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1.2 Research Methods in Psychology

4 min read • january 5, 2023

Sadiyya Holsey

Jillian Holbrook

Overview of Research Methods

There are various types of research methods in psychology with different purposes, strengths, and weaknesses.

Whenever researchers want to prove or find causation, they would run an experiment.

An experiment you'll learn about in Unit 9 that was run by Solomon Asch investigated the extent to which one would conform to a group's ideas.

Image Courtesy of Wikipedia .

Each person in the room would have to look at these lines above and state which one they thought was of similar length to the original line. The answer was, of course, obvious, but Asch wanted to see if the "real participant" would conform to the views of the rest of the group.

Asch gathered together what we could call "fake participants" and told them not to say line C. The "real participant" would then hear wrong answers, but they did not want to be the odd one out, so they conformed with the rest of the group and represented the majority view.

In this experiment, the "real participant" was the control group , and about 75% of them, over 12 trials, conformed at least once.

Correlational Study

There could be a correlational study between anything. Say you wanted to see if there was an association between the number of hours a teenager sleeps and their grades in high school. If there was a correlation, we cannot say that sleeping a greater number of hours causes higher grades. However, we can determine that they are related to each other. 💤

Remember in psychology that a correlation does not prove causation!

Survey Research

Surveys are used all the time, especially in advertising and marketing. They are often distributed to a large number of people, and the results are returned back to researchers.

Naturalistic Observation

If a student wanted to observe how many people fully stop at a stop sign, they could watch the cars from a distance and record their data. This is a naturalistic observation since the student is in no way influencing the results.

A notable psychological case study is the study of Phineas Gage :

Image Courtesy of Vermont Journal

Phineas Gage was a railroad construction foreman who survived a severe brain injury in 1848. The accident occurred when an iron rod was accidentally driven through Gage's skull, damaging his frontal lobes . Despite the severity of the injury, Gage was able to walk and talk immediately after the accident and appeared to be relatively uninjured.

However, Gage's personality underwent a dramatic change following the injury. He became impulsive, irresponsible, and prone to outbursts of anger, which were completely out of character for him before the accident. Gage's case is famous in the history of psychology because it was one of the first to suggest that damage to the frontal lobes of the brain can have significant effects on personality and behavior.

Key Terms to Review ( 27 )

Association

Case Studies

Cause and Effect

Control Group

Correlational Studies

Cross-Sectional Studies

Cross-Sectional Study

Ethical Issues

Experiments

Frontal Lobes

Generalize Results

Hawthorne Effect

Human Development Stages

Independent Variables

Longitudinal Studies

Naturalistic Observations

Personality Change

Phineas Gage

Research Methods

Response Rates

School Grades

Solomon Asch

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AP Psychology Unit 1 Notes: Scientific Foundations

February 12, 2024.

Get ready for the AP Psychology exam with our free AP Psychology study notes. We've compiled concise unit summaries and key terms and people to jumpstart your AP test prep. These AP Psychology study notes should be used to supplement what you’re learning in your AP Psych class. More study strategies and expert tips can be found in our latest AP Psychology Test Prep Book .

[ READ NEXT: AP Psychology Unit 2 Notes: Biological Bases of Behavior   ]

AP Psychology: Unit 1 Summary

This first unit focuses on the historical origins of the science of psychology, current psychological perspectives, and the research methods psychologists use to gather data about human thinking and behavior. 

History of Psychology

One way to think about the history of psychology is to organize the various theorists and theories into “waves,” or schools of thought. Each wave is a way of thinking about human thought and behavior that dominated the field for a certain period of time until a new way of looking at psychology started to dominate the field. There are five ways: Introspection, Gestalt Psychology, Psychoanalysis, Behaviorism, and Multiple Perspectives.

Different contemporary psychologists look at human thought and behavior from different perspectives. Contemporary perspectives can be placed into eight broad categories: Humanistic, Psychoanalytic, Biopsychology (or Neuroscience), Evolutionary (or Darwinian), Behavioral, Cognitive, Social-Cultural (or Sociocultural), and Biopsychosocial.

Research and Methodology

Psychology is a science, and it is therefore based on research. Though people are often guided effectively by their common intuition, sometimes it leads us astray. People have the tendency upon hearing about research findings (and many other things) to think that they knew it all along; this tendency is called hindsight bias. After an event occurs, it is relatively easy to explain why it happened. The goal of scientific research, however, is to predict what will happen in advance.

An understanding of research methods is fundamental to psychology. Because of that, you are more likely to see a free-response (or essay) question on this topic than on any other. Sometimes psychologists conduct research in order to solve practical problems. For instance, psychologists might compare two different methods of teaching children to read in order to determine which method is better or they could design and test the efficacy of a program to help people quit smoking. This type of research is known as applied research because it has clear, practical applications. Other psychologists conduct basic research. Basic research explores questions that are of interest to psychologists but are not intended to have immediate, real-world applications. Examples of basic research would include studying how people form their attitudes about others and how people in different cultures define intelligence.

Get ahead of the AP game! Our flexible, expert-led AP Psychology Review Course will help you build up your score by breaking down the exam.

Ap psychology: unit 1 key terms & people.

Below, we describe some of the Unit 1 key terms and people you should review ahead of the AP Psychology exam.

• Introspection: The examination of one’s own mental and emotional processes.
• Structuralism: The idea that the mind operates by combining subjective emotions and objective sensations, a theory developed by Wilhelm Wundt.
• Gestalt Psychology: Gestalt psychology tried to examine a person’s total experience because the way we experience the world is more than just an accumulation of various perceptual experiences. Gestalt theorists demonstrated that the whole experience is often more than just the sum of the parts of the experience.
• Sigmund Freud: Freud revolutionized psychology with his psychoanalytic theory. While treating patients for various psychosomatic complaints, Freud believed he discovered the unconscious mind—a part of our mind over which we do not have conscious control that determines, in part, how we think and behave
• Repression: Freud believed that this hidden part of ourselves builds up over the years through repression – the pushing down into the unconscious events and feelings that cause so much anxiety and tension that our conscious mind cannot deal with them.
• Behaviorism: Behaviorists maintain that psychologists should look at only behavior and causes of behavior – stimuli (environmental events) and responses (physical reactions) – and not concern themselves with describing elements of consciousness.
• B.F. Skinner: Another behaviorist, B. F. Skinner expanded the basic ideas of behaviorism to include the idea of reinforcement – environmental stimuli that either encourage or discourage certain responses.
• Eclectic: Currently, there is no one way of thinking about human thought and behavior that all or even most psychologists share. Many psychologists describe themselves as eclectic – drawing from multiple perspectives.
• Humanist Perspective: Humanists stressed individual choice and free will. They believe that we choose most of our behaviors and these choices are guided by physiological, emotional, or spiritual needs.
• Psychoanalytic Perspective: Psychologists using this perspective believe that the unconscious mind – a part of our mind that we do not have conscious control over or access to – controls much of our thought and action. Psychoanalysts would look for impulses or memories pushed into the unconscious mind through repression. This perspective thinks that to understand human thought and behavior, we must examine our unconscious mind through dream analysis, word association, and other psychoanalytic therapy techniques.
• Biopsychology (or Neuroscience) Perspective: Biopsychologists explain human thought and behavior strictly in terms of biological processes. Human cognition and reactions might be caused by effects of our genes, hormones, and neurotransmitters in the brain or by a combination of all three.
• Evolutionary (or Darwinian) Perspective: Evolutionary psychologists (also sometimes called sociobiologists) examine human thoughts and actions in terms of natural selection. Some psychological traits might be advantageous for survival, and these traits would be passed down from the parents to the next generation.
• Behavioral Perspective: Behaviorists explain human thought and behavior in terms of conditioning. Behaviorists look strictly at observable behaviors and human and animal responses to different kinds of stimuli.
• Cognitive Perspective: Cognitive psychologists examine human thought and behavior in terms of how we interpret, process, and remember environmental events. In this perspective, the rules that we use to view the world are important to understanding why we think and behave the way we do.
• Social-Cultural (or Sociocultural) Perspective: Social-cultural psychologists look at how our thoughts and behaviors vary between cultures. They emphasize the influence culture has on the way we think and act. A social-cultural psychologist might explain a person’s tendency to be extroverted by examining his or her culture’s rules about social interaction.
• Biopsychosocial Perspective: This modern perspective acknowledges that human thinking and behavior results from combinations of biological (“bio”), psychological (“psycho”), and social (“social”) factors. Psychologists who emphasize the biopsychosocial perspective view other perspectives as too focused on specific influences on thinking and behavior (sometimes called “being reductionistic”).
• Hindsight bias: People have the tendency upon hearing about research findings (and many other things) to think that they knew it all along; this tendency is called hindsight bias.
• Hypothesis: A hypothesis expresses a relationship between two variables. Variables, by definition, are things that can vary among the participants in the research.
• Theory: A theory aims to explain some phenomenon and allows researchers to generate testable hypotheses with the hope of collecting data that support the theory.
• Valid: Good research is both valid and reliable. Research is valid when it measures what the researcher set out to measure; it is accurate.
• Reliable: Research is reliable when it can be replicated; it is consistent. If the researcher conducted the same research in the same way, the researcher would get similar results.
• Sampling: The individuals on which the research will be conducted are called participants (or subjects), and the process by which participants are selected is called sampling.
• Experiment: Psychologists’ preferred method of research is the experiment because only through a carefully controlled experiment can one show a causal relationship. An experiment allows the researcher to manipulate the independent variable and control for confounding variables.
• Correlation: A correlation expresses a relationship between two variables without ascribing cause. Correlations can be either positive or negative. A positive correlation between two things means that the presence of one thing predicts the presence of the other. A negative correlation means that the presence of one thing predicts the absence of the other.
• Naturalistic observation: Sometimes researchers opt to observe their participants in their natural habitats without interacting with them at all. Such unobtrusive observation is called naturalistic observation. The goal of naturalistic observation is to get a realistic and rich picture of the participants’ behavior. To that end, control is sacrificed.
• Case study method: The case study method is used to get a full, detailed picture of one participant or a small group of participants. While case studies allow researchers to get the richest possible picture of what they are studying, the focus on a single individual or small group means that the findings cannot be generalized to a larger population.
• Descriptive statistics: Descriptive statistics, as the name suggests, simply describe a set of data. For instance, if you were interested in researching what kinds of pets your schoolmates have, you might summarize that data by creating a frequency distribution that would tell you how many students had dogs, cats, zebras, and so on.
• Correlation: A correlation measures the relationship between two variables. Correlations can be either positive or negative.
• Inferential statistics: Whereas descriptive statistics provide a way to summarize information about the sample studied, the purpose of inferential statistics is to determine whether or not findings can be applied to the larger population from which the sample was selected.

Next, test your AP Psychology Unit 1 knowledge using our free Key Terms Worksheets!

AP Biology Resources

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AP Psychology: Understanding Research Methods

In AP Psychology, a deep understanding of research methods is essential for interpreting psychological studies and conducting empirical research. Here's a comprehensive guide to the key research methods studied in AP Psychology:

1. Experimental Research:

   - Objective: Establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables.

   - Design: Random assignment of participants to conditions, manipulation of an independent variable, and measurement of dependent variables.

2. Correlational Research:

   - Objective: Examine relationships between variables without manipulating them.

   - Design: Measure variables to determine the degree and direction of correlation. No manipulation of variables occurs.

3. Descriptive Research:

   - Objective: Observe and describe behavior without manipulating variables.

   - Design: Includes naturalistic observation, case studies, and surveys to gather information about behavior.

4. Longitudinal Studies:

   - Objective: Examine changes in behavior or traits over an extended period.

   - Design: Data collected from the same participants over time to observe developmental changes.

5. Cross-Sectional Studies:

   - Objective: Compare individuals of different ages to assess differences.

   - Design: Data collected from participants of different age groups at a single point in time.

6. Quasi-Experimental Designs:

   - Objective: Investigate cause-and-effect relationships without random assignment.

   - Design: Participants are not randomly assigned to conditions due to ethical or practical reasons.

7. Surveys and Questionnaires:

   - Objective: Gather self-report data on opinions, attitudes, or behaviors.

   - Design: Participants respond to a set of questions, providing quantitative or qualitative data.

8. Naturalistic Observation:

   - Objective: Observe and record behavior in its natural setting.

   - Design: Researchers avoid interfering with the environment, allowing for a more authentic representation of behavior.

9. Case Studies:

   - Objective: In-depth analysis of an individual or small group.

   - Design: Intensive examination of a person's history, behavior, and experiences.

10. Independent and Dependent Variables:

    - Objective: Identify the manipulated and measured aspects in an experiment.

    - Design: The independent variable is manipulated, and the dependent variable is measured to observe the effect.

11. Random Assignment:

    - Objective: Minimize pre-existing differences among participants in different experimental conditions.

    - Design: Participants are randomly assigned to experimental and control groups.

12. Sampling Methods:

    - Objective: Ensure the selected sample is representative of the population.

    - Design: Techniques like random sampling, stratified sampling, or convenience sampling are used.

13. Ethical Considerations:

    - Objective: Ensure the well-being of participants and the integrity of research.

    - Design: Adherence to ethical guidelines, including informed consent, debriefing, and protection from harm.

14. Reliability and Validity:

    - Objective: Assess the consistency and accuracy of measurements.

    - Design: Researchers employ techniques to ensure that data collection methods are reliable and valid.

15. Statistical Analysis:

    - Objective: Draw meaningful conclusions from data.

    - Design: Utilize statistical tests like t-tests, ANOVA, or correlation coefficients to analyze and interpret results.

16. Replication:

    - Objective: Confirm the reliability of study findings.

    - Design: Repeated studies with similar methodologies to ensure the consistency of results.

By mastering these research methods, AP Psychology students can critically evaluate psychological studies, design their own experiments, and contribute to the scientific understanding of behavior and mental processes. Understanding the strengths and limitations of each method is crucial for becoming a proficient consumer and producer of psychological research.

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AP Psychology/Scientific Foundations of Psychology

Introduces the basis of psychological theory as the study of human and animal behavior and mental processes and learn how psychologists design and conduct research. [1]

Objectives and Skills [ edit | edit source ]

Topics may include: [2]

• Major historical figures in psychology
• Theoretical approaches to describing behavior
• Branches of psychology
• A variety of research methods used by psychologists
• The application of research design and statistical analysis in psychology
• Ethical guidelines

Study Notes [ edit | edit source ]

• Hindsight Bias - Finding that something has happened makes it seem that it was supposed to happen all along ("I knew it!").
• Common Sense - Visualizes what has occurred in the past more easily than predicting what will occur ("Grandma's always right!").
• Overconfidence - Humans are always overconfident when it comes to their personal beliefs about their future.
• Order in Random Events - When dealing with random data, we try to find out patterns within ("The dice should roll another 6 as it has rolled 6s for the last 2 throws!").
• Operational Definitions - Giving specific definitions for concepts that have no defined definition. These definitions must include an action and time.

Types of Psychological Research [ edit | edit source ]

The case study [ edit | edit source ].

In a case study , a psychologist rigorously studies a special case in order to find information that may apply to all humans. An example of a case study is Phineas Gage , who got an iron rod ejected inside of his head (removing a part of his frontal lobe) and was able to survive.

• In-depth study
• Special case (could be an outlier)
• Difficult to find
• Expensive and time-consuming

Naturalistic Observation [ edit | edit source ]

In a naturalistic observation , a psychologist is able to study behaviour in its natural form.

• Recording natural behaviour
• Despite the name, the recipient of the study may act differently when observed.
• Describes rather than explain the cognition behind it.

The Survey [ edit | edit source ]

A survey is described as a self-reported attitude or behaviour of a person.

• Easy, fast.
• Wording effects.
• False consensus effect.
• Lack of representative samplings (only for a specific population).

Correlational Studies [ edit | edit source ]

In a correlational study , when one trait is associated with another trait, they correlate. An example of this study is when your sleep goes down, your grades follow (go down). A positive correlation is when two sets of scores rise/fall together while a negative correlation is when the two sets of scores are inversely related.

Correlations are measured on a scatter plot. The correlation coefficient is a statistical measure of a relationship, where 1.0+ and 1.0- is a strong correlation while a number near 0 is a weak correlation.

• Easy to follow.
• Not reliable, as correlation does not prove causation .

Illusory Correlation [ edit | edit source ]

Correlation that seems to be true, but it is not an actual correlation. We're sensitive to dramatic events that seem connected. It's kind of the same as correlation does not equal causation.

Other Ways To Gather Data [ edit | edit source ]

• Cross-sectional studies - Study different sections of the population at the same time (different ages, races, class levels). Advantages are that it gathers specific details of people and a lot of data is being gathered as you test. But the disadvantage is that specific data is only on one population.
• Longitudinal - Retest same cohort of people over the course of their life. Disadvantages are that it takes too long and misses other people.

The DIV of psychology is usually a behaviour/mental process. The y of a graph is the effect while the x of a graph is a cause.

Ways of Testing [ edit | edit source ]

• Placebo Effect - An experiment effect caused by expectations alone. The depressed person in a control condition does not receive real pills without them knowing, in which they get better just because they believed they got the right treatment.
• Random Sampling - Drawing from a sample of people for your study from a population (drawing out of a hat). This generalizes to a larger population.
• Random Assignment - How you assign the sample that you draw to either the experimental/control conditions (group). This controls irrelevant influences and minimizes pre-existing differences between the 2 groups.
• Cofounding Variables - Other factors that could potentially influence the result of an experiment.
• Single-blind procedure : The patient doesn't know if they are receiving the placebo/treatment.
• Double-blind procedure : Both patients and experimenters remain unaware of which patients received real treatment (eliminates bias).

Statistical Reasoning [ edit | edit source ]

Statistical procedures analyze and interpret data allowing us to see what the unaided eye misses.

• Is it ethical to test animals? - Must follow guidelines from IACUC.
• Is it ethical to test people? - Consent, protect from harm, confidentiality, debrief the person. Must follow APA guidelines and federal distribution from local IRB.

Neuron [ edit | edit source ]

The brain has two types of cells:

• Neurons : "Nerve cells" - specialized cells in the nervous system. The brain has 40 billion neurons and the neurons never touch each other.
• Oligodendrocytes - Help produce myelin.
• Schwann Cells

Firing [ edit | edit source ]

• Homeostasis
• Slightly negative charge (polarized: -) - negative potassium inside while positive potassium outside.
• Level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse (action potential).
• Neurons are fired
• Depolarized (+) | Positive sodium comes inside of negative potassium.
• Polarized again (-)

References [ edit | edit source ]

• ↑ College Board: AP Psychology

• AP Psychology

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Sat / act prep online guides and tips, the best ap psychology study guide.

Advanced Placement (AP)

AP courses cover a lot of complex information, and it's not always easy to find great study materials and strategies. I've written this AP Psychology study guide as a way to make the process of studying for the AP test and other in-class assessments a little less overwhelming. It will help you figure out how to structure your studying, give you strategies to better understand the material, and provide links to notes and practice resources. If you follow the advice in this guide, you'll be on your way to a high AP Psych score!

What's in This AP Psychology Study Guide?

This guide will help you study for the AP Psychology exam and other assessments in your class by providing study strategies and other resources that pertain to the material covered in the course.

In the first section, you'll learn how to create a study plan for the exam that supports your needs as a student . This section applies exclusively to the final AP exam, so it's less relevant if you're just studying for an in-class test.

The next section provides study tips that are specific to AP Psychology and will serve you well as you prepare for both in-class tests and the final exam.

Finally, the last part of this AP Psychology guide is devoted to notes, outlines, videos, and other online resources that will be useful in your studying.

AP Psychology Study Plans: 2 Options for Your Prep

Before you start studying for AP Psych, you should know the difference between where you are in your knowledge of the material and where you want to be.

Find an official practice test , print it out, and take it as though it were the real AP Psych test (70 minutes for the 100 multiple-choice questions and 50 minutes for the two free-response questions). Then, use the following chart to estimate your final AP score based on your raw scores:

To calculate your final score, you must first add up all the multiple-choice questions you answered correctly (each question is worth 1 point). Next, convert the number of points you earned on the free-response questions to a value out of 50. For example, if you got 8 out of 14 points on the two free-response questions (each question is worth 7 points), it would convert to about 29 out of 50.

Lastly, add your multiple-choice score (out of 100) and your free-response score (out of 50) to find your composite raw AP Psychology score (out of 150). Use the chart above to see the estimate for your final AP score on a scale of 1-5 .

Depending on how much you need to improve and the amount of time you have before the exam, you might choose to structure your studying in different ways. I'll go through a 10-hour plan and a 20-hour plan. The shorter plan is for students hoping to improve by just a single AP point or raise their score within the same AP range so that they feel more comfortable during the test. The longer plan is for students hoping to improve by 2 or more points (and can be extended further if necessary).

I know this doesn't seem like much time, but a few hours of focused studying goes a long way for this particular subject. Psychology is one of the shorter AP tests (just two hours in total), so practice testing won't be as long of a process.

Additionally, questions tend to be based on memorization of definitions of terms and some logical reasoning; there aren't as many complex thought processes involved. Overall, AP Psychology is considered one of the easier AP tests . M ost students will probably be able to earn a high score (4 or 5) by studying for 10 hours or less.

Option 1: 10-Hour AP Psychology Study Plan

• Take a diagnostic test (2 hours)
• Score the test and analyze your mistakes (1.5 hours)
• Study content and revise your strategy, keeping in mind your mistakes on the diagnostic test (2 hours)
• Take another practice test (2 hours)
• Final study session to clear up any issues you had on the second test (1 hour)

Option 2: 20-Hour AP Psychology Study Plan

• Study content and revise your strategy, keeping in mind your mistakes on the diagnostic test (3 hours)
• Study content areas for which you're still missing questions, do more practice questions, and continue to revise your strategy (3 hours)
• Take a third practice test (2 hours)
• Final study session to clear up any confusion (1.5 hours)
• Wrap up your studying with a final practice test (2 hours)

Each of these psychology study plans has the same basic components, but the second one allows you to spend more time studying content and has more room for additional practice tests. If you're trying to improve by 2 or more AP points, it's likely that there are some major gaps in your content knowledge that warrant additional studying.

It's extremely important that you document and analyze your mistakes on each AP practice test if you're hoping to make big improvements. Mistakes come in several different forms, and you should be aware of this so that you can make appropriate changes to your test-taking strategy and study plan after each practice test.

If most of your incorrect answers are the results of careless mistakes or poor time management, the solution to your problem isn't necessarily more content review. These types of mistakes respond better to additional practice testing that increases your familiarity with time limits and question formats .

If, on the other hand, you find that all or most of your incorrect answers are due to gaps in content knowledge, you can use this info to focus your studying on the areas that cost you the most points. I suggest categorizing your mistakes so that you know where to direct your studying. In this case, you might not need to make many modifications to your actual test-taking strategy.

Most students will have a mixture of both types of mistakes , but it's still good to be mindful of where your biggest problems lie so that you can tackle them more efficiently.

AP Psychology Exam: 4 Essential Study Tips

Before you start studying content for AP Psychology, I want to give you a few studying and test-taking tips that will help you get the most out of your time. Here are some pointers to keep in mind when preparing for the AP test and any other in-class assessments throughout the year.

Tip 1: Get Familiar With Important Terms

You'll need to have extensive knowledge of the definitions of psychological terms for both the multiple-choice and free-response sections of the test. Some definitions are relatively intuitive, but others are almost impossible to figure out if you haven't studied them directly.

Be meticulous about going over all the terms covered in your class so that you don't second-guess yourself on the test. This is especially important for free-response questions for which you will be asked to describe how terms relate to certain situations. You need to understand them beyond just the ability to pick their correct definitions out of a multiple-choice lineup. Flashcards are a particularly useful study tool for AP Psychology.

Tip 2: Make the Abstract Concrete

With all the confusing terminology involved in this course, it's easy to get mixed up and think that a term means one thing when it really means another. Since psychology deals with how people act and process information on a day-to-day basis, it's a great idea to connect terms to specific scenarios in your life .

For example, you might connect a term such as "reciprocity norm," which says that people tend to treat others the same way they have been treated, to a situation in which a store employee was rude to you. Maybe they received poor treatment from other customers and were reflecting that back onto you (they also could just be a jerk, but it's nice to give people the benefit of the doubt).

When you make this type of connection, the term becomes stickier in your memory because it's tied to the heavy weight of a real-life experience. You can practice applying psychology terms to your everyday life at any time as the concepts are constantly demonstrated all around us.

Tip 3: Think Logically

Remember to listen to your common sense when answering questions on the AP Psych test. In some cases on the exam, you can figure out the answer with nothing but a little bit of logic. It's common for students to forget this and start to worry when they don't know what every part of the question means.

In this case, take a step back and think about which answer makes the most sense based on what you do know. You might be surprised by how many questions you can answer this way!

Here's an example (which I used in my AP Psychology review article as well ) of what I mean:

There are a few complex terms here and the question might seem pretty wordy, but it's actually very basic .

When they were scared, the monkeys preferred the soft cloth mother over the uncomfortable wire mother with food. Logically, we can conclude that the answer is B. Overthinking is the downfall of many high-achieving students, so don't start to doubt yourself just because the answer seems too simple to you!

Tip 4: Write in Complete Sentences, not Complete Essays

Although this isn't really a study tip, I think it's important to know before the exam; it probably also applies to in-class tests.

Psychology is about your grasp of science—not English—so don't bother with introductions, conclusions, or any other fluff in your answers to the free-response questions. All you need to do is give a direct answer in a complete sentence. You'll save time and make it easier for the graders to give you points.

It's smart to get used to doing this on practice free-response questions so that you'll be a pro by exam time.

AP Psychology Content: Notes, Outlines, and Videos

Here are some helpful resources that cover all the content you'll see on the AP Psychology exam. (Note that these are not the same as the new units described in the 2020 Course and Exam Description , though they cover similar topics and ideas.) Depending on your learning style, you might decide to look at notes or follow along with a video in areas for which your understanding is weaker.

You can also use these resources throughout the year to review for in-class assessments. If you had difficulty understanding a concept as it was taught to you in class, for example, you might use the notes and videos in this article to access alternative explanations.

You could also use these AP Psychology notes to supplement your studying if you found that you were consistently coming up with incorrect answers to questions in a certain topic area on quizzes or practice tests.

History and Approaches

Research methods, biological bases of behavior.

• Neural Processing and the Endocrine System
• Genetics, Evolutionary Psychology, and Behavior

Sensation and Perception

States of consciousness.

• Thinking, Problem Solving, Creativity, and Language

Motivation and Emotion

• Emotions, Stress, and Health

Developmental Psychology

Personality, testing and individual differences, abnormal psychology.

• PowerPoint ( Part 1 and Part 2 )

Treatment of Psychological Disorders

Social psychology, overall review.

• List of Terms and People to Remember
• Full Playlist of Crash Course Psychology Videos

Additional Resources to Test Your AP Psychology Knowledge

If you're unsure of where to start with your AP Psych prep or prefer to learn in a more interactive way, here are some additional online resources for reviewing concepts and taking practice tests.

The College Board

It's best to prioritize official resources over unofficial ones , as these will be the most accurate. Here are some great College Board materials you can use in your AP Psychology prep.

• The College Board website : You get access to tons of free-response questions, along with answer guides and sample responses, from 1999 to 2021. You can also get more practice questions through AP Classroom , a new digital tool that your AP teacher can use to assign homework and give out questions to students.
• 2020 AP Psychology Course and Exam Description : This free guide offers 15 multiple-choice questions, two free-response questions, and answer explanations for both (you can see free-response answers in the scoring guidelines ). All information has been updated for the current exam format and content.
• 2014-15 AP Psychology Course Description : This older but still relevant guide contains 25 multiple-choice questions (with answers) and two free-response questions.
• 2012 AP Psychology Exam
• 1999 AP Psychology Exam
• 1994 AP Psychology Exam

This site includes practice questions that cover all the current topics in AP Psychology . It divides them into easy, medium, and hard difficulty levels and records how many questions within each level you've answered correctly. This makes it simple to gauge which areas need the most work. You'll need to create and pay for an account to access most of the questions.

This popular quiz website offers a bunch of flashcards with AP Psych terms to help you practice, including a strong set of flashcards based on the Myers textbook and a set that goes through all the famous psychologists you should know .

Varsity Tutors

Famed test-prep company Varsity Tutors has several multiple-choice diagnostic tests to help you get a feel for how much you already know about AP Psych. It also has a bunch of mini quizzes organized by topic area and labeled based on difficulty level. Flashcards for AP Psychology terms and concepts are included here as well.

High School Test Prep

This site has lots of free practice AP Psych tests organized by topic area . You'll get immediate feedback with detailed answer explanations as you go along.

Conclusion: Using This AP Psychology Study Guide

Following the advice in this study guide is a promising step toward earning a high score on the AP Psychology test and other psychology tests throughout the school year.

AP Psychology is a completely manageable subject if you prepare for the exam responsibly. Memorizing key terms, applying confusing psychology concepts to your everyday life, using common sense to solve practice questions, and staying focused on the free-response section will help you be successful, both in class and on the AP test.

After reading this article, you should have everything you need to be able to answer even the most challenging questions the College Board throws at you on the AP Psych exam !

What's Next?

For more info on how to prepare for the AP Psychology exam, check out my comprehensive review guide .

Are you looking for some review books to supplement your AP studying? Read about the best review books for AP Psychology . You can also try our articles on specific psychology topics, like this one about Stockholm Syndrome .

Still trying to decide how many AP classes you should take in high school? Then you'll definitely want to read this article for some advice !

Samantha is a blog content writer for PrepScholar. Her goal is to help students adopt a less stressful view of standardized testing and other academic challenges through her articles. Samantha is also passionate about art and graduated with honors from Dartmouth College as a Studio Art major in 2014. In high school, she earned a 2400 on the SAT, 5's on all seven of her AP tests, and was named a National Merit Scholar.

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Longitudinal Study Design

Julia Simkus

Editor at Simply Psychology

BA (Hons) Psychology, Princeton University

Julia Simkus is a graduate of Princeton University with a Bachelor of Arts in Psychology. She is currently studying for a Master's Degree in Counseling for Mental Health and Wellness in September 2023. Julia's research has been published in peer reviewed journals.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

A longitudinal study is a type of observational and correlational study that involves monitoring a population over an extended period of time. It allows researchers to track changes and developments in the subjects over time.

What is a Longitudinal Study?

In longitudinal studies, researchers do not manipulate any variables or interfere with the environment. Instead, they simply conduct observations on the same group of subjects over a period of time.

These research studies can last as short as a week or as long as multiple years or even decades. Unlike cross-sectional studies that measure a moment in time, longitudinal studies last beyond a single moment, enabling researchers to discover cause-and-effect relationships between variables.

They are beneficial for recognizing any changes, developments, or patterns in the characteristics of a target population. Longitudinal studies are often used in clinical and developmental psychology to study shifts in behaviors, thoughts, emotions, and trends throughout a lifetime.

For example, a longitudinal study could be used to examine the progress and well-being of children at critical age periods from birth to adulthood.

The Harvard Study of Adult Development is one of the longest longitudinal studies to date. Researchers in this study have followed the same men group for over 80 years, observing psychosocial variables and biological processes for healthy aging and well-being in late life (see Harvard Second Generation Study).

When designing longitudinal studies, researchers must consider issues like sample selection and generalizability, attrition and selectivity bias, effects of repeated exposure to measures, selection of appropriate statistical models, and coverage of the necessary timespan to capture the phenomena of interest.

Panel Study

• A panel study is a type of longitudinal study design in which the same set of participants are measured repeatedly over time.
• Data is gathered on the same variables of interest at each time point using consistent methods. This allows studying continuity and changes within individuals over time on the key measured constructs.
• Prominent examples include national panel surveys on topics like health, aging, employment, and economics. Panel studies are a type of prospective study .

Cohort Study

• A cohort study is a type of longitudinal study that samples a group of people sharing a common experience or demographic trait within a defined period, such as year of birth.
• Researchers observe a population based on the shared experience of a specific event, such as birth, geographic location, or historical experience. These studies are typically used among medical researchers.
• Cohorts are identified and selected at a starting point (e.g. birth, starting school, entering a job field) and followed forward in time. 
• As they age, data is collected on cohort subgroups to determine their differing trajectories. For example, investigating how health outcomes diverge for groups born in 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s.
• Cohort studies do not require the same individuals to be assessed over time; they just require representation from the cohort.

Retrospective Study

• In a retrospective study , researchers either collect data on events that have already occurred or use existing data that already exists in databases, medical records, or interviews to gain insights about a population.
• Appropriate when prospectively following participants from the past starting point is infeasible or unethical. For example, studying early origins of diseases emerging later in life.
• Retrospective studies efficiently provide a “snapshot summary” of the past in relation to present status. However, quality concerns with retrospective data make careful interpretation necessary when inferring causality. Memory biases and selective retention influence quality of retrospective data.

Allows researchers to look at changes over time

Because longitudinal studies observe variables over extended periods of time, researchers can use their data to study developmental shifts and understand how certain things change as we age.

High validation

Since objectives and rules for long-term studies are established before data collection, these studies are authentic and have high levels of validity.

Eliminates recall bias

Recall bias occurs when participants do not remember past events accurately or omit details from previous experiences.

Flexibility

The variables in longitudinal studies can change throughout the study. Even if the study was created to study a specific pattern or characteristic, the data collection could show new data points or relationships that are unique and worth investigating further.

Limitations

Costly and time-consuming.

Longitudinal studies can take months or years to complete, rendering them expensive and time-consuming. Because of this, researchers tend to have difficulty recruiting participants, leading to smaller sample sizes.

Large sample size needed

Longitudinal studies tend to be challenging to conduct because large samples are needed for any relationships or patterns to be meaningful. Researchers are unable to generate results if there is not enough data.

Participants tend to drop out

Not only is it a struggle to recruit participants, but subjects also tend to leave or drop out of the study due to various reasons such as illness, relocation, or a lack of motivation to complete the full study.

This tendency is known as selective attrition and can threaten the validity of an experiment. For this reason, researchers using this approach typically recruit many participants, expecting a substantial number to drop out before the end.

Report bias is possible

Longitudinal studies will sometimes rely on surveys and questionnaires, which could result in inaccurate reporting as there is no way to verify the information presented.

• Data were collected for each child at three-time points: at 11 months after adoption, at 4.5 years of age and at 10.5 years of age. The first two sets of results showed that the adoptees were behind the non-institutionalised group however by 10.5 years old there was no difference between the two groups. The Romanian orphans had caught up with the children raised in normal Canadian families.
• The role of positive psychology constructs in predicting mental health and academic achievement in children and adolescents (Marques Pais-Ribeiro, & Lopez, 2011)
• The correlation between dieting behavior and the development of bulimia nervosa (Stice et al., 1998)
• The stress of educational bottlenecks negatively impacting students’ wellbeing (Cruwys, Greenaway, & Haslam, 2015)
• The effects of job insecurity on psychological health and withdrawal (Sidney & Schaufeli, 1995)
• The relationship between loneliness, health, and mortality in adults aged 50 years and over (Luo et al., 2012)
• The influence of parental attachment and parental control on early onset of alcohol consumption in adolescence (Van der Vorst et al., 2006)
• The relationship between religion and health outcomes in medical rehabilitation patients (Fitchett et al., 1999)

Goals of Longitudinal Data and Longitudinal Research

The objectives of longitudinal data collection and research as outlined by Baltes and Nesselroade (1979):

• Identify intraindividual change : Examine changes at the individual level over time, including long-term trends or short-term fluctuations. Requires multiple measurements and individual-level analysis.
• Identify interindividual differences in intraindividual change : Evaluate whether changes vary across individuals and relate that to other variables. Requires repeated measures for multiple individuals plus relevant covariates.
• Analyze interrelationships in change : Study how two or more processes unfold and influence each other over time. Requires longitudinal data on multiple variables and appropriate statistical models.
• Analyze causes of intraindividual change: This objective refers to identifying factors or mechanisms that explain changes within individuals over time. For example, a researcher might want to understand what drives a person’s mood fluctuations over days or weeks. Or what leads to systematic gains or losses in one’s cognitive abilities across the lifespan.
• Analyze causes of interindividual differences in intraindividual change : Identify mechanisms that explain within-person changes and differences in changes across people. Requires repeated data on outcomes and covariates for multiple individuals plus dynamic statistical models.

How to Perform a Longitudinal Study

When beginning to develop your longitudinal study, you must first decide if you want to collect your own data or use data that has already been gathered.

Using already collected data will save you time, but it will be more restricted and limited than collecting it yourself. When collecting your own data, you can choose to conduct either a retrospective or prospective study .

In a retrospective study, you are collecting data on events that have already occurred. You can examine historical information, such as medical records, in order to understand the past. In a prospective study, on the other hand, you are collecting data in real-time. Prospective studies are more common for psychology research.

Once you determine the type of longitudinal study you will conduct, you then must determine how, when, where, and on whom the data will be collected.

A standardized study design is vital for efficiently measuring a population. Once a study design is created, researchers must maintain the same study procedures over time to uphold the validity of the observation.

A schedule should be maintained, complete results should be recorded with each observation, and observer variability should be minimized.

Researchers must observe each subject under the same conditions to compare them. In this type of study design, each subject is the control.

Methodological Considerations

Important methodological considerations include testing measurement invariance of constructs across time, appropriately handling missing data, and using accelerated longitudinal designs that sample different age cohorts over overlapping time periods.

Testing measurement invariance

Testing measurement invariance involves evaluating whether the same construct is being measured in a consistent, comparable way across multiple time points in longitudinal research.

This includes assessing configural, metric, and scalar invariance through confirmatory factor analytic approaches. Ensuring invariance gives more confidence when drawing inferences about change over time.

Missing data

Missing data can occur during initial sampling if certain groups are underrepresented or fail to respond.

Attrition over time is the main source – participants dropping out for various reasons. The consequences of missing data are reduced statistical power and potential bias if dropout is nonrandom.

Handling missing data appropriately in longitudinal studies is critical to reducing bias and maintaining power.

It is important to minimize attrition by tracking participants, keeping contact info up to date, engaging them, and providing incentives over time.

Techniques like maximum likelihood estimation and multiple imputation are better alternatives to older methods like listwise deletion. Assumptions about missing data mechanisms (e.g., missing at random) shape the analytic approaches taken.

Accelerated longitudinal designs

Accelerated longitudinal designs purposefully create missing data across age groups.

Accelerated longitudinal designs strategically sample different age cohorts at overlapping periods. For example, assessing 6th, 7th, and 8th graders at yearly intervals would cover 6-8th grade development over a 3-year study rather than following a single cohort over that timespan.

This increases the speed and cost-efficiency of longitudinal data collection and enables the examination of age/cohort effects. Appropriate multilevel statistical models are required to analyze the resulting complex data structure.

In addition to those considerations, optimizing the time lags between measurements, maximizing participant retention, and thoughtfully selecting analysis models that align with the research questions and hypotheses are also vital in ensuring robust longitudinal research.

So, careful methodology is key throughout the design and analysis process when working with repeated-measures data.

Cohort effects

A cohort refers to a group born in the same year or time period. Cohort effects occur when different cohorts show differing trajectories over time.

Cohort effects can bias results if not accounted for, especially in accelerated longitudinal designs which assume cohort equivalence.

Detecting cohort effects is important but can be challenging as they are confounded with age and time of measurement effects.

Cohort effects can also interfere with estimating other effects like retest effects. This happens because comparing groups to estimate retest effects relies on cohort equivalence.

Overall, researchers need to test for and control cohort effects which could otherwise lead to invalid conclusions. Careful study design and analysis is required.

Retest effects

Retest effects refer to gains in performance that occur when the same or similar test is administered on multiple occasions.

For example, familiarity with test items and procedures may allow participants to improve their scores over repeated testing above and beyond any true change.

Specific examples include:

• Memory tests – Learning which items tend to be tested can artificially boost performance over time
• Cognitive tests – Becoming familiar with the testing format and particular test demands can inflate scores
• Survey measures – Remembering previous responses can bias future responses over multiple administrations
• Interviews – Comfort with the interviewer and process can lead to increased openness or recall

To estimate retest effects, performance of retested groups is compared to groups taking the test for the first time. Any divergence suggests inflated scores due to retesting rather than true change.

If unchecked in analysis, retest gains can be confused with genuine intraindividual change or interindividual differences.

This undermines the validity of longitudinal findings. Thus, testing and controlling for retest effects are important considerations in longitudinal research.

Data Analysis

Longitudinal data involves repeated assessments of variables over time, allowing researchers to study stability and change. A variety of statistical models can be used to analyze longitudinal data, including latent growth curve models, multilevel models, latent state-trait models, and more.

Latent growth curve models allow researchers to model intraindividual change over time. For example, one could estimate parameters related to individuals’ baseline levels on some measure, linear or nonlinear trajectory of change over time, and variability around those growth parameters. These models require multiple waves of longitudinal data to estimate.

Multilevel models are useful for hierarchically structured longitudinal data, with lower-level observations (e.g., repeated measures) nested within higher-level units (e.g., individuals). They can model variability both within and between individuals over time.

Latent state-trait models decompose the covariance between longitudinal measurements into time-invariant trait factors, time-specific state residuals, and error variance. This allows separating stable between-person differences from within-person fluctuations.

There are many other techniques like latent transition analysis, event history analysis, and time series models that have specialized uses for particular research questions with longitudinal data. The choice of model depends on the hypotheses, timescale of measurements, age range covered, and other factors.

In general, these various statistical models allow investigation of important questions about developmental processes, change and stability over time, causal sequencing, and both between- and within-person sources of variability. However, researchers must carefully consider the assumptions behind the models they choose.

Longitudinal vs. Cross-Sectional Studies

Longitudinal studies and cross-sectional studies are two different observational study designs where researchers analyze a target population without manipulating or altering the natural environment in which the participants exist.

Yet, there are apparent differences between these two forms of study. One key difference is that longitudinal studies follow the same sample of people over an extended period of time, while cross-sectional studies look at the characteristics of different populations at a given moment in time.

Longitudinal studies tend to require more time and resources, but they can be used to detect cause-and-effect relationships and establish patterns among subjects.

On the other hand, cross-sectional studies tend to be cheaper and quicker but can only provide a snapshot of a point in time and thus cannot identify cause-and-effect relationships.

Both studies are valuable for psychologists to observe a given group of subjects. Still, cross-sectional studies are more beneficial for establishing associations between variables, while longitudinal studies are necessary for examining a sequence of events.

1. Are longitudinal studies qualitative or quantitative?

Longitudinal studies are typically quantitative. They collect numerical data from the same subjects to track changes and identify trends or patterns.

However, they can also include qualitative elements, such as interviews or observations, to provide a more in-depth understanding of the studied phenomena.

2. What’s the difference between a longitudinal and case-control study?

Case-control studies compare groups retrospectively and cannot be used to calculate relative risk. Longitudinal studies, though, can compare groups either retrospectively or prospectively.

In case-control studies, researchers study one group of people who have developed a particular condition and compare them to a sample without the disease.

Case-control studies look at a single subject or a single case, whereas longitudinal studies are conducted on a large group of subjects.

3. Does a longitudinal study have a control group?

Yes, a longitudinal study can have a control group . In such a design, one group (the experimental group) would receive treatment or intervention, while the other group (the control group) would not.

Both groups would then be observed over time to see if there are differences in outcomes, which could suggest an effect of the treatment or intervention.

However, not all longitudinal studies have a control group, especially observational ones and not testing a specific intervention.

Baltes, P. B., & Nesselroade, J. R. (1979). History and rationale of longitudinal research. In J. R. Nesselroade & P. B. Baltes (Eds.), (pp. 1–39). Academic Press.

Cook, N. R., & Ware, J. H. (1983). Design and analysis methods for longitudinal research. Annual review of public health , 4, 1–23.

Fitchett, G., Rybarczyk, B., Demarco, G., & Nicholas, J.J. (1999). The role of religion in medical rehabilitation outcomes: A longitudinal study. Rehabilitation Psychology, 44, 333-353.

Harvard Second Generation Study. (n.d.). Harvard Second Generation Grant and Glueck Study. Harvard Study of Adult Development. Retrieved from https://www.adultdevelopmentstudy.org.

Le Mare, L., & Audet, K. (2006). A longitudinal study of the physical growth and health of postinstitutionalized Romanian adoptees. Pediatrics & child health, 11 (2), 85-91.

Luo, Y., Hawkley, L. C., Waite, L. J., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2012). Loneliness, health, and mortality in old age: a national longitudinal study. Social science & medicine (1982), 74 (6), 907–914.

Marques, S. C., Pais-Ribeiro, J. L., & Lopez, S. J. (2011). The role of positive psychology constructs in predicting mental health and academic achievement in children and adolescents: A two-year longitudinal study. Journal of Happiness Studies: An Interdisciplinary Forum on Subjective Well-Being, 12( 6), 1049–1062.

Sidney W.A. Dekker & Wilmar B. Schaufeli (1995) The effects of job insecurity on psychological health and withdrawal: A longitudinal study, Australian Psychologist, 30: 1,57-63.

Stice, E., Mazotti, L., Krebs, M., & Martin, S. (1998). Predictors of adolescent dieting behaviors: A longitudinal study. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 12 (3), 195–205.

Tegan Cruwys, Katharine H Greenaway & S Alexander Haslam (2015) The Stress of Passing Through an Educational Bottleneck: A Longitudinal Study of Psychology Honours Students, Australian Psychologist, 50:5, 372-381.

Thomas, L. (2020). What is a longitudinal study? Scribbr. Retrieved from https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/longitudinal-study/

Van der Vorst, H., Engels, R. C. M. E., Meeus, W., & Deković, M. (2006). Parental attachment, parental control, and early development of alcohol use: A longitudinal study. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 20 (2), 107–116.

Further Information

• Schaie, K. W. (2005). What can we learn from longitudinal studies of adult development?. Research in human development, 2 (3), 133-158.
• Caruana, E. J., Roman, M., Hernández-Sánchez, J., & Solli, P. (2015). Longitudinal studies. Journal of thoracic disease, 7 (11), E537.

AP® Psychology

Behavioral perspective: ap® psychology crash course.

• The Albert Team
• Last Updated On: March 1, 2022

The behavioral perspective is all about acting throughout life as a result of some form of motivation or incentive. It relates to the reasons that an individual will participate in any given act rather than the way that they react. This perspective seeks to better explain the physiological needs of any living organism, as well as the way motivation can impact behavior. It considers different types of motivation and how different levels of motivation can impact the amount or type of work or effort that an individual will be willing to put forth.

This AP® Psychology crash course will prep you for the free response questions that you will see on your AP® Psychology exam. It will look at why someone will work harder for a better outcome. Though it hasn’t been on the AP® Psychology exam’s free response section for some time, there have been questions on the differences between the behavioral perspective and other psychological perspectives.

Defining the Behavioral Perspective

Any living organism has certain needs that must be met in order to it to survive. These can include sleep, food and water. If these criteria are met, the organism will be able to sustain a level of homeostasis. According to the behavioral perspective, a desire for this homeostasis is what drives and motivates an individual.

The drive for homeostasis also affects the actions of an individual in another way. If, at any point, homeostasis is interrupted or changed, the individual will be motivated to act. This motivation will continue until they are able to achieve the same level of homeostasis again. This relates to feelings of hunger, for example, if an individual is hungry they will seek out food.

Another aspect of motivation is related to learned behaviors. An individual will learn certain behaviors such as anxiety because of conditioning. In fact, Neal Miller is best known for creating the theory of operant conditioning. This theory states that an individual can be taught to do something because they are working towards or against a specific action.

Finally, there is incentive motivation. This theory says that an individual can be motivated to action by something that is outside of themselves. For example, getting a new car will motivate a teenager to graduate high school. Getting money will motivate an adult to go to work every day.

Different types of motivation can be used in different ways. By combining each of these types of motivation it is possible to understand why a person will act the way that they do.

Who Founded the Behavioral Perspective?

This perspective was contributed to by a number of important and well known psychologists including; Ivan Pavlov, Edward Lee Thorndike, John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner.

Different aspects of the behavioral perspective have been founded by different psychologists. The unlearned drive, which states an individual will do what is necessary to regain homeostasis, was founded by Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson and Clark Hull. He created a specific equation to explain the relationship between learning and drive.

The learned drive, which states that an individual can be taught to participate in a specific action, was founded by B.F. Skinner. His theory of operant conditioning, based on studies conducted with rats, allowed him to begin research into types of behaviors that must be learned.

Incentive motivation was founded most for Kenneth Spence. He explained that the value of the incentive itself will also increase the type of response that is given. For example, an individual will work harder at their studies if they are getting a brand new car than they will if they are getting $50.

Examples of the Behavioral Perspective

Andrew is planning on taking the AP® Psychology exam. He knows that if he gets a 5 on the exam it will look good when he is applying to college. If this happens he will be more likely to get into any college he chooses. He decides to study in order to get the good grade, but when a friend wants him to go skiing he decides to stop studying for the weekend to leave town. He has studied for a week and has worked through his study materials. He believes he can get a good enough score without studying anymore.

According to the behavioral perspective, and more specifically incentive motivation, Andrew has a motivator to achieve a good grade, so that he can get into a good college. He wants to achieve this goal and therefore he will work towards it. But this motivator could be improved if, for example, his mother offers him a new car in exchange for a 5 on his exam. Because this incentive is larger than the one he would currently gain by achieving a 5, he would likely choose to spend more time studying in order to achieve it.

Eliza wants to be the star of the ballet recital next month. Her teacher has stated that not everyone will even be in the recital and everyone will have to practice hard in order to get a spot. If she practices once a week she will be able to be in the recital. If she practices three times a week she knows that she will get the star role. The star role may mean that she is signed to a ballet company. If she is only in the recital she will likely not be noticed and will not get into a ballet company. Because Eliza’s dream is to be in a ballet company, she decides to practice three times a week.

The behavioral perspective states that Eliza has a motivating factor sufficient to push her into working hard. The motivation for getting into the recital is not great enough to prompt her to work as hard as necessary because she will still not achieve her dream, but getting into a ballet company is enough of a motivation. Because getting signed to a ballet company is important to her, she decides to work harder to achieve that goal. This external motivation is sufficient for her.

When Mark comes home for school every day he is very hungry. His lunch is often at 10am and when he gets out of school at 2:30pm he has to go to soccer practice. By the time he gets home it is after 5pm and he hasn’t eaten in several hours. Usually his mother makes sure there are snacks in the cupboard or on the counter, waiting for him.

Today there are no snacks waiting but he is still very hungry. Usually Mark does not cook at home. He waits for his family to get there and his parents will cook. Today, however, there are no snacks and no one is home to make dinner. There are ingredients for a pizza in the fridge. Mark sets out to make a pizza for himself.

Because Mark is hungry, his body is not at a level of homeostasis . He is determined to reach that homeostasis (to not be hungry anymore) and therefore decides to make something to eat. The motivation of being hungry, an unlearned behavior, is enough to make him do something to reach a level of homeostasis again, even though he normally would not engage in the activity (i.e. cooking).

What Else to Know About the Behavioral Perspective

This perspective has several stages which make up different aspects of the human mind. By combining all of these types of motivation, an individual will continue to work towards bettering themselves as well as making themselves more happy and secure. In general, humans want to achieve homeostasis and they want to achieve a pleasant situation. As a result, they will continue to use motivators to achieve these goals.

The AP® Psychology exam will require you to understand the differences between the behavioral perspective and other perspectives which are similar. These include psychodynamic and biological perspectives. You will need to know the similarities and differences between these theories, the importance of each of them, and how they were founded.

The behavioral perspective is still used today. It has been studied further than it was at the original time of its inception in the 20 th century. This theory emerged as the answer to psychoanalytic theory, which was based in a similar area of thought.

So here’s a quick AP® Psychology review for the behavioral perspective. It was founded by B.F. Skinner, Ivan Pavlov, Edward Thorndike and John B. Watson, the behavioral perspective has four different parts; drive theory, incentive motivation, unlearned drive and learned drive. It also relates to achieving a state of homeostasis and the intrinsic motivation of the individual.

This theory, though sometimes considered outdated, still has merits as a way of understanding the reasons that an individual will act the way that they do. It has been replaced in some instances by newer theories; however, it has still remained valid based on the studies and research done in the Little Albert case as well as through B.F. Skinner’s research with rats.

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Group Polarization (Definition + 38 Examples)

In a world that thrives on diversity of thought and opinion, understanding the dynamics that shape our beliefs and attitudes is essential. One fascinating phenomenon that plays a pivotal role in how ideas and attitudes evolve within groups is group polarization.

Group polarization is the process by which individual members of a group make decisions that are more extreme than the average of the group's initial attitudes or opinions. This means that if a group initially leans towards a particular viewpoint, discussion within the group tends to intensify this stance, pushing members towards a more extreme position.

Exploring this concept will shed light on its historical background, the mechanisms that drive it, its impact on various facets of society, and ways in which it can be navigated and counteracted. This exploration aims to be an insightful journey through the intricate pathways of social dynamics, blending theories, real-world instances, and reflections for a mature, yet accessible discourse.

History of Group Polarization

The concept of group polarization isn’t a recent discovery in the world of social psychology ; it has intrigued minds and shaped theories for several decades. The initial seeds were sown in the early 1960s when an American psychologist, James Stoner, stumbled upon this phenomenon while studying “ risky shift ”.

Stoner found that when people were part of a group, they made decisions that were riskier compared to those made individually. This was the first instance where the amplification of group opinion was formally observed and studied, marking a significant milestone in understanding group dynamics.

Following Stoner’s experiment, researchers utilized the Choice Dilemma Questionnaire to further explore this intriguing phenomenon. This tool helped measure shifts in attitudes before and after group discussions, allowing a deeper insight into how group interactions can sway individual opinions .

Through countless studies and experiments using such tools, it became evident that it wasn’t just riskiness that could be amplified, but any attitude or opinion could become more extreme within a group setting.

This revelation broadened the scope of group polarization research and set the stage for a myriad of studies and theories.

As years rolled on, the understanding of group polarization evolved and expanded. Researchers and theorists delved deeper, exploring various factors contributing to this phenomenon.

Two significant theories emerged: the Social Comparison Theory , developed by Leon Festinger, and the Persuasive Arguments Theory, formulated by David Myers and Carolyn L. Hogg.

Festinger proposed that individuals, when in a group, tend to compare their opinions with others and adopt more extreme positions to align with the group norm. Myers and Hogg, on the other hand, suggested that exposure to new and persuasive arguments during group discussions can lead individuals to adopt more extreme viewpoints .

Alongside these theoretical developments, real-world instances of group polarization started to gain attention. Observations were made in different societal setups, from political campaigns to jury decisions, highlighting the pervasive nature of this phenomenon.

The advent of the internet and social media platforms further added a new dimension to group polarization studies, as virtual groups and online communities became breeding grounds for more extreme opinions.

In essence, the journey of understanding group polarization has been marked by a rich tapestry of studies, theories, and observations.

From the early experiments of James Stoner to the nuanced theories of Festinger, Myers, and Hogg, and the ongoing studies in our digitally connected world, group polarization continues to be a crucial element in unraveling the complexities of human interaction and societal dynamics.

Understanding Group Polarization

To delve into the intricacies of group polarization, it’s crucial to unravel the mechanisms that fuel this phenomenon.

Imagine a group of friends discussing a topic they all feel moderately passionate about. As the conversation flows, you might notice the viewpoints becoming more intense, the opinions more defined. This amplification is at the heart of group polarization.

What Happens During Group Polarization?

During group polarization, individual members tend to adopt a more extreme position than their initial stance. This shift occurs as members are influenced by the prevailing sentiment of the group .

Let’s paint a picture with a simple example: if a group of students is mildly in favor of a longer school day for extra-curricular activities, after discussions, they might end up strongly advocating for it, with their opinions becoming more pronounced and extreme.

Factors Leading to Group Polarization

Digging deeper, two primary theories help explain why this intensification occurs: Social Comparison Theory and Persuasive Arguments Theory.

Leon Festinger’s Social Comparison Theory posits that individuals have an inherent desire to fit in and be accepted by their peers. When in a group, people tend to compare their viewpoints with others, and in an effort to be seen favorably, they might adopt a more extreme stance that aligns with the group norm.

On the other hand, David Myers and Carolyn L. Hogg’s Persuasive Arguments Theory offers a different perspective. This theory suggests that group discussions expose individuals to new and persuasive arguments, which can sway their opinions further in the direction of the group’s initial stance.

In essence, the more arguments one hears supporting a particular viewpoint, the more likely they are to adopt a more extreme position.

Influence of Social Media

Fast forward to the digital age, and the landscape of group polarization takes on new contours. Social media platforms amplify this phenomenon by connecting like-minded individuals and creating echo chambers where similar opinions reverberate .

On platforms like Facebook or Twitter, algorithms are designed to show content that aligns with users’ existing beliefs, further entrenching their viewpoints and fostering group polarization.

This digital evolution adds layers of complexity to our understanding, as online interactions facilitate the rapid spread and intensification of ideas and opinions.

Real-world instances like online debates on climate change or discussions on community forums showcase the pervasive nature of group polarization in our interconnected society.

The digital realm magnifies this phenomenon, as people from different corners of the world can come together, share their views, and in the process, shape and intensify each other’s opinions.

Understanding the mechanism of group polarization involves peeling back the layers of human interaction, social comparison, persuasive arguments, and the influence of the digital world.

It’s a journey through the corridors of group dynamics, where individual viewpoints are shaped, molded, and intensified, painting a vivid tableau of the collective human psyche.

Impact of Group Polarization on Society

Exploring the ripple effects of group polarization reveals its extensive imprint on the fabric of society. This phenomenon doesn’t just reside in academic papers or controlled experiments; it breathes life in political arenas, communities, and marketplaces, shaping the ebb and flow of human interaction and decision-making.

Political Implications

In the realm of politics, group polarization often takes center stage. Political parties and their supporters, initially having moderate stances, can veer towards more extreme positions after internal discussions and debates.

For instance, during election campaigns, party members and followers often find their views becoming more radicalized, which can further polarize the general population. This polarization is evident in various elections worldwide, where political discourse has become increasingly divided , and middle-ground opinions are harder to come by.

Social Implications

On a social level, group polarization molds communities and relationships. When like-minded individuals cluster together, their shared beliefs and values are intensified, potentially leading to a lack of understanding and tolerance for differing viewpoints.

Confirmation bias , the tendency to favor information that confirms one’s existing beliefs, plays a pivotal role here. It acts as a catalyst, further deepening the divide between different social groups and fostering an environment where mutual respect and dialogue can be challenging to sustain.

Economic Implications

The marketplace is not immune to the influences of group polarization. Consumer behavior and brand loyalties can be significantly swayed as individuals within a group lean towards more extreme preferences.

A clear illustration of this is seen in brand rivalries, where consumers of competing brands, such as Apple and Samsung, often exhibit intensified brand loyalty after interacting with like-minded peers. This polarization in the market can influence advertising strategies, product development, and overall market dynamics.

In conclusion, the impact of group polarization on society is multi-faceted and profound. It’s like a subtle current, guiding the course of political landscapes, social interactions, and economic ecosystems.

Recognizing its presence and understanding its implications are essential steps in fostering a society that values diversity, encourages dialogue, and seeks unity amidst differences.

Examples of Group Polarization

Group polarization, while a broad and overarching concept, manifests itself distinctly in varied scenarios. Several notable instances highlight the diverse ways this phenomenon shapes outcomes and influences societal structures.

From the solemnity of jury rooms to the fervent atmosphere of political campaigns and the digital forums of the internet, group polarization leaves indelible marks.

1) Group Polarization in Jury Decision-Making: The Rodney King Trial

The 1992 trial of Rodney King was a watershed moment in American judicial history.

Rodney King, an African American motorist, experienced excessive force by Los Angeles police officers, and the incident was captured on video, sparking outrage nationwide.

During the trial, the jury was tasked with determining the guilt of the officers involved. The initial discussions within the jury were marked by varying opinions. However, as deliberations progressed, group polarization became evident.

The jurors leaned towards more extreme positions, ultimately leading to the acquittal of the officers. The verdict ignited widespread civil unrest, highlighting the profound societal implications of group polarization within a jury setting.

2) Political Elections and Campaigns: The 2016 United States Presidential Election

The 2016 United States Presidential Election between Donald Trump and Hillary Clinton was a glaring display of group polarization.

Both supporters of Trump and Clinton became increasingly entrenched in their political views as the campaign progressed. Social media platforms and news outlets played a significant role in this polarization.

Algorithms on platforms like Facebook and Twitter created echo chambers by showing users content that aligned with their existing beliefs, intensifying pre-existing biases. The election outcome, marked by stark divisions and heightened emotions, showcased the impact of group polarization on political discourse and electoral dynamics.

3) Online Communities and Forums: The Dynamics on Reddit

Reddit, a popular online platform, offers a myriad of subreddits dedicated to specific interests, beliefs, or ideologies. Within these subreddits, group polarization is frequently observed.

For instance, within technology-related subreddits, discussions about the merits of different operating systems or hardware can lead to more extreme and entrenched positions.

A user mildly favoring one type of technology might, after interacting with like-minded users and engaging in discussions, develop a strong preference and dismiss competing technologies.

Similarly, subreddits focused on social or political issues often see users' views intensify, leading to the formation of online movements and campaigns, and sometimes even translating to real-world actions and protests.

Further Examples

4) Brexit Vote (2016)

The UK’s referendum on EU membership witnessed significant group polarization, with both ‘Leave’ and ‘Remain’ camps intensifying their stances, leading to a deeply divided public opinion.

5) Vaccination Debates

Discussions around vaccinations have seen group polarization, with pro-vaccine and vaccine-hesitant groups becoming more entrenched in their beliefs through internal discussions and information sharing.

6) Climate Change Discussions

Group polarization is evident in climate change debates, with climate activists and climate change skeptics often becoming more steadfast in their views after group interactions.

7) Gun Control Debate in the USA

The ongoing discourse on gun control sees individuals within pro-gun and gun-control advocacy groups solidifying and intensifying their respective positions.

8) Social Media Influencer Culture

Followers of specific influencers on platforms like Instagram can exhibit group polarization, developing stronger affinities or aversions to trends, products, or values promoted by the influencer.

9) Sports Team Rivalries

Fans of rival sports teams often experience group polarization, leading to intensified loyalty and animosity, especially during competitive events.

10) College Fraternities and Sororities

Members of college fraternities and sororities can exhibit group polarization in their attitudes towards social events, group values, and inter-group relations.

11) Religious Extremism

Within certain religious sects or groups, discussions and shared beliefs can lead to intensified views and, in extreme cases, radicalization.

12) Corporate Culture

Employees within a company can develop more extreme attitudes towards workplace practices, policies, or corporate ethics through group interactions.

13) Consumer Brand Loyalty

Discussions among brand enthusiasts, such as car enthusiasts, can lead to strengthened brand loyalty and dismissal of competing brands.

14) Gentrification Debates

In discussions about urban development, groups can polarize into strongly pro-gentrification or anti-gentrification stances.

15) Educational Pedagogy Discussions

Educators and parents can polarize on issues like standardized testing or homeschooling, leading to intensified advocacy for or against these practices.

16) Veganism vs. Meat-Eating Debates

Dialogues around dietary choices often result in group polarization, with vegans and meat-eaters becoming more convicted in their dietary philosophies.

17) Tech Platform Wars

Supporters of different technology platforms (e.g., iOS vs. Android, PC vs. Mac) often intensify their preferences and aversions through group discussions.

18) Discussions on Economic Theories

Economists and students can polarize around different economic theories (e.g., Keynesian vs. Classical) through academic discussions and debates.

19) French Revolution (1789–1799)

During the French Revolution, group polarization played a crucial role as revolutionaries and monarchists became increasingly entrenched in their respective beliefs, leading to radical actions and societal upheaval.

20) Anti-Vaccination Movements

Group polarization is evident in anti-vaccination movements, where like-minded individuals reinforce each other's skepticism about vaccines, often leading to the spread of misinformation and heightened resistance to vaccination.

21) Feminist Movements

The various waves of feminist movements have witnessed group polarization, with advocates and opponents of gender equality becoming increasingly steadfast in their views through group interactions.

22) Prohibition in the United States (1920–1933)

The era of Prohibition saw significant polarization between temperance advocates and opponents, leading to intensified campaigns, law enforcement efforts, and the rise of illegal activities.

23) Civil Rights Movement (1950s and 1960s)

The struggle for racial equality in the United States showcased group polarization, with civil rights activists and segregationists becoming more entrenched in their beliefs and actions.

24) Nuclear Energy Debates

Discussions surrounding the use of nuclear energy have led to group polarization, with proponents and opponents solidifying their stances on its risks and benefits.

25) Flat Earth Conspiracies

Within flat earth conspiracy communities, group polarization occurs as members reinforce each other’s beliefs, leading to the dismissal of scientific evidence and mainstream viewpoints.

26) Video Game Console Wars

Fans of different video game consoles, such as PlayStation and Xbox, often exhibit group polarization, intensifying their preferences and engaging in heated debates.

27) Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) Debates

The discourse around GMOs has seen proponents and opponents of genetically modified crops become increasingly polarized in their views on safety and ethical considerations.

28) Immigration Policy Debates

Discussions on immigration policies across various countries have showcased group polarization, with people becoming more steadfast in either pro-immigration or anti-immigration stances.

29) Healthcare Reform Discussions

Debates around healthcare reforms, such as the Affordable Care Act in the United States, have led to increased polarization between supporters and detractors of different healthcare models.

30) Cannabis Legalization Debates

Conversations about the legalization of cannabis often result in group polarization, with proponents and opponents solidifying their arguments and advocacy efforts.

31) Animal Rights Movements

Group polarization is evident in animal rights movements, where activists and opponents intensify their views on animal welfare and the ethics of animal use.

32) Discussions on Artificial Intelligence (AI) Ethics

The debate on AI ethics sees technologists, ethicists, and the general public polarize on the risks and benefits of implementing AI in various sectors.

33) Public Education vs. Homeschooling Debates

Parents and educators often become polarized in their views on the merits of public education versus homeschooling, leading to intensified advocacy for their preferred approach.

34) Globalization Debates

Discussions on globalization lead to group polarization, with individuals becoming more entrenched in their views on the benefits and drawbacks of global economic integration.

35) Body Positivity Movement

The body positivity movement has led to polarization between advocates of body acceptance and those who argue for the importance of addressing health concerns related to body weight.

36) Cultural Appropriation Discussions

Conversations around cultural appropriation see individuals polarize into groups defending cultural exchange and those advocating for the protection of marginalized cultures.

37) Debates on Police Funding

The discourse on police funding, especially in the wake of movements like Black Lives Matter, has seen communities polarize on issues of police reform and funding allocations.

38) Space Exploration Funding Debates

Discussions around funding for space exploration often result in polarization between those who view it as essential for scientific advancement and those who argue for prioritizing earthly concerns.

Counteracting Group Polarization

Addressing the challenges posed by group polarization requires a multifaceted approach.

In recognizing the influences that lead to extreme stances, society can implement strategies aimed at fostering open dialogue, enhancing mutual understanding, and encouraging a more balanced perspective.

Encouraging Diverse Viewpoints

One of the foundational steps in counteracting group polarization is to encourage the inclusion of diverse viewpoints within group discussions.

By ensuring that a range of opinions and perspectives are represented, groups can avoid the echo chamber effect and promote a more balanced and nuanced conversation. This diversity enables members to be exposed to different arguments, which can mitigate the intensification of initial stances.

Fostering Critical Thinking

Cultivating critical thinking skills is another vital strategy. Encouraging individuals to question assumptions, evaluate evidence, and consider alternative perspectives can lead to more informed and balanced opinions.

Educational institutions play a crucial role in fostering these skills, by integrating critical thinking exercises and promoting reflective practices within the curriculum .

Role of Moderators and Facilitators

In both online and offline discussions, the presence of a moderator or facilitator can help manage the conversation and ensure that a variety of opinions are heard.

By preventing dominant voices from overshadowing others and steering the discussion towards constructive dialogue, moderators can help counteract the tendencies towards polarization.

Digital Literacy and Social Media Awareness

In the age of digital communication, educating individuals about the workings of social media algorithms and the creation of online echo chambers is essential.

Raising awareness about how online platforms can reinforce existing beliefs and filter out dissenting views can empower users to seek out diverse information sources and challenge their own viewpoints.

Promoting Empathy and Understanding

Fostering a sense of empathy and understanding is fundamental in bridging divides. Encouraging individuals to appreciate the experiences and perspectives of others, even if they disagree, can lead to more respectful and constructive conversations.

Activities and programs that facilitate intergroup contact and mutual understanding can contribute to reducing polarization.

Reflecting on Personal Biases

Encouraging self-reflection on personal biases and preconceptions can lead to a deeper understanding of one’s own stance and a greater openness to alternative viewpoints. Mindfulness and reflective practices can aid individuals in recognizing their biases and approaching discussions with a more open and balanced mindset.

Counteracting group polarization is a collective effort that involves fostering diversity of thought, cultivating critical thinking, raising digital literacy, and promoting empathy and self-reflection.

Through these strategies, society can work towards more balanced and constructive group dynamics, mitigating the risks associated with polarization and promoting a more inclusive and harmonious community.

Group polarization is a fascinating and pervasive social phenomenon where discussions within a like-minded group lead to the amplification of the group's initial attitudes.

From the hallowed halls of justice in the Rodney King trial to the tumultuous political landscapes during the 2016 U.S. Presidential Election, and within the digital realms of platforms like Reddit, the fingerprints of group polarization are evident.

The diverse array of examples highlights the varied contexts in which this phenomenon manifests and underscores its profound implications on societal structures, norms, and decisions.

However, acknowledging the presence and impact of group polarization is the first step towards addressing its challenges. By fostering environments that encourage diverse viewpoints, promoting critical thinking, enhancing digital literacy, and cultivating empathy and self-reflection, society can work towards mitigating the risks associated with this phenomenon.

The strategies outlined for counteracting group polarization serve as a roadmap, guiding individuals and communities towards more balanced and constructive dialogues.

In a world where opinions are increasingly polarized and echo chambers are ever-present, understanding and addressing group polarization is not just an academic exercise, but a societal imperative.

It calls for collective self-awareness, mutual respect, and a commitment to embracing diversity of thought. In doing so, society can navigate the complexities of group dynamics, champion inclusivity, and foster a sense of unity in the face of diversity.

Through intentional effort and thoughtful discourse, the tide of group polarization can be tempered, paving the way for a more harmonious and understanding world.

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