifying experience,” according to Bryant. There were also participant observers from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the Michigan governor’s office, the state departments of natural resources and public health, and Ann Arbor’s Ecology Center.

Two major outcomes resulted from the conference: Bryant and Mohai published “Race and the Incidence of Environmental Hazards,” one of the first major scholarly books examining the links between race, class and environmental hazards, and it led to the creation of the Office of Environmental Equity and subsequently the Office of Environmental Justice in the U.S. EPA.

“It was exciting to collaborate with Bunyan and see the amazing impact it had so quickly,” Mohai said about the groundbreaking conference, “including catalyzing conference participants to draft on the spot a letter requesting meetings with the heads of the U.S. EPA, the White House Council on Environmental Quality, and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services to inform them and prompt them to action.”

As a result, then U.S. EPA Administrator William Reilly met with Bryant, Mohai, and other key members of the Michigan Conference in September 1990. “Bunyan was superb in leading our group of eight (dubbed the ‘Michigan Group’ by the EPA) at the meeting and ensuring that there would be many more meetings to come,” said Mohai. “It was clear, with all his top staff present and the words the administrator spoke, that the EPA was going to do something significant to address and advance policy on environmental racism and injustice.”

The conference helped to legitimize environmental justice as an academic endeavor and contributed to President Bill Clinton years later signing Executive Order 12898 to address environmental justice in minority and low-income populations.

“Of course, the efforts of the Michigan Coalition didn’t solve the problems of environmental injustice that plague American society—not by a long shot,” Bunyan wrote in his memoir. “But we succeeded in getting those problems on the national agenda, which is an all-important first step toward addressing them.”

In 1990, another important milestone occurred for Bryant and Mohai when they were appointed faculty investigators of the U-M Detroit Area Study on Race and Environmental Hazards, the first survey research study at the time to study white and African American attitudes about environmental issues in the Detroit metropolitan area. It was also the first environmental justice analysis ever conducted in the metro area, examining the concentration of poor and African American residents around hazardous waste sites and polluting industrial facilities. 

Bryant continued teaching at SEAS until his retirement in 2012, influencing countless students along the way, including Michelle Martinez (MS ’08), who is the inaugural director of the Tishman Center for Social Justice and the Environment at SEAS and an influential environmental justice advocate in Detroit.

“Bunyan provided a social and political framework for change through different kinds of participatory research,” Martinez said. “He labored to help students understand the long arc of leadership in marginalized communities. He took the time to explain how good healthy group dynamics enhanced our outcomes. He helped to advocate for us against those who sought to replicate some of the bad behaviors of the past. And he demonstrated what it looks like to be a good steward of knowledge and social change.

“I would not have known that environmental justice was a field without his influence,” she added, “nor would I have selected the professional path I have now without his guidance.”

At the time of Bunyan’s retirement, SEAS hosted a conference, “Honoring the Career of Bunyan Bryant: The Legacy and Future of Environmental Justice,” in recognition of his contributions to the field. He also returned to SEAS in 2020 when the school celebrated the 30th anniversary of the historic EJ conference Bryant helped to spearhead, which featured national and regional leaders in the EJ movement. 

Bryant received numerous awards and accolades throughout his career, including the School of Natural Resources and Environment Outstanding Teaching Award in 2000 and later a promotion to the Arthur F. Thurnau Professorship. In 2004, he was the recipient of the Ernest A. Lynton Award for Faculty Professional Service and Academic Outreach. His advocacy also was recognized by his hometown of Flint in 2008 with the Lifetime Leadership Award and later in 2017, when he was presented the Environmental Justice Champion Award at the Flint Environmental Justice Summit.

Bryant remained connected to SEAS and closely followed its news and activities until his death. Ever the mentor, he was asked shortly after his cancer diagnosis if he wished to impart any final words of wisdom to the next generation of environmental justice advocates. He shared the following advice: 

“Always be hopeful, because that is a source of energy that will enable and inspire your work and your vision for the future,” Bryant said. “With hope comes new visions and possibilities of social and environmental justice. Use the scientific and/or evidence-based knowledge that you have accumulated during your stay with us humbly and in concert with the people you are serving. 

“And, take good care of yourself so that you can continue your work well into the future.”

A celebration of life for Bryant will be held on May 4, 2024, at 11 a.m. at First Unitarian Universalist Congregation, 4001 Ann Arbor-Saline Rd, Ann Arbor, MI. Family visitation will begin at 10 a.m. 

To leave a memory and condolence, visit the obituary on MLive .

Risdel Kasasira, Associated Press Risdel Kasasira, Associated Press

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• Copy URL https://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/ugandan-court-rejects-bid-to-nullify-anti-gay-law-that-provides-for-the-death-penalty-in-some-cases

Ugandan court rejects bid to nullify anti-gay law that provides for the death penalty in some cases

KAMPALA, Uganda (AP) — Uganda’s Constitutional Court on Wednesday upheld an anti-gay law that allows the death penalty for “aggravated homosexuality” despite widespread condemnation from rights groups and others abroad.

President Yoweri Museveni signed the bill into law in May last year. The law is supported by many in the East African country, where some see it as behavior imported from abroad and not a sexual orientation.

One activist petitioner quickly vowed to appeal to the Supreme Court,

Constitutional Court judges said the law was legally passed by parliament and does not violate the constitution. Homosexuality was already illegal in Uganda under a colonial-era law criminalizing sexual activity “against the order of nature.” The punishment for that offense is life imprisonment.

The law in question defines “aggravated homosexuality” as cases of homosexual relations involving a minor and other categories of vulnerable people, or when the perpetrator is infected with HIV. A suspect convicted of “attempted aggravated homosexuality” can be imprisoned for up to 14 years, and the offense of “attempted homosexuality” is punishable by up to 10 years.

WATCH: U.S. support for LGBTQ+ rights is declining after decades of support. Here’s why

The court, however, ruled that members of the gay community should not be discriminated against when seeking medication. Uganda was one of the earliest and hardest hit countries when AIDS emerged, and public health experts have long warned against letting stigma or fear of punishment impede access to care.

“They should be medically and culturally accepted,” Deputy Chief Justice Richard Buteera said.

One of the 14 petitioners, Andrew Mwenda, said they would appeal.

“What we have witnessed in court is what I would call a temporary reversal in an overall strategic battle or a strategic war against cultural bigotry and prejudice, so we are going to appeal to the Supreme Court, not for striking down the different components of this law but for overturning this law into its entirety,” he said.

The U.N. commissioner for human rights, Volker Turk, in a statement expressed dismay at the court’s decision and called on Uganda’s government to repeal the law. He said nearly 600 people have been reportedly subjected to rights violations and abuses based on their actual or assumed sexual orientation or gender identity since the law was enacted in May.

When the law was passed, the U.N. human rights office called it ”a recipe for systematic violations of the rights” of LGBTQ+ people and others. U.S. President Joe Biden called the law “a tragic violation of universal human rights — one that is not worthy of the Ugandan people, and one that jeopardizes the prospects of critical economic growth for the entire country.”

The World Bank halted new loans to Uganda, saying additional measures were necessary to ensure projects align with the bank’s environmental and social standards.

Homosexuality is criminalized in more than 30 of Africa’s 54 countries.

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2024 three-minute thesis competition finalists announced, graduate students will compete in the final event on april 11.

2023 3MT winners from left to right: Keely Rodriguez, Kendra Isable, Candi Block, Isabel Penaloza, Fatema Azmee, Yu Rong and Justice Best.

The buzz is back with the Graduate School’s annual Three-Minute Thesis (3MT) Competition this spring! Earlier this month, 42 graduate students rocked the stage in front of a live audience all vying for a chance to advance to the final round and win cash prizes.

A panel of esteemed University faculty and postdocs had the challenging task of judging this year’s preliminary event, evaluating students’ presentation skills and research content. If you are unfamiliar with 3MT, it is an annual spectacle where master’s and doctoral students are tasked with condensing their research into a lightning-fast, three-minute presentation with only a single slide. It is an adrenaline-fueled sprint through the world of academia!

Since 2015, the Graduate School has hosted this event, showcasing the power, beauty and brilliance of graduate education at the University. In addition, recent winners of this competition have gone on to compete, and place, in regional 3MT competitions putting the University on the map as a hotbed of intellectual prowess.

We are thrilled to announce this year’s 16 finalists (see below) and cannot wait for the final showdown. The 3MT final round of competition is set to take place on Thursday, April 11, at 7 p.m. in the Wells Fargo Auditorium at the Mathewson-IGT Knowledge Center. Students, family, faculty and community members are invited to join us and witness firsthand the awe-inspiring brilliance of our scholars. For those who cannot attend in person, the event will be live-streamed via Zoom so please register here on Formstack to receive the information.

Congratulations to the 2024 3MT finalists! Good luck on April 11.

(The finalists below are listed alphabetically by last name.)

Master’s Category:

• M.A. Criminal Justice 
• "What do our phones teach us about incarceration? A social media content analysis"
• M.S. Ecology, Evolution and Conservation Biology
• “Sustaining the beating heart of Cambodia: Fisheries management in southeast Asia's largest lake”
• “Zeroing in on gun violence”
• M.S. Biochemistry
• “May the pericytes be with you: Transport engineers you never knew existed!”
• M.S. Chemistry
• “Chemically recyclable dithioacetal polymers”
• M.A. History
• “Pushed to the limit: How the 1998 China floods revolutionized the relationship between China and the natural world”
• M.S. Teaching History (M.A.T.H.)
• “Dust in the wind dude: The Owens Valley everywhere except, in the Owens Valley”
• “Winterfat restoration in a changing climate”  

Doctoral Category:

• Ph.D. History
• “Creating the Enemy: The origins of the inter-American Cold War in the 1940s”
• Ph.D. Biomedical Engineering
• “Electrifying the fight-or-flight response: Nanosecond electric pulses for neuromodulation “
• Ph.D. Education - Literacy Studies
• “P re-service teachers experiences teaching K-8 Multilingual Students' (MLS) writing”
• Ph.D. Clinical Psychology
• “Identifying predictors of racial trauma to inform treatment development “
• Ph.D. Cell and Molecular Biology
• “Lighting the way: Tools to prepare for future pandemics”
• Ph.D. Education - Equity, Diversity and Language
• “Bridging the gaps: Evaluating the intervention programs to overcome academic disparities”
• Ph.D. Civil and Environmental Engineering
• “Accelerating bridge construction connections behavior during near fault motions”
• Ph.D. Political Science
• “Tough sell: Rising powers, domestic legitimation and costly international initiatives”

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