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Ecotourism – Case Study

Case Study of Ecotourism in Kenya – The Kimana Project Three-quarters of wildlife in Kenya can be found outside of the National Parks. A large amount of the land outside of Kenya’s National Parks is owned by the Masai Mara. Three tented camps have been set up on Masai land in Kimana, located between the migration route from the Amboseli and Tsavo National Parks and is run by local people. They pay the Masai rent for the use of their land.

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Detailed resources for pre-university Geography students

Sustainable tourism and ecotourism

By Matt Burdett, 24 January 2018

On this page, we look at the concept of sustainable tourism, including the growth of ecotourism.

Near Oodnadatta, Australia. Small groups that don’t reach the carrying capacity of an area are one way to achieve sustainability in tourism.

What is sustainable tourism?

Sustainable tourism can be defined as:

“Tourism that conserves primary tourist resources and supports the livelihoods and culture of local people.” (IBO, 2009)

The United Nations World Tourism Organisation defines sustainable tourism as:

“Tourism that takes full account of its current and future economic, social and environmental impacts, addressing the needs of visitors, the industry, the environment and host communities” (UNWTO, 2005)

Sustainable tourism is therefore not just about the environment, but also about the economic and social impacts. This can apply to mass tourist destinations just as much as niche tourism destinations. The key concept is that the area can be used for tourism indefinitely without causing harm.

Environmental sustainability

Natural heritage and biodiversity must be conserved if tourism is to be considered sustainable. Often, tourism development is sustainable if it uses an element of the environment (such as the natural landscape). By using it, the environment becomes an economic asset to people. This can protect it from being harmed by other economic activities.

To achieve environmental sustainability, the consumption of resources should be minimised, as should the production of waste. This includes the consumption and waste of water, which is frequently a point of tension between locals and tourists in drier parts of the world.

Social sustainability

Sustainable tourism should help to conserve cultural heritage of local people and ensure that traditional values are not lost, although it can help to promote intercultural tolerance. However, this is very difficult. The simple act of meeting a group of people can change their attitudes towards others, which makes it harder to preserve the indigenous culture.

Economic sustainability

The economy is not just about income. It is also about the long-term viability of employment, and avoiding the inequality that can occur when one group benefits much more than others from tourism. Tourism can be a powerful force to reduce poverty, especially in rural areas where other economic activities are difficult to implement.

Informed participation

The UNWTO (2005) argues that to be truly sustainable, tourism development must include the informed participation of stakeholders. (Stakeholders are people who have an direct interest in a particular activity.) This requires suitable political leadership to ensure that diverse views continue to be heard as development progresses.

Mutually beneficial

Ultimately all tourism development is only sustainable as long as tourists want to participate. It is vital that tourists have a positive experience, so they (or their representatives) should be included in some way in the decision making process.

International Year of Sustainable Tourism, 2017

2017 was adopted as the International Year of Sustainable Tourism Development by the United Nations. This was in the context of the Sustainable Development Goals, and five pillars of policy development were chosen as shown in the figure below (UNWTO, 2016):

Six focus areas for the Year of Sustainable Tourism. Source: UNWTO, 2016.

The sustainable tourism ‘growth paradox’

The term ‘paradox’ refers to a contradictory statement. In this case, the concept of ‘sustainable tourism’ may be contradictory because, possibly, no tourism can ever be truly sustainable.

Mullins (2017) summarises the argument that tourism is inherently unsustainable. The environmental damage from carbon emissions from traveling; the cultural interruption from having locals who have to engage with visitors, who may or may not be respectful of the culture they visit; and the economic disruption that comes from having relatively wealthy visitors who are willing to pay more than locals for basic products. All these are examples of the ways in which tourism, even on a very small scale, may still be unsustainable.

Global scale paradox

On a global scale, the resource consumption of tourism is very high. Travellers make a total of 32 million flights every year (this is the number of planes flying, not the number of passengers – there were around 1.2 billion individual movements!), which produces 781 million tons of carbon. When at their destinations, people generally use around twice the amount of water compared to at home. This suggests that global travel is not environmentally sustainable as the ‘vacation mindset’ involves deliberate indulgence, and therefore resource consumption and waste production, on the part of the tourist (Williams, 2016).

Local scale paradox

The more the tourist activity grows, the more disruption is caused, until the original environment, culture and economy is permanently changed and geared towards tourism. Some would argue this has already happened in many destinations. Many of these began as supposedly ‘sustainable’ destinations, but in fact what made them ‘sustainable’ was simply a very small number of visitors. Tourists to Cambodia in the 1970s, visiting the city of Siem Reap and the temples of Angkor, were greeted with an undeveloped tourist infrastructure allowing freedom to interact with the local culture, heritage and environment. Today, the temples themselves have significant protection including entry tickets and strict rules about eating and drinking to protect them, but the nearby towns do not. The secondary tourist facilities provided in the nearby urban areas have developed the city of Siem Reap beyond recognition. Visitors now arrive to a modern airport that has a Starbucks, Dairy Queen, Yoshinoya and Burger King (Cambodia Airports, 2018). The impact on the centre of Siem Reap city has been to strongly Westernise it, as seen in the photograph below.

Siem Reap, Cambodia. The influx of tourists to the nearby heritage site of Angkor Wat has dramatically changed the city. Is this sustainable?

Greenwashing

‘Greenwashing’ is a term “used to describe the act of misleading consumers regarding the environmental practices of a company or the environmental benefits of a product or service” (Greenpeace, n.d.). The term can be used for many industries including tourism.

Tourism is sometimes accused of being ‘greenwashing’ because the industry presents itself as being sustainable despite the problems that can result from it.

Queensland, Australia: Whale watching is a form of ecotourism as it is focused on the natural environment.

Ecotourism is often perceived as being ‘green’ tourism, such as visiting a rainforest. This misses a key issue, which is that ecotourism must be sustainable.

Today, ecotourism should be defined as “responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment, sustains the well-being of the local people, and involves interpretation and education” (TIES, 2015). A similar definition from the IUCN is “environmentally responsible travel to natural areas, in order to enjoy and appreciate nature (and accompanying cultural features, both past and present) that promote conservation, have a low visitor impact and provide for beneficially active socio-economic involvement of local peoples” (IUCN, via The Nature Conservancy, n.d.).

These definitions both have three main elements:

Focused on natural areas
Ensures well-being of host communities
Educational

There are many lists of characteristics of ecotourism (such as The International Ecotourism Society, found here ). The United Nations World Tourism Organisation argues that ecotourism has five main features (UNWTO, n.d.):

Nature-based forms of tourism with the motivation to appreciate nature as well as culture in natural areas
Often specialised, and small group tours
Minimises negative impacts
Supports natural areas by creating economic benefits for host communities (including employment opportunities) and increasing awareness

The growth of the ecotourism sector

Ecotourism is growing and has been doing so for some time. However, specific figures are very difficult to find. The following is a summary of some anecdotal evidence that suggests ecotourism is growing (general source: Center for Responsible Travel, 2017):

Between 2013 and 2016, around a third of all leisure tourists in the USA made a ‘sustainable’ trip, spending US$600 more than typical travellers, and staying 7 days compared to 4 days at their destination
In 2016, the UNWTO estimated that there were 14000 protected areas in the world, with a total of 8 billion visitors, contributing US$600 billion to national economies
In 2017, 78% of German travellers said that sustainable travel was ‘very important’, up from 52% in 2016 (AIG, 2017)
Wellness tourism is increasing (visiting places for the therapeutic benefits e.g. natural hot springs) (Global Wellness Institute, 2017)

AIG, 2017. Report: Consumers Crave Education on Sustainable Travel Practices and Products. https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/report-consumers-crave-education-on-sustainable-travel-practices-and-products-300445163.html Accessed 27 January 2018.

Cambodia Airport, 2018. Dining at Siem Reap International Airport. http://www.rep.aero/shop-dine/dine#anchor Accessed 24 January 2018.

Center for Responsible Travel, 2017. The Case for Responsible Travel: Trends & Statistics 2017. http://responsibletravel.org/docs/The%20Case%20for%20Responsible%20Travel%202017_Final%20for%20Release.pdf Accessed 27 January 2018.

Global Wellness Institute, 2017. Global Wellness Economy Monitor. https://www.dropbox.com/sh/ju8lo9y7c4w8wfr/AABB-78rDezm6HjE8znZcdR4a?dl=0 Accessed 27 January 2018.

Greenpeace, n.d. Greenwashing. https://stopgreenwash.org/history Accessed 27 January 2018.

IBO [International Baccalaureate Organisation], 2009. Geography guide First examinations 2011. IBO, Cardiff.

IUCN [World Conservation Union], via The Nature Conservancy, n.d. Eco-Trips and Travel

What is Ecotourism? https://www.nature.org/greenliving/what-is-ecotourism.xml Accessed 24 January 2018.

Mullis, 2017. The growth paradox: can tourism ever be sustainable? https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2017/08/the-growth-paradox-can-tourism-ever-be-sustainable/ Accessed 23 January 2018.

UNWTO [United Nations World Tourism Organisation], 2005. Making Tourism More Sustainable – A Guide for Policy Makers, UNEP and UNWTO, 2005, p.11-12. Sourced from http://sdt.unwto.org/content/about-us-5 Accessed 23 January 2018.

UNWTO [United Nations World Tourism Organisation], 2016. 2017 International Year for Sustainable Tourism Development. http://www.tourism4development2017.org/ Accessed 23 January 2018.

UNWTO [United Nations World Tourism Organisation], n.d. Ecotourism and Protected areas. http://sdt.unwto.org/content/ecotourism-and-protected-areas Accessed 24 January 2018.

TIES [The International Ecotourism Society], 2015. TIES Announces Ecotourism Principles Revision. http://www.ecotourism.org/news/ties-announces-ecotourism-principles-revision Accessed 24 Januaray 2018.

Williams, C. 2016. Don’t Forget to Move: Why All Tourism Should Be Sustainable Tourism: Protecting the Future of Travel. http://dontforgettomove.com/sustainable-tourism-protecting-future-travel/ Accessed 27 January 2018.

Sustainable tourism and ecotourism: Learning activities

Define sustainable development. [2]
On this page, five features of sustainable tourism are discussed (economic, social, environmental, informed consent, valued experience). Briefly describe each one. [2]
Suggest two further considerations that a tourist might think about when booking a sustainable tourist experience. [2]
When was the International Year of Sustainable Tourism Development?
What were the main aims of the International Year of Sustainable Tourism Development? [5]
Explain the ‘paradox’ of sustainable tourism. [6]
Define ‘greenwashing’. [2]
Do you think sustainable tourism is a paradox? Or is sustainable tourism possible? Explain your answer. [3]
Define ecotourism [3].
Do you consider ecotourism to be sustainable? Explain your answer. [5]

Other tasks

Imagine you are a gorilla. You have learned sign language*, and have been asked to give a presentation to the UN General Assembly about the viability of tourism in your rainforest. Plan your speech with a clear argument. Are you in favour of tourism to your rainforest, or not? Remember to include rebuttal points. Consider the sustainable tourism paradox as the focus of your question.

* Some research indicates that gorillas are capable of learning basic sign language and having simple but meaningful communication with humans, although a presentation on an abstract subject would be too advanced. Search for “Koko the talking gorilla” (or watch this video ) to see more. There is also a full website with short clips showing the extent to which gorillas can communicate.

Going further

Look at Destination Better’s infographic, available from http://www.destinationbetter.com/sustainable-travelers-infographic by filling in a short form (no cost or login required).

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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Ecotourism

Introduction, general overviews.

Bibliographies
Facts and Figures
Historical Background
Policy and Planning
Parks and Protected Areas
Climate Change
Biodiversity Conservation
Community-Based Ecotourism
Nature/Culture Concepts in Ecotourism
Indigenous Populations
Economic Impacts and Issues
Education and Interpretation
Certifications and Standards
Controversies and Critiques
Case Studies
Related Fields
Future Directions for the Field

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Ecotourism by Nicole M. Ardoin , Alison W. Bowers LAST REVIEWED: 31 August 2021 LAST MODIFIED: 26 August 2013 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199830060-0074

Although most agree that the term ecotourism was coined in the early 1980s, many researchers also suggest earlier roots for this field. Some researchers and practitioners indicate that the field’s roots exist in tourism from the 1960s and 1970s, as people searched for alternatives to mass tourism and expressed concerns over increasing development of natural areas. Other discussions provide examples of nature-based tourism from as early as the 18th and 19th centuries, with adventurous travelers seeking out safari-type experiences, visiting relatively uninhabited forests and mountains, and climbing daunting mountain peaks, while others sought peace and solitude in what were then wilderness areas far from rapidly industrializing urban centers. Since that time, considerable debate has stirred concerning the definitions, structure, and outcomes of ecotourism and nature-based tourism, as well as how these forms of tourism reliant on “natural” places and experiences of wild spaces and species relate to mass tourism, adventure tourism, educational tourism, and sustainable tourism, among other closely related genres and terms. Some practitioners and researchers, for example, see nature-based tourism as synonymous with ecotourism, whereas others imagine sharp distinctions between the two. Most definitions include, at a minimum, two aspects: environmental conservation and improvement of social as well as economic conditions in the local community. On the basis of the definition used, other key features may include education, sustainability, culture, adventure, venue, and scale. The ecotourism literature includes case studies from around the world and is tremendously interdisciplinary, including research from anthropology, sociology, geography, psychology, economics, education, ecology, and environmental management, among others. The literature includes a strong academic element as well as many resources developed for ecotourism practitioners. Although the majority of the citations in this article are academic, applied works are included when appropriate. This article focuses primarily on modern ecotourism, although a section on the historical background of the field is included. Listed works address ecotourism in diverse geographic locations and a range of venues representing different ecosystems and types of ownership (i.e., public as well as private lands). Special attention is given to current controversies and issues, such as those related to claims of efficacy, the relationship of ecotourism and indigenous populations, and the impact of ecotourism on biodiversity and sensitive ecosystems; these issues represent ongoing debates that plague both research and practice. In most cases, references are included only if they explicitly use the designation of “ecotourism” as opposed to works more generally focused on tourism and the environment, sustainable tourism, or even nature-based tourism. The limited instances where ecotourism is not explicitly named are noted in the citations.

Ecotourism is frequently addressed in books and articles that focus on tourism and nature more generally. Holden and Fennell 2013 , for example, provides a comprehensive and international consideration of the relationship between tourism and the environment. One of the editors, David Fennell, has written extensively on ecotourism and is the author of a textbook on ecotourism (see Fennell 2008 , cited under Textbooks ). Weaver 2001 is also edited by another prolific writer of ecotourism literature (see Weaver 2008 , cited under Textbooks ; Weaver and Lawton 2007 and Weaver 2011 , cited under Future Directions for the Field ); the selection cited here examines ecotourism from multiple perspectives and provides a solid introduction to the field. For an engaging overview of ecotourism, see Honey 2008 , in which the author does not shy away from critically reviewing ecotourism in selected locations. Both Higham 2007 and Seba 2012 are collections of papers and chapters that cover a wide range of ecotourism topics. Higham 2007 , in particular, highlights current controversies and debates in the field. Similarly, Stronza and Durham 2008 provides an edited compendium of ecotourism issues, with a focus on the United States and Latin America. Many ecotourism references cite the definition of ecotourism as presented by the International Ecotourism Society , known as TIES, and this definition can be found on their website. From the cited home page, a visitor can also link to numerous web pages describing TIES programs, ecotourism news, and much more on ecotourism issues and trends. The Developing Ecotourism web page from Conservation International is representative of the ecotourism work conducted by major nongovernmental organizations (NGOs).

Developing Ecotourism .

This section of the Conservation International (CI) website gives information on the ecotourism programs, projects, and partnerships in which CI is involved. Research tab on the web page links to publications for tourism professionals.

Higham, James E. S., ed. 2007. Critical issues in ecotourism: Understanding a complex tourism phenomenon . Amsterdam: Butterworth-Heinemann.

The range of issues covered in this book—including an overview of critiques and challenges—makes this an intriguing introduction to the field of ecotourism. High-quality writing and in-depth research make this a must-read.

Holden, Andrew, and David Fennell, eds. 2013. The Routledge handbook of tourism and the environment . Routledge Handbooks. New York: Routledge.

This six-hundred-plus-page book, edited by researchers with extensive background in ecotourism, covers the intersection of tourism and the environment more broadly. Includes a chapter specifically on ecotourism that touches on fundamental aspects such as conservation, local benefits, and education.

Honey, Martha. 2008. Ecotourism and sustainable development: Who owns paradise? 2d ed. Washington, DC: Island.

First section of this well-researched, engaging text provides an introduction to ecotourism; second section consists of case studies from seven countries. Each case study includes an “ecotourism scorecard” that evaluates ecotourism in that country. Originally published in 1999; second edition includes a chapter on ecotourism in the United States.

International Ecotourism Society .

Website for TIES, the world’s largest membership organization representing tourism professionals and travelers from over 120 countries. Site includes the TIES definition of ecotourism and additional information on ecotourism in general, as well as specific topics such as certification and standards, climate change, indigenous knowledge, ecolodges, and “voluntourism.”

Seba, Jaime A., ed. 2012. Ecotourism and sustainable tourism: New perspectives and studies . Toronto: Apple Academic.

Collection of twenty-five previously published papers, including journal articles and reports that cover an extensive range of topics relating to sustainable tourism and provide examples from across the globe.

Stronza, Amanda, and William H. Durham, eds. 2008. Ecotourism and conservation in the Americas . Ecotourism Book 7. Wallingford, UK: CABI.

DOI: 10.1079/9781845934002.0000

Volume 7 of the Ecotourism Book series, edited by David B. Weaver. Chapters include both commentary and case studies addressing a range of ecotourism topics, such as community, certification, education, and marine environments. Focus is on the United States and Latin America.

Weaver, David B., ed. 2001. The encyclopedia of ecotourism . Wallingford, UK: CABI.

Over six hundred pages containing forty-one chapters plus section introductions addressing numerous facets of ecotourism, including ecotourism basics, impacts, research, and planning. Also examines ecotourism by continent, biome, and venues (such as public and private protected areas and wilderness). Well-organized index aids in locating information.

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Costa Rica: A case study of ecotourism

Sam McManus

With Nicaragua to the north and Panama to the south in Central America, Costa Rica is a thin green strip of tropical rainforest and volcanoes that rise up between the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea. Its human population is a little over five million, and it is one of the most biologically diverse places in the world due to its unique geography and the many resulting microclimates, which allow for a vast array of ecosystems.

It has become the poster child for sustainable ecotourism throughout the world. With a quarter of its land under the protection of national parks or reserves, the country has become a world-leading example of how linking tourism with a growing protected area network can lead to the simultaneous growth of both its socioeconomic and environmental sectors. The country’s journey to this point is a fascinating one:

José Figueres Ferrer, the son of Spanish parents settled in Costa Rica, was a well-educated, prosperous coffee grower and rope manufacturer, but his criticism of the government of Rafael Angel Calderón Guardia in July 1942 forced him into exile in Mexico for two years. He then embarked on a political career, founding the Social Democratic Party upon his return, which eventually led to him becoming a revolutionary leader, culminating in the overthrow of Costa Rica’s government via civil war. When he became provisional president of Costa Rica in 1948, he abolished the national army, nationalised its banking sector, granted women and Afro-Costa Ricans the right to vote, guaranteed public education and a host of other decrees which set the country on a path to prosperous stability, subsequently making it an increasingly popular tourist destination in the region.

By sheer dumb luck I was staying in the surf town of Santa Teresa, which happens to be located right next to Cabo Blanco Absolute Natural Reserve on the southern tip of the Nicoya Peninsula. This unbelievably beautiful and wild reserve was the first nationally protected area in Costa Rica, established in 1963 by Karen Mogensen from Denmark and her Swedish husband Nicolas (Olaf) Wessberg, both examples of the steadily increasing influx of international tourists. With the aid of an international agency, they bought 1,250 hectares of land on the peninsula to protect it against the local farmers who were deforesting huge swathes of rainforest to feed the international demand for beef, causing soil erosion, loss of soil fertility and decimating wildlife populations, including many rare and endemic species.

Nicolas was later tragically murdered in 1975 whilst spearheading the conservation of the now established and equally beautiful Corcovado National Park on the more southerly Osa Peninsula, and Karen died in 1996. Yet their legacy remains to this day. Both witnessed the first national park of Santa Rosa, established in 1972 in the northwest of the country – the first of now 28 national parks. As with much of human history, Costa Rica’s progress towards developing a national system for ecotourism was long and complex, combining many factors, successes and setbacks. Yet the overarching principle was that as more tourists visited, more wilderness was set aside for protection, as the government could clearly see this is where the long-term economic benefit lay.

Costa Rica’s National Park Services was created, and by 1998, all the natural reservations were organised under a national system. Costa Rica was popularly deemed as the leading ecotourism country in the world, which attracted more tourists in a positive feedback loop model; whereby conservation efforts protect the natural environment whilst also generating healthy economic results, creating in turn both direct and indirect employment, contributing to a reduction of poverty. Tourist numbers steadily increased from 329,000 in 1987, to 1.03 million in 1999, over 2 million in 2008, and 3.14 million tourists in 2019.

A number of systems have been put in place help manage the impact of this increasing footfall including the Bandera Azul (blue flag) programme which promotes development while curbing the negative impacts of mass tourism. It assists local communities to work against pollution and protect the environment by evaluating the environmental quality of coastal areas, and awarding them a number of stars. The voluntary Certification for Sustainable Tourism Programme (CST) encourages businesses to become sustainable in a variety of ways, including using recycled products, implementing water and energy saving devices, properly disposing and treating waste, conserving and expanding Costa Rica’s forests, in a way that can be measured and publicised. Millions of trees are planted every year as a result, and the tree coverage of the forests across the country have literally doubled in the last 30 years.

The model also has a positive effect on the lives of the local people. The country continues to face some challenges such as income inequality and some of the darker sides of the tourism industry such as sex tourism, but as models go it is pretty fantastic. Costa Rica again came first in the Happy Planet Index rankings in 2020 which measures how well nations are doing at achieving wellbeing and long, happy, sustainable lives of its populations, having previously come top in the 2009 and 2012 rankings also. By 2015, the country was also able to produce 99% of its electricity from renewable sources, and the government continues to invest in renewable energy generation in an effort to meet its goal of becoming carbon neutral by 2021. According to the non-profit Borgen Project, the majority of this energy, 67.5%, comes from hydropower, with wind power generating 17%, geothermal sources 13.5% and biomass and solar panels comprising 0.84%. The remaining 1.16% is from backup plants.

Costa Rica’s eco-tourism experiment offers a path to recovery for the rest of the world.

Over the past years nearly every single local guide we’ve used to lead groups through mountains, forests and deserts has commented to me on the changing and increasing unpredictability of weather patterns, and I can see the effects of global warming for myself, increasingly both in person and via the global media. I am not ahead of the curve, but I am on the curve, and am doing what I can to help protect what Carl Sagan called our ‘Pale Blue Dot’. Christiana Figueres, daughter of the previously mentioned three-time president José Figueres Ferrer, was the former Executive Secretary of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.

She was a key architect of the 2015 Paris Agreement. This is a legally binding international treaty on climate change adopted by 196 Parties at the 21st session of the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (COP 21) in Paris, on 12 December 2015. Its goal is to limit global warming to well below 2, preferably to 1.5 degrees Celsius. To achieve this long-term temperature goal, countries aim to reach global peaking of greenhouse gas emissions as soon as possible to achieve a climate neutral world by mid-century. The Paris Agreement is a landmark in the multilateral climate change process because, for the first time, a binding agreement brings all nations into a common cause to undertake ambitious efforts to combat climate change and adapt to its effects.

This historic agreement also coincided with the establishment of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) at the COP 21 in Paris, to end poverty, protect the planet and enable a path to prosperity for all. The SDGs are increasingly becoming integrated as a global language that institutions can agree upon, and work towards. Christina Figueres published a book in 2020 with co-author Tom Rivett-Carnac entitled:

Th e Future We Choose: Surviving the Climate Crisis

I would encourage you to read this or listen to it as an audiobook, as it lays out the steps we can each take in our daily lives to help achieve the goals of the Paris Agreement.

For my part, I wish to continue to use adventure travel as a medium to help promote sustainable practices in countries across the world, and to educate our clients on their importance. Adventure travel is still faced with the ‘elephant in the room’ conundrum of the international flights clients and guides need to take to reach some destinations, and the resulting carbon emissions these produce. While we may indeed have green hydrogen-powered planes in 30 years’ time, in the meantime we will continue compensating for these carbon emissions by planting trees via our partner charity WeForest, in Ethiopia, Brazil, and other countries.

More than just aiming for carbon-neutrality, however, we can do far better by actively contributing to the regeneration and rewilding of the environments we visit, by partnering with local conservation organisations that use versions of the model laid out by Costa Rica in other countries around the world. For our adventure itineraries we partner with conservation charities in the countries we travel in, and are seeing this as a welcome growing trend across fellow travel companies. This is an opportunity for the adventure travel industry to financially support conservation in destinations around the world, reduce its overall carbon footprint, and engage travellers in the world’s climate issues. If our itineraries are more culturally focused, we partner with philanthropic charities, to help the vulnerable in the communities we meet, such as the Fistula Clinic in Ethiopia, for example. By using local suppliers for accommodation, meals, transport and guides, funds will also always find their way into the local economies.

Taken from:

' Wax & Gold: Journeys in Ethiopia & other roads less travelled '

by Sam McManus.

UK: https://www.amazon.co.uk/dp/1838493700

USA: https://www.amazon.com/dp/1838493700

The Future We Choose: Surviving the Climate Crisis

Travel notes from Sam - March 2024

Bhutan - the happiest place on earth

Related Adventures

Ecotourism in Costa Rica; rainforests, coffee & coastline

Costa Rica - Cultural

Guided explore of Quetzales, Corcovado & Marina Ballena National Parks. Boat tours & snorkelling to spot wildlife. 4* hotels.

Sights & Sounds of Morocco

Morocco - Cultural

Visit the cities of Casablanca, Rabat, Chefchaouen, Fes, Marrakech & Essaouira, experiencing the Roman ruins at Volubilis, deserts, mountains and beautiful ocean coastline, as well as Morocco's enticing culture and cuisine.

Georgia & Armenia Adventure

Georgia & Armenia - Cultural

Get under the skin of both Georgia and Armenia on this exciting adventure.

To help you choose the right adventure for you, we have given each itinerary a grading that relates to the level of Walking / Trekking you will experience during the trip. This grading can be found on the Yellow map on the adventure page of the website.

All of our trips involve a level of general activity so are designed for people who are in good health, enjoy the outdoors, and have a taste for adventure and some level of fitness. As will be clear from our destinations, the climate (and altitude) may be different to that which you are used to, so please take this into consideration when choosing the most suitable holiday.

Please read our Adventure Itinerary & Essential Information for more information and don't hesitate to contact us if you would like to chat through whether you have found a suitable adventure for you.

Grade 1-3: Entry Level

You need to be in good physical health to enjoy your active holiday, but you don’t need to be an experienced hiker. These itineraries offer a mix of sightseeing and easier walking for around 2-4hrs a day, with the emphasis on sights and cultural experiences.

Walks will be well marked or on defined pathways, and often around sites of interest. The expected amount of descent/ascent will depend on the landscapes of the destination, but will not exceed 400m/day, and will often be much less. Walks are at low altitude (below 3000m).

You will not be required to carry more than a day sack with water and essentials. Ensure you are aware of the weather conditions likely in the destination you are visiting and have a pair of comfortable and worn in walking shoes/boots.

Grades 4-6: Intermediate

You need to have a good level of fitness and be a regular walker for these adventures, with ideally some trekking experience. You can expect to be walking for 3-6 hours per day, not including rest stops, normally on good trail paths but with some uneven surfaces at times.

You will not be required to carry more than a day sack. You may be walking in more challenging temperatures. You will generally be walking at low altitude (below 3000m) but may walk at altitudes up to 4000m. The amount of ascent could be up to 800m in a day but will frequently be less. You may walk on consecutive days.

Ensure you are aware of the weather conditions likely in the destination you are visiting and have suitable clothing for this adventure.

Grades 7-9: Challenging

You need to have a good level of fitness with previous experience of trekking. Extra training before your trip will ensure that you get the most out of your adventure. Areas will be remote and terrain uneven.

Expect to walk for 5 – 8 hours a day, not including breaks, with some very steep ascents and descents. You will be walking at altitude (over 3000m but not higher than 5000m).

Ensure you are aware of the weather conditions likely in the destination you are visiting and have suitable equipment/clothing for this adventure (see the packing list for your adventure).

Please check individual itineraries for details of what you will need to be carrying with you.

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Ecotourism and sustainable development: a scientometric review of global research trends

Published: 21 February 2022
Volume 25 , pages 2977–3003, ( 2023 )

Cite this article

Lishan Xu 1 , 2 ,
Changlin Ao ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8826-7356 1 , 3 ,
Baoqi Liu 1 &
Zhenyu Cai 1

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19 Citations

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With the increasing attention and awareness of the ecological environment, ecotourism is becoming ever more popular, but it still brings problems and challenges to the sustainable development of the environment. To solve such challenges, it is necessary to review literature in the field of ecotourism and determine the key research issues and future research directions. This paper uses scientometrics implemented by CiteSpace to conduct an in-depth systematic review of research and development in the field of ecotourism. Two bibliographic datasets were obtained from the Web of Science, including a core dataset and an expanded dataset, containing articles published between 2003 and 2021. Our research shows that ecotourism has been developing rapidly in recent years. The research field of ecotourism spans many disciplines and is a comprehensive interdisciplinary subject. According to the research results, the evolution of ecotourism can be roughly divided into three phases: human disturbance, ecosystem services and sustainable development. It could be concluded that it has entered the third stage of Shneider’s four-stage theory of scientific discipline. The research not only identifies the main clusters and their advance in ecotourism research based on high impact citations and research frontier formed by citations, but also presents readers with new insights through intuitive visual images.

Three pillars of sustainability: in search of conceptual origins

Ben Purvis, Yong Mao & Darren Robinson

Impact of tourism development upon environmental sustainability: a suggested framework for sustainable ecotourism

Qadar Bakhsh Baloch, Syed Naseeb Shah, … Asia Umar Khan

Leverage points for sustainability transformation

David J. Abson, Joern Fischer, … Daniel J. Lang

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

1 Introduction

Ecotourism, which has appeared in academic literature since the late 1980s, is a special form of nature-based tourism that maintains the well-being of the local community while protecting the environment and provides tourists with a satisfying nature experience and enjoyment (Ceballos-Lascuráin, 1996 ; Higgins, 1996 ; Orams, 1995 ). With years of research and development, ecotourism has risen to be a subject of investigation in the field of tourism research (Weaver & Lawton, 2007 ). In 2002, the United Nations declared it the International Year of Ecotourism (IYE), and the professional Journal of Ecotourism was established in the same year.

With the progress and maturity of ecotourism as an academic research field, countless scholars have put forward standards and definitions for ecotourism (Sirakaya et al., 1999 ; Wight, 1993 ). The main objectives of ecotourism emphasize long-term sustainable development (Whitelaw et al., 2014 ), including the conservation of natural resources, the generation of economic income, education, local participation and the promotion of social benefits such as local economic development and infrastructure (Ardoin et al., 2015 ; Coria & Calfucura, 2012 ; Krüger, 2005 ; Oladeji et al., 2021 ; Ross & Wall, 1999 ; Valdivieso et al., 2015 ). It can also boost rural economies and alleviate poverty in developing countries (Snyman, 2017 ; Zhong & Liu, 2017 ).

With unrestricted increasing attention to the ecological environment and the improvement of environmental awareness, ecotourism is becoming ever more prevalent, and the demand for tourism is increasing year by year (CREST, 2019 ). This increase, however, leads to a number of environmental, social and economic challenges in the development of ecotourism. For example, due to the low public awareness of ecotourism, the increase in tourists has brought a series of negative impacts on the local ecological environment, culture and economy, including disrespect for local culture and environmental protection, as well as more infrastructure construction and economic burden to meet the needs of tourists (Ahmad et al., 2018 ; Chiu et al., 2014 ; Shasha et al., 2020 ; Xu et al., 2020 ). Such challenges and contradictions are urgent problems to be tackled by the sustainable development of ecotourism. Especially against the backdrop of the current pandemic, tourism has experienced a severe blow, but climate change and other environmental issues have not been improved (CREST, 2020 ). In this context, facing these challenges and difficulties, it is essential to re-examine the future development path of ecotourism, to explore how government agencies can formulate appropriate management policies while preserving the environment and natural resources to support sustainable tourism development. Accordingly, it is necessary to consult literature in the field of ecotourism to understand the research progress and fundamental research issues, to identify challenges, suitable methods and future research direction of ecotourism.

Some previous reviews of ecotourism offer a preview of research trends in this rapidly developing area. Weaver and Lawton ( 2007 ) provide a comprehensive assessment of the current state and future progress of contemporary ecotourism research, starting with the supply and demand dichotomy of ecotourism, as well as fundamental areas such as quality control, industry, external environment and institutions. Ardoin et al. ( 2015 ) conducted a literature review, analyzing the influence of nature tourism on ecological knowledge, attitudes, behavior and potential research into the future. Niñerola et al. ( 2019 ) used the bibliometric method and VOSviewer to study the papers on sustainable development of tourism in Scopus from 1987 to 2018, including literature landscape and development trends. Shasha et al. ( 2020 ) used bibliometrics and social network analysis to review the research progress of ecotourism from 2001 to 2018 based on the Web of Science database using BibExcel and Gephi and explored the current hot spots and methods of ecotourism research. These reviews have provided useful information for ecotourism research at that time, but cannot reflect the latest research trends and emerging development of ecotourism either of timeliness, data integrity, research themes or methods.

This study aims to reveal the theme pattern, landmark articles and emerging trends in ecotourism knowledge landscape research from macro- to micro-perspectives. Unlike previous literature surveys, from timeliness, our dataset contains articles published between 2003 and 2021, and it will reveal more of the trends that have emerged over the last 3 years. Updating the rapidly developing literature is important as recent discoveries from different areas can fundamentally change collective knowledge (Chen et al., 2012 , 2014a ). To ensure data integrity, two bibliographic datasets were generated from Web of Science, including a core dataset using the topic search and an expanded dataset using the citation expansion method, which is more robust than defining rapidly growing fields using only keyword lists (Chen et al., 2014b ). And from the research theme and method, our review focuses on the area of ecotourism and is instructed by a scientometric method conducted by CiteSpace, an analysis system for visualizing newly developing trends and key changes in scientific literature (Chen et al., 2012 ). Emerging trends are detected based on metrics calculated by CiteSpace, without human intervention or working knowledge of the subject matter (Chen et al., 2012 ). Choosing this approach can cover a more extensive and diverse range of related topics and ensure repeatability of analysis with updated data (Chen et al., 2014b ).

In addition, Shneider’s four-stage theory will be used to interpret the results in this review. According to Shneider’s four-stage theory of scientific discipline (Shneider, 2009 ), the development of a scientific discipline is divided into four stages. Stage I is the conceptualization stage, in which the objects and phenomena of a new discipline or research are established. Stage II is characterized by the development of research techniques and methods that allow researchers to investigate potential phenomena. As a result of methodological advances, there is a further understanding of objects and phenomena in the field of new subjects at this stage. Once the techniques and methods for specific purposes are available, the research enters Stage III, where the investigation is based primarily on the application of the new research method. This stage is productive, in which the research results have considerably enhanced the researchers’ understanding of the research issues and disclosed some unknown phenomena, leading to interdisciplinary convergence or the emergence of new research directions or specialties. The last stage is Stage IV, whose particularity is to transform tacit knowledge into conditional knowledge and generalized knowledge, so as to maintain and transfer the scientific knowledge generated in the first three stages.

The structure of this paper is construed as follows. The second part describes the research methods employed, the scientometric approach and CiteSpace, as well as the data collection. In the third part, the bibliographic landscape of the core dataset is expounded from the macroscopic to the microscopic angle. The fourth part explores the developments and emerging trends in the field of ecotourism based on the expanded dataset and discusses the evolution phase of ecotourism. The final part is the conclusion of this study. Future research of ecotourism is prospected, and the limitations of this study are discussed.

2 Methods and data collection

2.1 scientometric analyses and citespace.

Scientometrics is a branch of informatics that involves quantitative analysis of scientific literature in order to capture emerging trends and knowledge structures in a particular area of study (Chen et al., 2012 ). Science mapping tools generate interactive visual representations of complex structures by feeding a set of scientific literature through scientometrics and visual analysis tools to highlight potentially important patterns and trends for statistical analysis and visualization exploration (Chen, 2017 ). At present, scientometrics is widely used in many fields of research, and there are also many kinds of scientific mapping software widely used by researchers and analysts, such as VosViewer, SCI2, HistCite, SciMAT, Gephi, Pajek and CiteSpace (Chen, 2011 , 2017 ; Chen et al., 2012 ).

Among these tools, CiteSpace is known for its powerful literature co-citation analysis, and its algorithms and features are constantly being refined as it continues to evolve. CiteSpace is a citation visual analysis software developed under the background of scientometrics and data visualization to analyze the basics that are included in scientific analysis (Chen, 2017 ; Chen et al., 2012 ). It is specialized designed to satisfy the need for systematic review in rapidly changing complicated areas, particularly with the ability to identify and explain emerging trends and transition patterns (Chen et al., 2014a ). It supports multiple types of bibliometric research, such as collaborative network analysis, co-word analysis, author co-citation analysis, document co-citation analysis, and temporal and spatial visualization (Chen, 2017 ). Currently, CiteSpace has been extensively used in more than 60 fields, including computer science, information science, management and medicine (Abad-Segura et al., 2019 ; Chen, 2017 ).

In this paper, we utilize CiteSpace (5.8.R1) to analyze acquired bibliographies of ecotourism to study emerging trends and developments in this field. From macro to micro, from intuitive to complex, from whole to part and from general to special, the writing ideas are adopted. Figure 1 presented the specific research framework of this study.

The research framework of this study

2.2 Data collection

Typical sources of scientific literature are Web of Science, Scopus and Google Scholar. Considering the quantity and quality of data, the Web of Science database was expected to provide the original data in this research. In order to comprehend the research status and development trends of ecotourism, this study systematically reviewed the ecotourism literature collected on the Web of Science Core Collection. The Web of Science Core Collection facilitates access to the world’s leading scholarly journals, books and proceedings of conferences in the sciences, social sciences, art, and humanities, as well as access to their entire citation network. It mainly includes Science Citation Index Expanded from 2003 to current and Social Sciences Citation Index from 2004 to present. Therefore, the data obtained in this study are from 2003 and were consulted on June 3, 2021.

In the process of data retrieval, it is frequently confronted with the choice between recall rate and precision rate. To address the problem of low recall rate in keyword or topic retrieval, Chen et al. ( 2014a , b ) expanded the retrieval results through ‘citation expansion’ and ‘comprehensive topic search’ strategies. However, when the recall rate is high, the accuracy rate will decrease correspondingly. In practical standpoint, instead of refining and cleaning up the original search results, a simpler and more efficient way is to cluster or skip these unrelated branches. Priority should be placed on ensuring recall rate, and data integrity is more important than data for accuracy. Therefore, two ecotourism documentation datasets, the core dataset and the expanded dataset, were obtained from the Web of Science by using comprehensive topic search and citation expansion method. The latter approach has been proved more robust than using keyword lists only to define fast-growing areas (Chen et al., 2014b ). A key bibliographic landscape is generated based on the core dataset, followed by more thorough research of the expanded dataset.

2.2.1 The core dataset

The core dataset was derived through comprehensive subject retrieval in Web of Science Core Collection. The literature type was selected as an article or review, and the language was English. The period spans 2003 to 2021. The topic search query is composed of three phrases of ecotourism: ‘ ecotour* ’ OR ‘ eco-tour* ’ OR ‘ ecological NEAR/5 tour* ’. The wildcard * is used to capture related variants of words, for example, ecotour, ecotourism, ecotourist and ecotourists. The related records that are requested include finding these terms in the title, abstract or keywords. The query yielded 2991 original unique records.

2.2.2 The expanded dataset

The expanded dataset includes the core dataset and additional records obtained by reference link association founded on the core dataset. The principle of citation expansion is that if an article cites at least one article in the core dataset, we can infer that it is related to the topic (Garfield, 1955 ). The expanded dataset is comprised of 27,172 unique records, including the core dataset and the articles that cited them. Both datasets were used for the following scientometrics analysis.

3 Bibliographic landscape based on the core dataset

The core dataset consists of a total of 2991 literature from 2003 to 2021. This study utilized the core dataset to conduct an overall understanding of the bibliographic landscape in the field of ecotourism.

3.1 Landscape views of core dataset

The distribution of the yearly publication of bibliographic records in the core and expanded datasets is presented in Fig. 2 . It can be observed that the overall number of ecotourism-related publications is on the rise, indicating that the scholarly community is increasingly interested in ecotourism. After 2018, the growth rate increased substantially. And in 2020, the number of publications in the expanded dataset is close to 5000, almost double that of 2017 and 5 times that of 2011. This displays the rapid development of research in the field of ecotourism in recent years, particularly after 2018, more and more researchers began to pay attention to this field, which also echoes the trend of global tourism development and environmental protection. With the increase in personal income, tourism has grown very rapidly, and with it, tourism revenue and tourist numbers, especially in developing states. For instance, the number of domestic tourists in China increased from 2.641 billion in 2011 to 6.06 billion in 2019, and tourism revenue increased from 1930.5 billion RMB in 2011 to 5725.1 billion RMB in 2019 (MCT, 2021 ). However, due to the lack of effective management and frequent human activities, the rapid development of tourism has led to various ecological and environmental problems, which require corresponding solutions (Shasha et al., 2020 ). This has played an active role in promoting the development of ecotourism and triggered a lot of related research. In addition, since 2005, the expanded dataset has contained numerous times as many references as the core dataset, demonstrating the importance of using citation expansion for literature retrieval in scientometric review studies.

The distribution of bibliographic records in core and expanded dataset. Note The data were consulted on June 3, 2021

The data were consulted on June 3, 2021

The dual-map overlay of scientific map literature as Fig. 3 shows, against the background of global scientific map from more than 10,000 journals covered by Web of Science, represents the distribution and connections on research bases and application fields across the entire dataset of the research topics (Chen & Leydesdorff, 2014 ). Colored lines are citation links, and numbered headings are cluster labels. On the left side is the journal distribution which cites literature, regarding the field application of ecotourism, mainly covers multiple disciplines such as 3. Ecology, Earth, Marine, 6. Psychology, Education, Health, 7. Veterinary, Animal Science and 10. Economics, Economic and Political. On the right side is the distribution of journals of cited literature, representing the research basis of ecotourism. As can be observed from the figure, ecotourism research is based on at least five disciplines on the right, including 2. Environmental, Toxicology, Nutrition, 7. Psychology, Education, Social, 8. Molecular, Biology, Genetics, 10. Plant, Ecology, Zoology and 12. Economics, Economic, Political. It can be viewed that the research field of ecotourism spans multiple disciplines and is a comprehensive and complex subject. The dual-map overlay provides a global visualization of literature growth of the discipline level.

A dual-map overlay of ecotourism literature

The total number of papers issued by a country or an institution reflects its academic focus and overall strength, while centrality indicates the degree of academic cooperation with others and the influence of published papers. The top 15 countries and institutions for the number of ecotourism papers published from 2003 to 2021 are provided in Table 1 . Similar to the study of Shasha et al. ( 2020 ), the ranking of the top six countries by the number of publications remains unchanged. As can be seen from the table, the USA ranks first in the world, far ahead in both the number of publications and the centrality. China ranks second in global ecotourism publications, followed by Australia, England, South Africa and Canada. While the latest data show that Taiwan (China), Turkey and South Korea appear on the list. Overall, the top 15 countries with the most publications cover five continents, containing a number of developed and developing, which shows that ecotourism research is receiving global attention. In terms of international academic cooperation and impact of ecotourism, Australia and England share second place, Italy and France share fourth place, followed by South Africa and Spain. China’s centrality is relatively low compared to the number of publications, ranking eighth. Academic cooperation between countries is of great significance. Usually, countries with high academic publishing level cooperate closely due to similar research interests. International academic cooperation has enhanced each other’s research capacity and promoted the development of ecotourism research. Therefore, although some countries have entered this list with the publication number, they should attach importance to increase academic cooperation with other countries and improving the international influence of published papers.

The Chinese Academy of Sciences and its university are the most prolific when it draws to institutions’ performance. It is the most important and influential research institute in China, especially in the field of sustainable development science. Australia has four universities on the list, with Griffith University and James Cook University in second and third place. USA also includes four universities, with the University of Florida in fourth place. South Africa, a developing country, gets three universities, with the University of Cape Town and the University of Johannesburg fifth and sixth, respectively. In comparison with previous studies (Shasha et al., 2020 ), Iran and Mexico each have one university in the ranking, replacing two universities in Greece, which means that the importance and influence of developing countries in the field of ecotourism is gradually rising. Based on the above results, it can be summarized that the USA, China, Australia and South Africa are relatively active countries in the field of ecotourism, and their development is also in a relatively leading position.

3.2 Most active topics

The foam tree map and the pie chart of the focal topics of ecotourism based on the core dataset generated by Carrot2 through the title of each article is illustrated in Fig. 4 . Developing and developed, case study, protected areas, sustainable tourism, tourism development and developing ecotourism are leading topics in the field of ecotourism research, as well as specific articles under the main topics. The lightweight view generated by Carrot2 provides a reference for the research, and then, co-word analysis is employed to more specifically reflect the topics in the research field.

Foam tree map and pie chart of major topics on ecotourism

The topics covered by ecotourism could be exposed by the keywords of the articles in the core dataset. Figure 5 displays the keywords analysis results generated based on the core dataset. From the visualization results in the figure, it can infer that ecotourism, conservation, tourism, management, protected area, impact, biodiversity, sustainability, national park and community are the ten most concerned topics. Distinct colors set out at the time of co-citation keywords first appear, and yellow is generated earlier than red. In addition, Fig. 5 can also reflect the development and emerging topics in the research field, such as China, Mexico, South Africa and other hot countries for ecotourism research; ecosystem service, economic value, climate change, wildlife tourism, rural tourism, forest, marine protected area and other specific research directions; valuation, contingent valuation, choice experiment and other research methods; willingness to pay, preference, benefit, perception, attitude, satisfaction, experience, behavior, motivation, risk, recreation and other specific research issues.

A landscape view of keywords based on the core dataset

4 Emerging trends and developments based on the expanded dataset

The expanded dataset, consisting of 27,172 records, is approximately nine times larger than the core dataset. This research applies the expanded dataset to profoundly explore the emerging trends and developments of ecotourism.

4.1 Keywords with citation bursts

Detection of citation bursts can indicate both the scientific community’s interest in published articles and burst keywords as an indicator of emerging tendencies. Figure 6 displays the top 30 keywords with the strongest citation bursts in the expanded dataset. Since 2003, a large number of keywords have exploded. Among them, the strongest bursts include ecotourism, bird, disturbance, reserve, Africa, challenge, sustainable development and strategy. Keywords with citation burst after 2017 are experience, challenge, sustainable development, willingness to pay, perspective, strategy, quality and satisfaction, which have continued to this day. The results indicate dynamic development and emerging trends in research hotspots in the field of ecotourism.

Top 30 keywords with the strongest citation bursts

4.2 References with citation bursts

Figure 7 sets out the top 30 references in the expanded dataset with citation bursts. The articles with the fastest growing citations can also contribute to describe the dynamics of a field. References with high values in strength column are important milestones of ecotourism research. The two articles with strong citation bursts prior to 2010 focused on the human impact on the environment and animals. West et al. ( 2006 ) discussed the relationship between parks and human beings and the social impact of protected areas, and Köndgen et al. ( 2008 ) studied the decline of endangered great apes caused by a human pandemic virus. The paper with the strongest citation burst in the entire expanded dataset was released by Fairhead et al. ( 2012 ), which looked at ‘green grabbing,’ the appropriation of land and resources for environmental purposes. Milcu et al. ( 2013 ) conducted a semi-quantitative review of publications dealing with cultural ecosystem services with the second strongest citation burst, which concluded that the improvement of the evaluation method of cultural ecosystem service value, the research on the value of cultural ecosystem service under the background of ecosystem service and the clarification of policy significance were the new themes of cultural ecosystem service research. In addition, many articles with citation burst discussed the evaluation method of ecosystem services value (Costanza et al., 2014 ; Groot et al., 2010 ), the evaluation of cultural ecosystem service value (Plieninger et al., 2013 ) and its role in ecosystem service evaluation (Chan et al., 2012 ; Chan, Guerry, et al., 2012 ; Chan, Satterfield, et al., 2012 ; Chan, Satterfield, et al., 2012 ; Daniel et al., 2012 ). The most fresh literature with strong citation burst is the article of D’Amato et al. ( 2017 ) published in the Journal of Cleaner Production, which compared and analyzed sustainable development avenues such as green, circular and bio economy. In addition, it is worthwhile noting the use of R in ecotourism, with the persuasive citation burst continuing from 2012 to the present, as indicated by the orange arrow in Fig. 7 .

Top 30 references with the strongest citation bursts

4.3 Landscape view of co-citation analysis

The landscape view of co-citation analysis of Fig. 8 is generated based on the expanded dataset. Using g -index ( k = 25) selection criteria in the latest edition of CiteSpace, an annual citation network was constructed. The final merged network contained 3294 links, 2122 nodes and 262 co-citation clusters. The three largest linked components cover 1748 connected nodes, representing 82% of the entire network. The modularization degree of the synthetic network is 0.8485, which means that co-citation clustering can clearly define each sub-field of ecotourism. Another weighted mean silhouette value of the clustering validity evaluation is 0.9377, indicating that the clustering degree of the network is also very superior. The harmonic mean value amounts to 0.8909.

A landscape view of the co-citation network based on the expanded dataset

In the co-citation network view, the location of clusters and the correlation between clusters can show the intellectual structure in the field of ecotourism, so that readers can obtain an overall understanding of this field. The network falls into 25 co-citation clusters. The tags for each cluster are generated founded on the title, keywords and abstract of the cited article. Color-coded areas represent the time of first appeared co-citation links, with gray indicating earlier and red later. The nodes in the figure with red tree rings are references to citation bursts.

4.4 Timeline view

In order to further understand the time horizon and study process of developing evolution on clusters, after the generation of co-citation cluster map, the Y -axis is cluster number and the year of citation publication is X -axis, so as to obtain the timeline view of the co-citation network, shown as Fig. 9 . Clusters are organized vertically from largest to smallest. The color curve represents co-citation link coupled with corresponding color year, with gray representing earlier and red representing newer. Larger nodes and nodes with red tree rings indicate high citation or citation burst. The three most cited references of the year demonstrate below each node, in vertical order from least to most.

A timeline visualization of the largest clusters

The timeline view provides a reasonably instinctual and insightful reference to understand the evolutionary path of every subdomain. Figure 9 shows 19 clusters ranging from #0 to #18, with #0 being the largest cluster. As can be seen from the figure, the sustainability and activeness of each cluster are contrasting. For example, the largest cluster has been active since 2006, while the gray and purple clusters are no longer active.

4.5 Major clusters

Taking clustering as a unit and analyzing at the level of clustering, specifically selecting large or new type clustering, is the foothold of co-citation analysis, which can help to understand the principal and latest research fields related to ecotourism. Table 2 displays a summary of the foremost 19 clusters, the first nine of which are all over 100 in size. The silhouette score of all clusters is greater than 0.8, indicating that the homogeneity of each cluster is high. The mean year is the average of the publication dates of references in the cluster. By combining the results in Table 2 , Figs. 8 and 9 , it can be observed that the five largest clusters are #0 cultural ecosystem services, #1 large carnivore, #2 human disturbance, #3 whale shark and #4 ecosystem service. A recent topic is cluster #16 COVID-19 pandemic. #11 Ecological footprint and #14 social media are two relatively youthful fields.

The research status of a research field can be demonstrated by its knowledge base and research frontier. The knowledge base consists of a series of scholarly writing cited by the corresponding article, i.e., cited references, while the research frontier is the writing inspired by the knowledge base, i.e., citing articles. Distinct research frontiers may come from the same knowledge base. Consequently, each cluster is analyzed based on cited references and citing articles. The cited references and citing articles of the five largest clusters are shown in Online Appendix A. Fig a) lists the 15 top cited references with the highest Σ (sigma) value in the cluster, where Σ value indicates that the citation is optimal in terms of the comprehensive performance of structural centrality and citation bursts. Fig b) shows the major citing articles of cluster. The citation behavior of these articles determines the grouping of cited literature and thus forms the cluster. The coverage is the proportion of member citations cited by citing articles.

4.6 Phase evolution research

Through the above analysis of the core dataset and the expanded dataset of ecotourism, we can see the development and evolution of the research field of ecotourism. The research process of ecotourism has gone through several stages, and each stage has its strategic research issues. Research starts with thinking about the relationship between humans and nature, moves to study it as a whole ecosystem, and then explores sustainable development. Hence, the evolution of ecotourism can be roughly parted into three phases.

4.6.1 Phase I: Human disturbance research stage (2003–2010)

This phase of research concentrates on the influence of human activities such as ecotourism on the environment and animals. Representative keywords of this period include ecotourism, human disturbance, response, coral reef, bird, disturbance, recreation, reserve, park, South Africa and people. Representative articles are those published by West et al. ( 2006 ) and Köndgen et al. ( 2008 ) of human impact on the environment and animals. The representative clustering is #2 human disturbance, which is the third largest one, consisting of 130 cited references from 1998 to 2012 with the average year of 2004. This cluster has citation bursts between 2002 and 2010 and has been inactive since then. As showed in Fig S3 a) and b), the research base and frontier are mainly around the impact of human disturbances such as ecotourism on biology and the environment (McClung et al., 2004 ). And as showed in Fig. 8 and Fig. 9 , clusters closely related to #2 belong to this phase and are also no longer active, such as #5 off-road vehicle, #6 protected area, #10 poverty reduction and #12 sustainable lifestyle.

4.6.2 Phase II: Ecosystem services research stage (2011–2015)

In this stage, the content of ecotourism research is diversified and exploded. The research is not confined to the relationship between humans and nature, but begins to investigate it as an entire ecosystem. In addition, some specific or extended areas began to receive attention. Typical keywords are abundance, resource, Africa, risk, predation, consequence and science. The most illustrative papers in this stage are Fairhead et al. ( 2012 )’s discussion on green grabbing and Milcu et al. ( 2013 )’s review on cultural ecosystem services. Other representative papers in this period focused on the evaluation methods of ecosystem service value and the role of cultural ecosystem service in the evaluation of ecosystem service value. Most of the larger clusters in the survey erupted at this stage, including #0 cultural ecosystem services, #1 large carnivore, #3 whale shark, #4 ecosystem services. Some related clusters also belong to this stage, such as #7 neoliberal conservation, #8 responsible behavior, #9 tourism development, #13 mangrove forest, #15 volunteer tourism, #17 circular economy and #18 telecoupling framework.

Cluster #0 cultural ecosystem services are the largest cluster in ecotourism research field, containing 157 cited references from 2006 to 2019, with the mean year being 2012. It commenced to have the citation burst in 2009, with high cited continuing until 2019. Cultural ecosystem services are an essential component of ecosystem services, including spiritual, entertainment and cultural benefits. Thus, in Fig. 8 , the overlap with #4 ecosystem services can obviously be seen. In Cluster #0, many highly cited references have discussed the trade-offs between natural and cultural ecosystem services in ecosystem services (Nelson et al., 2009 ; Raudsepp-Hearne et al., 2010 ) and the important role of cultural ecosystem services in the evaluation of ecosystem services value (Burkhard et al., 2012 ; Chan, Guerry, et al., 2012 ; Chan, Satterfield, et al., 2012 ; Fisher et al., 2009 ; Groot et al., 2010 ). As non-market value, how to evaluate and quantify cultural ecosystem services is also an important issue (Hernández-Morcillo et al., 2012 ; Milcu et al., 2013 ; Plieninger et al., 2013 ). Besides, the exploration of the relationship among biodiversity, human beings and ecosystem services is also the focus of this cluster research (Bennett et al., 2015 ; Cardinale et al., 2012 ; Díaz et al., 2015 ; Mace et al., 2012 ). The citing articles of #0 indicate the continued exploration of the connotation of cultural ecosystem services and their value evaluation methods (Dickinson & Hobbs, 2017 ). It is noteworthy that some articles have introduced spatial geographic models (Havinga et al., 2020 ; Hirons et al., 2016 ) and social media methods (Calcagni et al., 2019 ) as novel methods to examine cultural ecosystem services. In addition, the link and overlap between #0 cultural ecosystem service and #17 circular economy cannot be overlooked.

Ecosystem services relate to all the benefits that humans receive from ecosystems, including supply services, regulatory services, cultural services and support services. Research on cultural ecosystem services is based on the research of ecosystem services. It can be viewed in Fig. 9 that the research and citation burst in #4 was all slightly earlier than #0. Cluster #4 includes 118 references from 2005 to 2019, with an average year of 2011. In its research and development, how to integrate ecosystem services into the market and the payment scheme to protect the natural environment is a significant research topic (Gómez-Baggethun et al., 2010 ). In Cluster #4, the most influential literature provides an overview of the payment of ecosystem services (PES) from theory to practice by Engel et al. ( 2008 ). Many highly cited references have discussed PES (Kosoy & Corbera, 2010 ; Muradian et al., 2010 ), including the effectiveness of evaluation (Naeem et al., 2015 ), social equity matters (Pascual et al., 2014 ), the suitability and challenge (Muradian et al., 2013 ), and how to contribute to saving nature (Redford & Adams, 2009 ). The cluster also includes studies on impact assessment of protected areas (Oldekop et al., 2016 ), protected areas and poverty (Brockington & Wilkie, 2015 ; Ferraro & Hanauer, 2014 ), public perceptions (Bennett, 2016 ; Bennett & Dearden, 2014 ) and forest ecosystem services (Hansen et al., 2013 ). The foremost citing articles confirm the dominant theme of ecosystem services, especially the in-depth study and discussion of PES (Muniz & Cruz, 2015 ). In addition, #4 is highly correlated with #7 neoliberal protection, and Fairhead et al. ( 2012 ), a representative article of this stage, belongs to this cluster.

As the second largest cluster, Cluster #1 contains 131 references from 2008 to 2019, with the median year of 2014. As Fig S2 a) shows, the highly cited literature has mainly studied the status and protection of large carnivores (Mace, 2014 ; Ripple et al., 2014 ), including the situation of reduction (Craigie et al., 2010 ), downgrade (Estes et al., 2011 ) and even extinction (Dirzo et al., 2014 ; Pimm et al., 2014 ), and the reasons for such results, such as tourist visits (Balmford et al., 2015 ; Geffroy et al., 2015 ) and the increase in population at the edge of the protected areas (Wittemyer et al., 2008 ). The conservation effects of protected areas on wildlife biodiversity (Watson et al., 2014 ) and the implications of tourist preference heterogeneity for conservation and management (Minin et al., 2013 ) have also received attention. It is worth noting that the high citation rate of a paper using R to estimate the linear mixed-effects model (Bates et al., 2015 ) and the use of R in this cluster. The relationship between biodiversity and ecotourism is highlighted by the representative citing articles in research frontier of this cluster (Chung et al., 2018 ).

Cluster #3 refers to marine predator, and as shown in Fig. 8 , which has a strong correlation with #1. A total of 125 references were cited from 2002 to 2018, with an average year of 2011. References with high citation in #3 mainly studied the extinction and protection of marine life such as sharks (Dulvy et al., 2014 ), as well as the economic value and ecological impact of shark ecotourism (Clua et al., 2010 ; Gallagher & Hammerschlag, 2011 ; Gallagher et al., 2015 ). The paper published by Gallagher et al. ( 2015 ) is both the highly cited reference and main citing article, mainly focusing on the impact of shark ecotourism. It is also noteworthy that #6 protected area, #13 mangrove forest and #29 Mediterranean areas are highly correlated with these two clusters (Fig. 8 ).

Moreover, some clusters are not highly correlated with other clusters, but cannot be neglected at this stage of research. Cluster #8 responsible behavior includes 107 citations with the average year 2013, and mainly studied environmentally responsible behaviors in ecotourism (Chiu et al., 2014 ). Cluster #9 tourism development contains 97 cited references with mean year of 2015, focusing on the impact of such factors as residents’ perception on tourism development (Sharpley, 2014 ). Cluster #15 volunteer tourism consists of 52 citations, with an average year of 2011, which mainly considers the role of volunteer tourism in tourism development and sustainable tourism (Wearing & McGehee, 2013 ). Cluster #18 telecoupling framework has 26 cited references with the mean year being 2015, and the application of the new integrated framework of telecoupling Footnote 1 in ecotourism can be seen (Liu et al., 2015 ).

At this stage, it can be seen that the research field of ecotourism begins to develop in the direction of diversification, including the value evaluation and related research of ecosystem services and cultural ecosystem services, as well as the exploration of wild animals and plants, marine animals and plants and biodiversity. Neoliberal conservation, tourists’ responsible behavior, tourism development, volunteer tourism and circular economy are all explored. Some new research methods have also brought fresh air to this field, such as the introduction of spatial geographic models and social media methods, the discussion of economic value evaluation methods, the widespread use of R and the exploration of telecoupling framework. Therefore, from this stage, research in the field of ecotourism has entered the second stage of scientific discipline development (Shneider, 2009 ), featured by the use and evolution of research tools that can be used to investigate potential phenomena.

4.6.3 Phase III: Sustainable development research stage (2016 to present)

This stage of research continues to explore a series of topics of the preceding phase and further extends the research field on this basis. The keywords at this stage are politics, marine protected area and valuation. Some other keywords are still very active today, such as experience, challenge, sustainable development, willingness to pay, perspective, strategy, quality and satisfaction. The representative article is about sustainable development published by D'Amato et al. ( 2017 ), as shown in Fig. 8 belonging to #17 circular economy. The emerging clusters in this period are #11 ecological footprint, #14 social media and #16 COVID-19 pandemic. Cluster #11 contains 70 cited references from 2013 to 2020 with the mean year 2017. This clustering study mainly used the ecological footprint as an environmental indicator and socioeconomic indicators such as tourism to investigate the hypothesis of environmental Kuznets curve (Ozturk et al., 2016 ; Ulucak & Bilgili, 2018 ). Cluster #14 includes 52 cited references, with an average year of 2016. It can be seen that the introduction of social media data has added new color to research in the field of ecotourism, such as using social media data to quantify landscape value (Zanten et al., 2016 ) and to understand tourists’ preferences for the experience of protected areas (Hausmann et al., 2018 ), as well as from a spatial perspective using social media geo-tagged photos as indicators for evaluating cultural ecosystem services (Richards & Friess, 2015 ). As the latest and most concerned topic, cluster #16 contains 48 cited references, with mean year of 2018. This cluster mainly cites research on over-tourism (Seraphin et al., 2018 ) and sustainable tourism (Higgins-Desbiolles, 2018 ) and explores the impact of pandemics such as COVID-19 on global tourism (Gössling et al., 2021 ).

These emerging clusters at this phase bring fresh thinking to the research of ecotourism. First of all, the analysis of ecological footprint provides a tool for measuring the degree of sustainability and helps to monitor the effectiveness of sustainable programs (Kharrazi et al., 2014 ). Research and exploration of ecological footprint in ecotourism expresses the idea of sustainable development and puts forward reasonable planning and suggestions by comparing the demand of ecological footprint with the carrying capacity of natural ecosystem. Secondly, the use of social media data brings a new perspective of data acquisition to ecotourism research. Such large-scale data acquisition can make up for the limitations of sample size and data sampling bias faced by survey data users and provide a new way to understand and explore tourist behavior and market (Li et al., 2018 ). Finally, the sudden impact of COVID-19 in 2020 and its long-term sustainability has dealt a huge blow to the tourism industry. COVID-19 has highlighted the great need and value of tourism, while fundamentally changing the way destinations, business and visitors plan, manage and experience tourism (CREST, 2020 ). However, the stagnation of tourism caused by the pandemic is not enough to meet the challenges posed by the environment and the climate crisis. Therefore, how to sustain the development of tourism in this context to meet the challenges of the environment and climate change remains an important issue in the coming period of time. These emerging clusters are pushing the boundaries of ecotourism research and the exploration of sustainable development in terms of research methods, data collection and emerging topics.

Despite the fact that the research topics in this stage are richer and more diversified, the core goal of research is still committed to the sustainable development of ecotourism. The introduction of new technologies and the productive results have led to a much-improved understanding of research issues. All this commemorates the entrance of research into the third stage of the development of scientific disciplines (Shneider, 2009 ). In addition to continuing the current research topics, the future development of the field of ecotourism will continue to focus on the goal of sustainable development and will be more diversified and interdisciplinary.

5 Conclusion

This paper uses scientometrics to make a comprehensive visual domain analysis of ecotourism. The aim is to take advantage of this method to conduct an in-depth systematic review of research and development in the field of ecotourism. We have enriched the process of systematic reviews of knowledge domains with features from the latest CiteSpace software. Compared with previous studies, this study not only updated the database, but also extended the dataset with citation expansion, so as to more comprehensively identify the rapidly developing research field. The research not only identifies the main clusters and their advance in ecotourism research based on high impact citations and research frontiers formed by citations, but also presents readers with new insights through intuitive visual images. Through this study, readers can swiftly understand the progress of ecotourism, and on the basis of this study, they can use this method to conduct in-depth analysis of the field they are interested in.

Our research shows that ecotourism has developed rapidly in recent years, with the number of published articles increasing year by year, and this trend has become more pronounced after 2018. The research field of ecotourism spans many disciplines and is a comprehensive interdisciplinary subject. Ecotourism also attracts the attention of numerous developed and developing countries and institutions. The USA, China, Australia and South Africa are in a relatively leading position in the research and development of ecotourism. Foam tree map and pie chart of major topics, and the landscape view of keywords provide the hotspot issues of the research field. The development trend of ecotourism is preliminarily understood by detecting the citation bursts of the keywords and published articles. Co-citation analysis generates the main clusters of ecotourism research, and the timeline visualization of these clusters provides a clearer view for understanding the development dynamics of the research field. Building on all the above results, the research and development of ecotourism can be roughly divided into three stages: human disturbance, ecosystem services and sustainable development. Through the study of keywords, representative literature and main clusters in each stage, the development characteristics and context of each stage are clarified. From the current research results, we can catch sight that the application of methods and software in ecotourism research and the development of cross-field. Supported by the Shneider’s four-stage theory of scientific discipline (Shneider, 2009 ), it can be thought that ecotourism is in the third stage. Research tools and methods have become more potent and convenient, and research perspectives have become more diverse.

Based on the overall situation, research hotspots and development tendency of ecotourism research, it can be seen that the sustainable development of ecotourism is the core issue of current ecotourism research and also an important goal for future development. In the context of the current pandemic, the tourism industry is in crisis, but crisis often breeds innovation, and we must take time to reconsider the way forward. As we look forward to the future of tourism, we must adopt the rigor and dedication required to adapt to the pandemic, adhering to the principles of sustainable development while emphasizing economic reliability, environmental suitability and cultural acceptance. Post-COVID, the competitive landscape of travel and tourism will change profoundly, with preventive and effective risk management, adaptation and resilience, and decarbonization laying the foundation for future competitiveness and relevance (CREST, 2020 ).

In addition, as can be seen from the research and development of ecotourism, the exploration of sustainable development increasingly needs to absorb research methods from diverse fields to guide the formulation of policy. First of all, how to evaluate and quantify ecotourism reasonably and scientifically is an essential problem to be solved in the development of ecotourism. Some scholars choose contingent valuation method (CVM) and choice experiment (CE) in environmental economics to evaluate the economic value of ecotourism, especially non-market value. In addition, the introduction of spatial econometrics and the use of geographic information system (GIS) provide spatial scale analysis methods and results presentation for the sustainable development of ecotourism. The use of social media data implies the application of big data technology in the field of ecotourism, where machine learning methods such as artificial neural networks (ANN) and linear discriminant analysis (LDA) are increasingly being applied (Talebi et al., 2021 ). The measurement of ecological footprint and the use of telecoupling framework provide a reliable way to measure sustainable development and the interaction between multiple systems. These approaches all have expanded the methodological boundaries of ecotourism research. It is worth noting that R, as an open source and powerful software, is favored by scholars in the field of ecotourism. This programming language for statistical computation is now widely used in statistical analysis, data mining, data processing and mapping of ecotourism research.

The scientometrics method used in this study is mainly guided by the citation model in the literature retrieval dataset. The range of data retrieval exercises restraint by the source of retrieval and the query method utilized. While current methods can meet the requirements, iterative query optimization can also serve to advance in the quality of the data. To achieve higher data accuracy, the concept tree function in the new version of CiteSpace can also serve to clarify the research content of each clustering (Chen, 2017 ). In addition, the structural variation analysis in the new edition is also an interesting study, which can show the citation footprints of typical high-yielding authors and judge the influence of the author on the variability of network structure through the analysis of the citation footprints (Chen, 2017 ).

Availability of data and material

The data that support the findings of this study are available from Web of Science.

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Xu, L., Ao, C., Liu, B. et al. Ecotourism and sustainable development: a scientometric review of global research trends. Environ Dev Sustain 25 , 2977–3003 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-022-02190-0

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Ecotourism Costa Rica Case Study: Who Benefits?

Published: November 14, 2023

Modified: December 28, 2023

by Jyoti Vanness

Central & South America
Travel Destinations

Introduction

Ecotourism has become a buzzword in the travel industry, with travelers increasingly seeking out destinations that prioritize sustainability and environmental conservation. One country that has made significant strides in developing and promoting ecotourism is Costa Rica.

Renowned for its breathtaking biodiversity and commitment to environmental protection, Costa Rica has positioned itself as a leading destination for eco-conscious travelers. From lush rainforests and diverse wildlife to immaculate beaches and stunning volcanoes, the country offers a plethora of natural wonders for visitors to explore.

In this article, we will delve into the concept of ecotourism and discuss why Costa Rica serves as an excellent case study for examining the benefits and challenges associated with this form of sustainable travel.

At its core, ecotourism involves responsible travel to natural areas that conserve the environment, sustain the well-being of local communities, and provide educational and enjoyable experiences for visitors. It goes beyond traditional tourism by incorporating principles of conservation, community empowerment, and environmental stewardship.

Costa Rica, with its commitment to environmental protection and sustainable development, has emerged as a prime example of how ecotourism can positively impact a country’s economy, society, and natural resources.

Throughout this article, we will explore the economic, social, and environmental benefits of ecotourism in Costa Rica. We will also discuss the challenges and criticisms that this form of tourism faces in the country, shedding light on the complexities of balancing tourism growth with environmental preservation.

Join us on this journey as we uncover the fascinating world of ecotourism in Costa Rica and examine the question: Who truly benefits from this unique approach to travel and conservation?

Definition of Ecotourism

Ecotourism is a form of tourism that focuses on sustainable travel experiences, promoting the conservation of natural resources and the well-being of local communities. It encompasses responsible travel practices that minimize negative impacts on the environment while providing educational and enriching experiences for visitors.

Ecotourism goes beyond traditional tourism by emphasizing the importance of environmental conservation, cultural preservation, and community empowerment. It aims to create a positive and symbiotic relationship between tourists, local communities, and the natural environment.

The International Ecotourism Society (TIES) defines ecotourism as “responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment, sustains the well-being of local people, and involves interpretation and education.” This definition highlights the three pillars of ecotourism: environmental sustainability, community development, and visitor education.

The environmental sustainability aspect of ecotourism involves minimizing the ecological impacts of tourism activities. This can be achieved through practices such as reducing water and energy consumption, managing waste effectively, and protecting fragile ecosystems and wildlife habitats. Ecotourism encourages tourists to appreciate and respect the natural beauty and biodiversity of the destinations they visit.

Community development is another essential component of ecotourism. It focuses on empowering local communities by involving them in decision-making processes, providing economic opportunities, and preserving their cultural heritage. Ecotourism initiatives often collaborate with local communities to ensure that they directly benefit from tourism-related activities, such as hospitality, guiding, and the sale of local products.

Visitor education plays a crucial role in promoting ecological awareness and sustainability. Ecotourism seeks to educate tourists about the natural and cultural significance of the destinations they visit, as well as the importance of responsible travel practices. By providing educational experiences, ecotourism encourages tourists to become ambassadors for conservation and advocates for sustainable tourism.

Overall, the concept of ecotourism is centered around the idea of promoting a harmonious and mutually beneficial relationship between tourists, host communities, and the environment. It seeks to create a positive impact on local economies, empower communities, and protect natural habitats for future generations.

Overview of Costa Rica

Costa Rica, a small country located in Central America, is often referred to as a “natural paradise” due to its incredible biodiversity and stunning landscapes. Situated between the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean, Costa Rica is home to a wide array of ecosystems, including rainforests, cloud forests, mangroves, beaches, and volcanoes.

Despite its size, Costa Rica boasts an astounding 5% of the world’s biodiversity, making it one of the most biodiverse countries on the planet. It is estimated that the country is home to around 500,000 species, including over 12,000 different plant species, 850 bird species, 250 mammal species, and countless reptiles, amphibians, and insects.

The country’s commitment to environmental conservation is evident through its extensive system of national parks, reserves, and protected areas, which cover around 25% of its land. Costa Rica was one of the first countries to recognize the value of its natural resources and has been at the forefront of sustainable development for several decades.

Costa Rica’s emphasis on sustainability has garnered international recognition. It has been named the “Greenest Country in the World” by the Happy Planet Index and consistently ranks highly on the Environmental Performance Index.

In addition to its natural beauty, Costa Rica also offers a rich cultural heritage. The country is home to various indigenous communities, each with its own traditions, languages, and customs. Visitors have the opportunity to learn about and engage with these vibrant cultures through community-based tourism initiatives.

Costa Rica’s tourism industry has experienced significant growth in recent years. It has become a popular destination for eco-conscious travelers seeking immersive experiences in nature and opportunities for adventure activities like hiking, zip-lining, and wildlife observation.

With its commitment to sustainability, Costa Rica has taken the lead in promoting and developing ecotourism. The government has implemented policies and initiatives to encourage the growth of sustainable tourism practices, including the Certification for Sustainable Tourism (CST) program, which recognizes and rewards businesses that operate in an environmentally and socially responsible manner.

Overall, Costa Rica’s remarkable natural beauty, dedication to environmental conservation, and thriving ecotourism industry make it an ideal case study for examining the benefits and challenges associated with sustainable travel. As we delve deeper into the topic, we will explore how ecotourism has positively impacted the country’s economy, society, and environment.

Ecotourism Development in Costa Rica

Costa Rica has been at the forefront of ecotourism development, setting an example for the world with its commitment to environmental stewardship and sustainable tourism practices. The country’s journey towards becoming an ecotourism hotspot can be traced back to the 1970s when it made a conscious decision to prioritize the conservation of its natural resources.

Recognizing the potential of its rich biodiversity and pristine environments, Costa Rica began investing in the creation of national parks and protected areas. Today, the country boasts an impressive network of over 30 national parks, wildlife refuges, and biological reserves, which offer visitors unparalleled opportunities to experience and appreciate its natural wonders.

The ecotourism industry in Costa Rica has grown exponentially over the years, with a significant increase in the number of eco-lodges, nature-based tour operators, and community-based tourism initiatives. These businesses strive to provide authentic and sustainable experiences that showcase the country’s unique ecosystems while promoting conservation and benefiting local communities.

The government of Costa Rica has played a crucial role in promoting and regulating ecotourism development. It has implemented policies and initiatives that incentivize businesses to adopt sustainable practices, such as the Certification for Sustainable Tourism (CST) program mentioned earlier. This certification program assesses the sustainability performance of tourism businesses, recognizing those that meet specific criteria related to environmental, social, and cultural sustainability.

In addition to government efforts, Costa Rican communities have been actively involved in the development of ecotourism. Many local communities have started their own initiatives, offering visitors the chance to experience their culture, traditions, and way of life. This community-based approach ensures that the benefits of tourism are distributed more equitably and help empower local populations.

Ecotourism in Costa Rica not only focuses on land-based activities but also encourages responsible marine tourism. The country’s extensive coastline is home to vibrant coral reefs, marine biodiversity, and numerous protected marine areas. Visitors can engage in activities such as snorkeling, scuba diving, and sea turtle conservation projects, all while respecting the fragile marine ecosystems.

Overall, the development of ecotourism in Costa Rica has not only enhanced the country’s reputation as a nature lover’s paradise but has also provided numerous economic and social benefits. Through sustainable tourism practices, Costa Rica has successfully demonstrated that it is possible to generate revenue from tourism while preserving the environment and supporting local communities.

Economic Benefits of Ecotourism

Ecotourism has brought significant economic benefits to Costa Rica, contributing to the country’s overall growth and development. The sustainable tourism practices and emphasis on conservation have created a strong and thriving ecotourism industry, which has become a major source of revenue for the country.

One of the key economic benefits of ecotourism in Costa Rica is job creation. The growth of the tourism industry has led to the creation of employment opportunities in various sectors, from hospitality and tour guiding to ecotourism management and conservation efforts. Local communities have been able to capitalize on the demand for eco-friendly accommodations, eco-tours, and other nature-based experiences, providing livelihoods for many individuals and supporting small businesses.

Furthermore, ecotourism has stimulated entrepreneurship and the development of local businesses. Many small-scale eco-lodges, restaurants, and tour operators have emerged, often owned and operated by members of the local communities. These enterprises not only contribute to the diversification of the tourism industry but also help to retain economic benefits within the communities themselves.

The revenue generated from ecotourism activities also has a trickle-down effect on the economy. Money spent by visitors on accommodations, meals, transportation, and souvenirs circulates within the local economy, supporting local suppliers and service providers. This multiplier effect creates additional economic opportunities and helps to stimulate the growth of other sectors, such as agriculture and handicrafts.

In addition to direct economic benefits, ecotourism generates revenue for environmental conservation. The funds collected from entrance fees to national parks and protected areas, as well as through conservation initiatives, contribute to the preservation of Costa Rica’s natural habitats and the protection of its biodiversity. These resources are then reinvested in maintaining the integrity of these ecosystems, improving visitor infrastructure, and supporting research and educational programs.

Moreover, the success of ecotourism has positioned Costa Rica as a top travel destination for nature enthusiasts, attracting a steady stream of international visitors. This has resulted in increased tourism revenues, as travelers are willing to pay a premium for authentic and sustainable experiences. The monetary value placed on Costa Rica’s natural beauty and eco-conscious approach has created a competitive advantage and captured the attention of discerning travelers.

Overall, the economic benefits of ecotourism in Costa Rica have been significant, creating jobs, fostering entrepreneurship, and stimulating economic growth. By incorporating sustainability into its tourism practices, Costa Rica has transformed its natural resources into a valuable economic asset, ensuring a prosperous future for both the tourism industry and the local communities it supports.

Social Benefits of Ecotourism

Ecotourism in Costa Rica has not only brought economic prosperity but has also had a profound impact on the social well-being of local communities. It has fostered community empowerment, cultural preservation, and improved quality of life for many individuals.

One of the key social benefits of ecotourism is the empowerment of local communities. Through community-based tourism initiatives, local residents have been given the opportunity to actively participate in the tourism industry. They have become guides, hosts, and entrepreneurs, showcasing their culture, traditions, and way of life to visitors. This active involvement not only generates income but also helps to preserve and celebrate the unique cultural heritage of the communities.

Ecotourism has also provided educational opportunities for residents of these communities. As tourists seek immersive and educational experiences, local community members have the chance to share their knowledge and expertise, serving as interpreters and educators. This exchange of knowledge enhances cultural understanding and promotes respect for diverse cultures and traditions.

Furthermore, ecotourism has played a vital role in raising awareness about environmental conservation among both locals and visitors. Through guided tours and interpretive programs, visitors learn about the importance of protecting the environment and the actions they can take to minimize their impact. Local communities, in turn, develop a sense of environmental stewardship, as they witness firsthand the benefits of preserving their natural resources for future generations.

Another significant social benefit of ecotourism is the fostering of a sense of pride and identity within local communities. By showcasing their natural and cultural heritage, communities are able to reinforce their own worth and uniqueness. This recognition and appreciation from visitors bolsters community pride and self-esteem, strengthening social cohesion.

Additionally, the interaction between visitors and local communities can promote cross-cultural exchange and understanding. Tourists have the opportunity to engage with locals, learn about their way of life, and gain a deeper appreciation for different cultures. This cultural exchange encourages tolerance, empathy, and a sense of global citizenship.

Moreover, ecotourism has provided opportunities for the preservation of traditional practices and crafts. Many local artisans have been able to revive and sustain traditional handicrafts, such as weaving, pottery, and woodworking, which are then showcased and sold to tourists. This preservation of cultural heritage helps to maintain traditions, generate income, and provide a sense of pride and continuity within the community.

Overall, the social benefits of ecotourism in Costa Rica extend beyond economic gains. Through community empowerment, cultural preservation, and educational opportunities, ecotourism has positively impacted the social fabric of local communities, fostering a sense of pride, preserving traditions, and promoting cross-cultural understanding.

Environmental Benefits of Ecotourism

Ecotourism in Costa Rica has had profound environmental benefits, playing a significant role in the conservation and protection of the country’s rich natural resources. By promoting sustainable practices and raising awareness about environmental issues, ecotourism has contributed to the preservation of Costa Rica’s unique ecosystems.

One of the key environmental benefits of ecotourism is the conservation of biodiversity. Costa Rica is home to an astounding array of plant and animal species, many of which are endangered or threatened. Ecotourism prioritizes the protection of these species and their habitats, ensuring that visitors have minimal impact on delicate ecosystems. By adopting responsible travel practices, such as staying on designated trails, minimizing waste, and respecting wildlife, visitors can experience the natural wonders of Costa Rica without causing harm to the environment.

Another important environmental benefit of ecotourism is the preservation and restoration of natural areas. Many ecotourism initiatives invest in the restoration and rehabilitation of degraded environments, such as reforesting areas that have been deforested or rehabilitating coastal habitats. These efforts not only enhance the beauty and integrity of the landscapes but also provide essential habitats for wildlife and contribute to the overall health of ecosystems.

Ecotourism also supports and funds the establishment and management of protected areas. The revenue generated from entrance fees and tourist activities in national parks and reserves helps to maintain and protect these areas. These funds are used for conservation efforts, such as patrolling against illegal activities, conducting research, and implementing sustainable management practices. They also support educational programs and infrastructure development, providing visitors with an informative and enjoyable experience while minimizing negative impacts on the environment.

Furthermore, ecotourism encourages sustainable resource management. By showcasing the value of intact ecosystems, it promotes the sustainable use of natural resources, such as water, energy, and land. Eco-lodges and other nature-based accommodations often employ environmentally friendly practices, such as water and energy conservation measures, waste management strategies, and the use of renewable energy sources. These initiatives minimize the ecological footprint of tourism and serve as examples of sustainable practices that can be replicated in other areas.

Ecotourism also plays a role in raising awareness about environmental issues and promoting environmental education. Through guided tours, educational programs, and interpretive materials, visitors gain a deeper understanding of the importance of environmental conservation. This education fosters a sense of responsibility and empowers tourists to make informed choices that minimize their impact on the environment, both during their visit and in their everyday lives.

Overall, the environmental benefits of ecotourism in Costa Rica are far-reaching. By prioritizing the conservation and sustainable use of natural resources, ecotourism has helped to safeguard Costa Rica’s rich biodiversity, support the establishment of protected areas, promote sustainable resource management, and raise environmental awareness among visitors and local communities.

Challenges and Criticisms of Ecotourism in Costa Rica

While ecotourism has brought numerous benefits to Costa Rica, it is not without its challenges and criticisms. It is important to recognize and address these issues to ensure the long-term sustainability and effectiveness of ecotourism practices in the country.

One of the main challenges of ecotourism in Costa Rica is the potential for negative environmental impacts. Despite efforts to promote responsible travel practices, some tourists may engage in activities that harm the environment, such as improper disposal of waste, disturbance of wildlife, or damage to fragile ecosystems. Balancing the desire to attract tourists with the need for environmental protection requires continued education and enforcement of sustainable practices.

Another challenge is the potential for the commodification of culture and the loss of authenticity. Commercialization and the demand for cultural experiences can sometimes lead to the exploitation of local traditions and customs, turning them into commodified spectacles for tourist consumption. It is crucial to strike a balance that respects and celebrates local cultures while preserving their integrity and authenticity.

Infrastructure development can also pose challenges to ecotourism in Costa Rica. As tourism grows, there is a need for increased infrastructure, such as accommodations, transportation, and recreational facilities. However, poorly planned or excessive infrastructure development can result in the degradation of natural habitats, increased pollution, and loss of biodiversity. Careful management and sustainable infrastructure planning are necessary to minimize these negative impacts.

Furthermore, the economic benefits of ecotourism may not always reach the local communities who bear the burden of hosting tourists. There is a need to ensure that the revenue generated from ecotourism is distributed equitably and contributes to the overall well-being of the local population. This can be achieved through community empowerment, providing opportunities for local businesses, and supporting initiatives that preserve and celebrate local cultures.

There are also concerns about the risk of over-tourism in popular ecotourism destinations in Costa Rica. Increased visitor numbers can place stress on fragile ecosystems and disrupt the natural balance of these areas. Proper management strategies, including visitor limits, trail restrictions, and seasonality control, are necessary to mitigate the potential negative effects of over-tourism.

Critics argue that ecotourism in Costa Rica has become commercialized and focused more on profit than conservation. Some businesses may use the label of “ecotourism” as a marketing tool without genuinely prioritizing sustainable practices. Greenwashing, where businesses falsely claim to be environmentally friendly, can mislead tourists and undermine the credibility of genuine ecotourism efforts.

Finally, climate change poses a significant challenge to the sustainability of ecotourism in Costa Rica. Rising temperatures, changing rainfall patterns, and extreme weather events can threaten ecosystems and impact wildlife habitats. Adaptation and mitigation strategies are necessary to ensure the long-term viability of ecotourism in the face of these environmental challenges.

Awareness and active management of these challenges and criticisms are vital for the continued success of ecotourism in Costa Rica. Through collaboration and commitment, stakeholders can address these issues and work towards a more sustainable and responsible approach to ecotourism in the country.

Costa Rica serves as an exemplary case study for the positive impacts and challenges of ecotourism. Over the years, the country has successfully harnessed the power of sustainable tourism to conserve its natural resources, empower local communities, and boost its economy.

Through the development of eco-friendly accommodations, nature-based tourism initiatives, and community-based tourism projects, Costa Rica has created numerous job opportunities and entrepreneurial ventures for its residents. Local communities have been able to showcase their cultural heritage and benefit from the revenue generated by ecotourism activities.

The environmental benefits of ecotourism in Costa Rica are undeniable. The preservation of biodiversity, restoration of natural areas, and funds allocated for the management of protected areas have contributed to the conservation of the country’s fragile ecosystems. Additionally, by promoting sustainable practices and environmental education, ecotourism has raised awareness about the importance of environmental stewardship among both tourists and locals.

However, the challenges and criticisms associated with ecotourism in Costa Rica should not be overlooked. Environmental impacts, cultural commodification, infrastructure development, equitable distribution of benefits, over-tourism, greenwashing, and the impacts of climate change all pose challenges that require ongoing attention and management.

Despite these challenges, it is clear that ecotourism has had a transformative impact on Costa Rica, positioning it as a global leader in sustainable travel. By tackling these challenges head-on and continuously improving sustainable practices, Costa Rica can continue to reap the benefits of ecotourism while mitigating its negative impacts.

In conclusion, the success of ecotourism in Costa Rica demonstrates that by prioritizing environmental conservation, promoting community empowerment, and fostering educational experiences, sustainable tourism can be a powerful catalyst for positive change. Costa Rica serves as an inspiration and a model for other countries, showing that it is possible to create a thriving tourism industry while protecting the natural beauty and cultural heritage that make our world truly special. As travelers and stakeholders, it is our responsibility to support and promote sustainable tourism practices, ensuring that ecotourism continues to be a force for environmental preservation and social progress.

1. The International Ecotourism Society. (2021). What is ecotourism? Retrieved from https://ecotourism.org/what-is-ecotourism/

2. World Travel & Tourism Council. (2021). Travel & Tourism Economic Impact 2021: Costa Rica. Retrieved from https://www.wttc.org/economic-impact/country-analysis/country-profiles-2021/#C

3. Castillo, R. R. (2019). Ecotourism in Costa Rica: A review of its economic, environmental, and social impacts. GeoJournal of Tourism and Geosites, 27(3), 940-950.

4. Honey, M. (2008). Ecotourism and Sustainable Development: Who Owns Paradise? Island Press.

5. Lindberg, K., & Hawkins, D. (Eds.). (1993). Ecotourism: A Guide for Planners and Managers (Vol. 1). The Ecotourism Society.

6. McNamara, K., & Honey, M. (2020). Costa Rica and ecotourism development: A critical analysis. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 28(4), 519-535.

7. Spenceley, A. (Ed.). (2012). Responsible Tourism: Critical Issues for Conservation and Development. Earthscan.

8. Weaver, D. B. (2008). Ecotourism (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons.

9. World Tourism Organization (UNWTO). (2021). Tourism Highlights 2021 Edition. Retrieved from https://www.unwto.org/publication/tourism-highlights-2021-edition

10. World Travel & Tourism Council. (2021). Costa Rica: The Greenest Country in the World. Retrieved from https://www.wttc.org/content/files/2021/reports/Country%20Profiles%202021/CostaRica2020.pdf

Note: The above references are for informative purposes only. It is recommended to consult additional sources for comprehensive research on the topic.

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Holidays for hippies – Ecotourism Stewardship – the personal responsibility for looking after things, in this case the environment. No one should damage the present or future environment

Conservation – the careful and planned use of resources in order to manage the natural environment for future generations

The aims of ecotourism: to be environmentally friendly use more renewable sources of energy recycle waste products to involve local people at all levels of planning and during operation – this can include jobs and training build small-scale non-intrusive hotels where people can stay Two short videos about the features of ecotourism

Ecotourism in the rainforest Picture Why should we look after the rainforest? Over the last 50 years the Amazon rainforest has changed and thousands of square kilometres are cleared every year for timber, farming, mining and road building. The result of this that 20% of the rainforest has now been destroyed.

Global warming – the rainforest absorbs a lot of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. However, cutting down the trees and burning them to clear land results in carbon dioxide being added to the atmosphere instead – which, in turn increase global warming

Flooding – clearing the rainforest trees reduces interception and means that, when it rains, the fertile topsoil is washed into the rivers and lost. The rivers also silt up as a result, which means that they are more likely to flood and damage farms, homes and businesses downstream

Ecosystem – clearing the rainforest damages the fragile ecosystem there. Animals and plants lose their habitats and many species become extinct. We also suffer as a result, because Amazon rainforest species have provided the source of many ingredients used in modern medicines. Increasing rainforest clearance means that potential future medicines might be lost before they’re discovered

Tourism – ecotourists like to visit the rainforest and meet its wildlife and people. They bring money to the places they visit. If the forest is cleared, they won’t want to come and communities will suffer financially

Indigenous peoples – Amerindians have lived in the rainforest for centuries. However, increasing contact with the outsiders now moving in to the forest means that they risk catching diseases which they have no resistance to. These diseases can be fatal. Clearing the rainforest also means that the Amerindians lose their homes and way of life. Ecotourism in the Amazon Rainforest Picture Ecotourism usually involves small-scale tourism. The Yachana ecolodge in the Amazon Rainforest is one example of an ecotourism development. The ecolodge is a guesthouse where a small number of ecotourists can stay. Its basically a small environmentally friendly hotel that is surrounded by nature.

The Yachana ecolodge is next to the Napo River – a tributary of the Amazon – which is close to the village of Mondana. It is set in its own, protected, 1200-hectare section of rainforest, which is home to thousands of species of tropical plants and animals. Every room has a view of the river, safe drinking water and a private bathroom with a hot shower. Its dining room serves the guests meals made from locally grown food.

Most of the people who work at Yachana are local. They have jobs in the kitchen, dining room, garden – and help to look after the guests and their bedrooms. The lodge also employs Amerindian guides to show guests the forest environment and its creatures, how local people live and how they use plants for medicines.

The Yachana ecolodge offers a range of ecotourism activities. They involve visiting the natural environment in small groups and causing as little harm as possible to the area and to the local people. The activities help tourists to better understand the environment and the lives of local people. Activities include: rainforest hiking bird watching swimming in the Napo River canoeing photography visiting the local village learning to make traditional ‘mokaua’ pottery taking part in a traditional ceremony visiting a nearby biological research station What’s good about ecotourism? Picture For the environment Ecotourism means that the environment the ecotourists are visiting will be looked after. The trees are not cut down, but conserved for the future, because the forest is now an important attraction and economic asset. Ecotourism is small-scale, ecotourists travel in small groups. This means that they consume few resources, cause little pollution and are less likely to cause physical damage, like trampling vegetation. The Amazon rainforest is an important global resource. By absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, the trees act as a brake on increased global warming. Therefore, anything which promotes their preservation is a real benefit – not just for the local environment but for the world. The Yachana ecolodge recycles its waste and uses renewable solar power

The local economy Ecotourism developments, such as the Yachana ecolodge mostly employ local people. Their wages are then spent in local markets – multiplier effect Ecotourism also provides local farmers with two new markets: the tourist developments themselves. like the ecolodge, plus the local people who work for the ecolodge and who don’t have time to grow their own food any more, because they’re too busy with their tourism jobs Ecotourists like to visit villages and interact with the people. They pay for extra services and buy souvenir handicrafts from them. This puts more ,oney into the local economy – the multiplier effect

People’s lives (social) as a result of ecotourism, some local people can now afford consumer goods, like televisions and radios – and motorboats instead of canoes. These change people’s traditional lives and can be seen as a negative impact. But many younger people welcome them. the extra money in the local economy means that more can be spent on healthcare and education – leading to higher literacy levels and life expectancy because more people are better off now, as a result of ecotourism, fewer fell the need to migrate (move away) to cities in search of work. Many migrants are younger adults, who leave an older population behind. One result of less migration from the Amazon is a better balance of people from different age groups – with more younger, fitter people to earn money, grow food and look after the elderly.

How does ecotourism help sustainable development? Ecotourists visit the Amazon rainforest because of its natural rainforest Ecotourism brings money to the area The forest and its wildlife become economic resources – and so do the traditions of its local people Local people, local government and local businesses value nature and tradition more The environment and traditional ways are sustained

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Ecotourism in Costa Rica case study

Subject: Geography

Age range: 14-16

Resource type: Lesson (complete)

Last updated

13 December 2023

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This lesson looks at where Costa Rica is located, the problem they had with deforestation, the effects of this and how the solved this issue (Ecotourism). It then develops ecotourism to look at the positives and negatives of this. It finishes off by looking at a past examination question based on this topic. There is a separate worksheet based on this topic to help students to understand the lesson.

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Ecotourism is a form of tourism that focuses on the natural environment and involves activities such as wildlife viewing and hiking in natural areas. It is designed to be environmentally and culturally sensitive, and aims to minimise negative impacts on the local ecosystem.

Here are five examples of countries that are known for ecotourism:

Costa Rica: Known for its lush rainforests, diverse wildlife, and eco-friendly tourism practices. Ecotourism activities include hiking in national parks, wildlife viewing, and turtle watching.
Ecuador: Known for the Galapagos Islands and the Amazon rainforest, which are home to a wide variety of plant and animal species. Ecotourism activities include wildlife viewing, hiking, and bird watching.
New Zealand: Known for its stunning landscapes, including mountains, forests, and beaches. Ecotourism activities include hiking, skiing, and wildlife viewing.
Bhutan: Known for its commitment to sustainable development and the protection of its natural and cultural heritage. Ecotourism activities include hiking, bird watching, and cultural tours.
Kenya: Known for its wildlife and diverse landscapes, including savannas, deserts, and mountains. Ecotourism activities include wildlife safaris, hiking, and bird watching.
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GCSE Geography | Rainforest Management: Local Level (Tropical Rainforests 10)

Study Notes

GCSE Geography | Rainforest Management: National Level (Tropical Rainforests 9)

Rainforest management: local level | aqa gcse geography | tropical rainforests 10.

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Rainforest Management: National Level | AQA GCSE Geography | Tropical Rainforests 9

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According to the non-profit Borgen Project, the majority of this energy, 67.5%, comes from hydropower, with wind power generating 17%, geothermal sources 13.5% and biomass and solar panels comprising 0.84%. The remaining 1.16% is from backup plants. Costa Rica's eco-tourism experiment offers a path to recovery for the rest of the world.
3.4.3 Management of Tourism
Case Study - Importance of Tourism to Cyprus. Tourism is important to Cyprus as it provides thousands of jobs and contributes an average of 20% to the country's GDP. Cyprus island is partitioned into the Turkish Northern Cyprus and the Greek Cypriot Republic of Cyprus. This case study will be focusing on the southern Greek part of the island.
Ecotourism and sustainable development: a scientometric review of
Ecotourism, which has appeared in academic literature since the late 1980s, is a special form of nature-based tourism that maintains the well-being of the local community while protecting the environment and provides tourists with a satisfying nature experience and enjoyment (Ceballos-Lascuráin, 1996; Higgins, 1996; Orams, 1995).With years of research and development, ecotourism has risen to ...
IGCSE Geography 0460
This video is an educational video for IGCSE Geography. It is part of a series on this subject. Topics covered in this video are:Ecotourism Case StudyDon't f...
Ecotourism Costa Rica Case Study: Who Benefits?
Ecotourism has brought significant economic benefits to Costa Rica, contributing to the country's overall growth and development. The sustainable tourism practices and emphasis on conservation have created a strong and thriving ecotourism industry, which has become a major source of revenue for the country. One of the key economic benefits of ...
Ecotourism
Ecotourism means that the environment the ecotourists are visiting will be looked after. The trees are not cut down, but conserved for the future, because the forest is now an important attraction and economic asset. Ecotourism is small-scale, ecotourists travel in small groups. This means that they consume few resources, cause little pollution ...
Ecotourism Research Progress: A Bibliometric Analysis During 1990-2016
The study aims to evaluate research trends of ecotourism, which has attracted wide attention by both researchers and policymakers as an important way to realize sustainable tourism. Bibliometric analysis was carried through the 2,531 records related to ecotourism searching from Science Citation Index (SCI), Social Science Citation Index (SSCI ...
Ecotourism in Costa Rica case study
Ecotourism in Costa Rica case study. Subject: Geography. Age range: 14-16. Resource type: Lesson (complete) File previews. pptx, 2.35 MB. pptx, 13.25 MB. This lesson looks at where Costa Rica is located, the problem they had with deforestation, the effects of this and how the solved this issue (Ecotourism). It then develops ecotourism to look ...
Ecotourism
Ecotourism is a form of tourism that focuses on the natural environment and involves activities such as wildlife viewing and hiking in natural areas. It is designed to be environmentally and culturally sensitive, and aims to minimise negative impacts on the local ecosystem. Here are five examples of countries that are known for ecotourism: Costa Rica: Known for its lush rainforests, diverse ...
How many approaches are themes in the study of geography?
Exploring the Five Themes of Geography in Ecotourism. As an Ecotourism Specialist, I am constantly fascinated by the various approaches and themes in the study of geography. One of the fundamental frameworks used in geography is the five themes of geography, which consist of location, place, region, movement, and human-environment interaction.
Human Geography: Ecotourism+case study Flashcards
Human Geography: Ecotourism+case study. 3.7 (3 reviews) ECOTOURISM: Definition. Click the card to flip 👆. Tourism that doesn't harm environment + benefits local people. Usually a small-scale activity with small number of visitors in area at a time. Click the card to flip 👆.
Human Geography: Ecotourism+case study Flashcards
Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like ECOTOURISM: Definition, ECOTOURISM: What does it involve, ECOTOURISM: Environmental benefits and more.