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How to Write a Seminar Paper

Last Updated: October 17, 2023 Fact Checked

This article was co-authored by Christopher Taylor, PhD . Christopher Taylor is an Adjunct Assistant Professor of English at Austin Community College in Texas. He received his PhD in English Literature and Medieval Studies from the University of Texas at Austin in 2014. There are 16 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 621,745 times.

A seminar paper is a work of original research that presents a specific thesis and is presented to a group of interested peers, usually in an academic setting. For example, it might serve as your cumulative assignment in a university course. Although seminar papers have specific purposes and guidelines in some places, such as law school, the general process and format is the same. The steps below will guide you through the research and writing process of how to write a seminar paper and provide tips for developing a well-received paper.

Getting Started

• an argument that makes an original contribution to the existing scholarship on your subject
• extensive research that supports your argument
• extensive footnotes or endnotes (depending on the documentation style you are using)

• Make sure that you understand how to cite your sources for the paper and how to use the documentation style your professor prefers, such as APA , MLA , or Chicago Style .
• Don’t feel bad if you have questions. It is better to ask and make sure that you understand than to do the assignment wrong and get a bad grade.

• Since it's best to break down a seminar paper into individual steps, creating a schedule is a good idea. You can adjust your schedule as needed.
• Do not attempt to research and write a seminar in just a few days. This type of paper requires extensive research, so you will need to plan ahead. Get started as early as possible. [3] X Research source

• Listing List all of the ideas that you have for your essay (good or bad) and then look over the list you have made and group similar ideas together. Expand those lists by adding more ideas or by using another prewriting activity. [5] X Research source
• Freewriting Write nonstop for about 10 minutes. Write whatever comes to mind and don’t edit yourself. When you are done, review what you have written and highlight or underline the most useful information. Repeat the freewriting exercise using the passages you underlined as a starting point. You can repeat this exercise multiple times to continue to refine and develop your ideas. [6] X Research source
• Clustering Write a brief explanation (phrase or short sentence) of the subject of your seminar paper on the center of a piece of paper and circle it. Then draw three or more lines extending from the circle. Write a corresponding idea at the end of each of these lines. Continue developing your cluster until you have explored as many connections as you can. [7] X Research source
• Questioning On a piece of paper, write out “Who? What? When? Where? Why? How?” Space the questions about two or three lines apart on the paper so that you can write your answers on these lines. Respond to each question in as much detail as you can. [8] X Research source

• For example, if you wanted to know more about the uses of religious relics in medieval England, you might start with something like “How were relics used in medieval England?” The information that you gather on this subject might lead you to develop a thesis about the role or importance of relics in medieval England.
• Keep your research question simple and focused. Use your research question to narrow your research. Once you start to gather information, it's okay to revise or tweak your research question to match the information you find. Similarly, you can always narrow your question a bit if you are turning up too much information.

Conducting Research

• Use your library’s databases, such as EBSCO or JSTOR, rather than a general internet search. University libraries subscribe to many databases. These databases provide you with free access to articles and other resources that you cannot usually gain access to by using a search engine. If you don't have access to these databases, you can try Google Scholar.

• Publication's credentials Consider the type of source, such as a peer-reviewed journal or book. Look for sources that are academically based and accepted by the research community. Additionally, your sources should be unbiased.
• Author's credentials Choose sources that include an author’s name and that provide credentials for that author. The credentials should indicate something about why this person is qualified to speak as an authority on the subject. For example, an article about a medical condition will be more trustworthy if the author is a medical doctor. If you find a source where no author is listed or the author does not have any credentials, then this source may not be trustworthy. [12] X Research source
• Citations Think about whether or not this author has adequately researched the topic. Check the author’s bibliography or works cited page. If the author has provided few or no sources, then this source may not be trustworthy. [13] X Research source
• Bias Think about whether or not this author has presented an objective, well-reasoned account of the topic. How often does the tone indicate a strong preference for one side of the argument? How often does the argument dismiss or disregard the opposition’s concerns or valid arguments? If these are regular occurrences in the source, then it may not be a good choice. [14] X Research source
• Publication date Think about whether or not this source presents the most up to date information on the subject. Noting the publication date is especially important for scientific subjects, since new technologies and techniques have made some earlier findings irrelevant. [15] X Research source
• Information provided in the source If you are still questioning the trustworthiness of this source, cross check some of the information provided against a trustworthy source. If the information that this author presents contradicts one of your trustworthy sources, then it might not be a good source to use in your paper.

• Give yourself plenty of time to read your sources and work to understand what they are saying. Ask your professor for clarification if something is unclear to you.
• Consider if it's easier for you to read and annotate your sources digitally or if you'd prefer to print them out and annotate by hand.

• Be careful to properly cite your sources when taking notes. Even accidental plagiarism may result in a failing grade on a paper.

Drafting Your Paper

• Make sure that your thesis presents an original point of view. Since seminar papers are advanced writing projects, be certain that your thesis presents a perspective that is advanced and original. [18] X Research source
• For example, if you conducted your research on the uses of relics in medieval England, your thesis might be, “Medieval English religious relics were often used in ways that are more pagan than Christian.”

• Organize your outline by essay part and then break those parts into subsections. For example, part 1 might be your introduction, which could then be broken into three sub-parts: a)opening sentence, b)context/background information c)thesis statement.

• For example, in a paper about medieval relics, you might open with a surprising example of how relics were used or a vivid description of an unusual relic.
• Keep in mind that your introduction should identify the main idea of your seminar paper and act as a preview to the rest of your paper.

• For example, in a paper about relics in medieval England, you might want to offer your readers examples of the types of relics and how they were used. What purpose did they serve? Where were they kept? Who was allowed to have relics? Why did people value relics?
• Keep in mind that your background information should be used to help your readers understand your point of view.

• Remember to use topic sentences to structure your paragraphs. Provide a claim at the beginning of each paragraph. Then, support your claim with at least one example from one of your sources. Remember to discuss each piece of evidence in detail so that your readers will understand the point that you are trying to make.

• For example, in a paper on medieval relics, you might include a heading titled “Uses of Relics” and subheadings titled “Religious Uses”, “Domestic Uses”, “Medical Uses”, etc.

• Synthesize what you have discussed . Put everything together for your readers and explain what other lessons might be gained from your argument. How might this discussion change the way others view your subject?
• Explain why your topic matters . Help your readers to see why this topic deserve their attention. How does this topic affect your readers? What are the broader implications of this topic? Why does your topic matter?
• Return to your opening discussion. If you offered an anecdote or a quote early in your paper, it might be helpful to revisit that opening discussion and explore how the information you have gathered implicates that discussion.

• Ask your professor what documentation style he or she prefers that you use if you are not sure.
• Visit your school’s writing center for additional help with your works cited page and in-text citations.

Revising Your Paper

• What is your main point? How might you clarify your main point?
• Who is your audience? Have you considered their needs and expectations?
• What is your purpose? Have you accomplished your purpose with this paper?
• How effective is your evidence? How might your strengthen your evidence?
• Does every part of your paper relate back to your thesis? How might you improve these connections?
• Is anything confusing about your language or organization? How might your clarify your language or organization?
• Have you made any errors with grammar, punctuation, or spelling? How can you correct these errors?
• What might someone who disagrees with you say about your paper? How can you address these opposing arguments in your paper? [26] X Research source

Features of Seminar Papers and Sample Thesis Statements

Community Q&A

• Keep in mind that seminar papers differ by discipline. Although most seminar papers share certain features, your discipline may have some requirements or features that are unique. For example, a seminar paper written for a Chemistry course may require you to include original data from your experiments, whereas a seminar paper for an English course may require you to include a literature review. Check with your student handbook or check with your advisor to find out about special features for seminar papers in your program. Make sure that you ask your professor about his/her expectations before you get started as well. [27] X Research source Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0
• When coming up with a specific thesis, begin by arguing something broad and then gradually grow more specific in the points you want to argue. Thanks Helpful 23 Not Helpful 11
• Choose a topic that interests you, rather than something that seems like it will interest others. It is much easier and more enjoyable to write about something you care about. Thanks Helpful 6 Not Helpful 1

• Do not be afraid to admit any shortcomings or difficulties with your argument. Your thesis will be made stronger if you openly identify unresolved or problematic areas rather than glossing over them. Thanks Helpful 13 Not Helpful 6
• Plagiarism is a serious offense in the academic world. If you plagiarize your paper you may fail the assignment and even the course altogether. Make sure that you fully understand what is and is not considered plagiarism before you write your paper. Ask your teacher if you have any concerns or questions about your school’s plagiarism policy. Thanks Helpful 7 Not Helpful 2

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• ↑ https://umweltoekonomie.uni-hohenheim.de/fileadmin/einrichtungen/umweltoekonomie/1-Studium_Lehre/Materialien_und_Informationen/Guidelines_Seminar_Paper_NEW_14.10.15.pdf
• ↑ https://www.bestcolleges.com/blog/how-to-ask-professor-feedback/
• ↑ http://www.law.georgetown.edu/library/research/guides/seminar_papers.cfm
• ↑ https://www.stcloudstate.edu/writeplace/_files/documents/writing%20process/choosing-and-narrowing-an-essay-topic.pdf
• ↑ http://writing.ku.edu/prewriting-strategies
• ↑ http://www.kuwi.europa-uni.de/en/lehrstuhl/vs/politik3/Hinweise_Seminararbeiten/haenglish.html
• ↑ https://guides.lib.uw.edu/research/faq/reliable
• ↑ https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/673/1/
• ↑ http://writingcenter.unc.edu/handouts/thesis-statements/
• ↑ https://www.irsc.edu/students/academicsupportcenter/researchpaper/researchpaper.aspx?id=4294967433
• ↑ https://owl.english.purdue.edu/engagement/2/2/58/
• ↑ http://writingcenter.fas.harvard.edu/pages/beginning-academic-essay
• ↑ https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/589/02/
• ↑ https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/561/05/
• ↑ https://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/ReverseOutlines.html

About This Article

To write a seminar paper, start by writing a clear and specific thesis that expresses your original point of view. Then, work on your introduction, which should give your readers relevant context about your topic and present your argument in a logical way. As you write, break up the body of your paper with headings and sub-headings that categorize each section of your paper. This will help readers follow your argument. Conclude your paper by synthesizing your argument and explaining why this topic matters. Be sure to cite all the sources you used in a bibliography. For advice on getting started on your seminar paper, keep reading. Did this summary help you? Yes No

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Seminar Paper Outline

College level, graduate schools, and even career professionals conduct occasional seminar presentations. That said, at some point in an individual’s life, they get to be the facilitator of a seminar, and now is your time to be one. Thinking of public speaking may be nerve-wracking, but the silver lining in your situation is this opportunity gives you a chance to refine your skills. To ensure that you can deliver quality content, write a seminar paper outline.

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What Is a Seminar Paper Outline?

A seminar paper outline is a document that serves as a guideline for speakers in structuring their topic. This form decides the flow and also helps in organizing the ideas for the content of the seminar. A seminar outline follows requirements and appropriate formatting to guarantee the effective delivery of the educational discussion. In addition, you should also note the standards and ethics of a seminar presentation. 

How to Compose a Well-Founded Seminar Paper Outline

When people attend seminars, they set their minds to learn and obtain the skills they need. Organizations assign skilled speakers to educate people about particular lessons and situations. Interactive meetings play a crucial role in training both students and employees. If you are about to give one, you should include a seminar paper outline on your seminar checklist .

1. Compose Your Introduction

A seminar discussion should follow a smooth flow. To start it, you should compose a segment that will get the attention of your listeners. Motivate them to listen to what you have to say. If you are unsure of the hook you should incorporate, you should conduct an audience analysis first. This method will give you an idea of how to capture their interest. For your introduction, one advisable thing to include is to generate a thesis statement  that discusses a brief overview of the topic of your choice.

2. Provide a Background

Following your introduction should be a brief background of your topic sentence . To give your audience an overview of your seminar’s content, you can use existing literature as a backing material. Remember to follow the guidelines of quoting and giving credits to your references. This part of your report will stand as the foundation of your whole seminar. 

3. Discuss Your Main Topic

The third step is to present your main topic. Devising this part is a defining factor of your whole seminar. The success of your presentation depends on how well you can explain and deliver your topic message. If your prime purpose is to provide training, you should include a process flowchart in your visual aids. If you are giving a research seminar, it is essential to divide your topic’s main ideas and provide supporting sentences to each of them.

4. Construct Your Conclusion

Aside from restating your thesis statement and summarizing your topic ideas, another way to conclude your presentation is to review whether you were able to achieve your objectives or not. Also, in generating your conclusion statement, you should ensure that it is influential and compelling. It can be a related quote or a call to action. 

When do you need to conduct a seminar?

Seminars are an essential tool to communicate ideas, helpful tips, and processes to conduct activities. In schools, professors assign their students to organize seminars to present their scholarly research and other academic reports to practice their organization skills and communication skills. In professional settings, an organization provides employee training programs through conducting seminars.

How do you choose a seminar topic?

Some people prefer having the freedom to choose their topic, but this could be a burden to others. Here are some tips for the process of selecting the main subject for your seminar. The first one is to ensure to align it with the purpose of your presentation. Also, consider its relevance to the current issues and problems of your organization or society.

What are the essential elements of a seminar?

In planning for a seminar, aside from preparing for the discussion, there are numerous things that you should also take into account. Before your seminar schedule, ensure to disseminate the information through sending notices. You can also post memo reports to accessible places. Also, prepare a checklist for the resources and materials required for the event. In addition, it is also essential to prepare a budget plan .

Public speaking, no matter what type it is, always requires plenty of effort and preparation. On top of that, it also gives you the feeling that insects are wilding out inside your stomach. Despite that, one goal that you should keep in mind is to guarantee the success of your speech. To start with the process, you can fill in a blank outline template and craft a reliable seminar paper outline.

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How to Make a PowerPoint Presentation of Your Research Paper

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A research paper presentation is often used at conferences and in other settings where you have an opportunity to share your research, and get feedback from your colleagues. Although it may seem as simple as summarizing your research and sharing your knowledge, successful research paper PowerPoint presentation examples show us that there’s a little bit more than that involved.

In this article, we’ll highlight how to make a PowerPoint presentation from a research paper, and what to include (as well as what NOT to include). We’ll also touch on how to present a research paper at a conference.

Purpose of a Research Paper Presentation

The purpose of presenting your paper at a conference or forum is different from the purpose of conducting your research and writing up your paper. In this setting, you want to highlight your work instead of including every detail of your research. Likewise, a presentation is an excellent opportunity to get direct feedback from your colleagues in the field. But, perhaps the main reason for presenting your research is to spark interest in your work, and entice the audience to read your research paper.

So, yes, your presentation should summarize your work, but it needs to do so in a way that encourages your audience to seek out your work, and share their interest in your work with others. It’s not enough just to present your research dryly, to get information out there. More important is to encourage engagement with you, your research, and your work.

Tips for Creating Your Research Paper Presentation

In addition to basic PowerPoint presentation recommendations, which we’ll cover later in this article, think about the following when you’re putting together your research paper presentation:

• Know your audience : First and foremost, who are you presenting to? Students? Experts in your field? Potential funders? Non-experts? The truth is that your audience will probably have a bit of a mix of all of the above. So, make sure you keep that in mind as you prepare your presentation.

Know more about: Discover the Target Audience .

• Your audience is human : In other words, they may be tired, they might be wondering why they’re there, and they will, at some point, be tuning out. So, take steps to help them stay interested in your presentation. You can do that by utilizing effective visuals, summarize your conclusions early, and keep your research easy to understand.
• Running outline : It’s not IF your audience will drift off, or get lost…it’s WHEN. Keep a running outline, either within the presentation or via a handout. Use visual and verbal clues to highlight where you are in the presentation.
• Where does your research fit in? You should know of work related to your research, but you don’t have to cite every example. In addition, keep references in your presentation to the end, or in the handout. Your audience is there to hear about your work.
• Plan B : Anticipate possible questions for your presentation, and prepare slides that answer those specific questions in more detail, but have them at the END of your presentation. You can then jump to them, IF needed.

What Makes a PowerPoint Presentation Effective?

You’ve probably attended a presentation where the presenter reads off of their PowerPoint outline, word for word. Or where the presentation is busy, disorganized, or includes too much information. Here are some simple tips for creating an effective PowerPoint Presentation.

• Less is more: You want to give enough information to make your audience want to read your paper. So include details, but not too many, and avoid too many formulas and technical jargon.
• Clean and professional : Avoid excessive colors, distracting backgrounds, font changes, animations, and too many words. Instead of whole paragraphs, bullet points with just a few words to summarize and highlight are best.
• Know your real-estate : Each slide has a limited amount of space. Use it wisely. Typically one, no more than two points per slide. Balance each slide visually. Utilize illustrations when needed; not extraneously.
• Keep things visual : Remember, a PowerPoint presentation is a powerful tool to present things visually. Use visual graphs over tables and scientific illustrations over long text. Keep your visuals clean and professional, just like any text you include in your presentation.

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Another key to an effective presentation is to practice, practice, and then practice some more. When you’re done with your PowerPoint, go through it with friends and colleagues to see if you need to add (or delete excessive) information. Double and triple check for typos and errors. Know the presentation inside and out, so when you’re in front of your audience, you’ll feel confident and comfortable.

How to Present a Research Paper

If your PowerPoint presentation is solid, and you’ve practiced your presentation, that’s half the battle. Follow the basic advice to keep your audience engaged and interested by making eye contact, encouraging questions, and presenting your information with enthusiasm.

We encourage you to read our articles on how to present a scientific journal article and tips on giving good scientific presentations .

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A resource for interdisciplinary writers, photo ©2009 david frazier, the seminar paper.

A seminar paper is often the key assignment of a single course, designed to demonstrate your sustained, focused analysis of a concept, issue, or problem. Typically a paper of 15-20 pages, the seminar paper is a demanding piece of writing, both in terms of the amount of research required and the relatively short time in which you have to complete the assignment. But do not fear-with good planning and preparation, your seminar paper can be a rich, exciting project from which you can learn a lot about a topic and become a better writer (remember, practice makes perfect, or at least improves).

features of a seminar paper

Seminar papers can vary widely in topic and objective, depending on the subject matter and goals of the class and the requirements of the professor. Therefore, it is vitally important that you understand the assignment as you work on your paper.

There are four basic components that you should include in any seminar paper:

• Title Page - this page contains the title of your paper, followed by your name, the course designator and number, and the date you are turning in the assignment. For an example of a title page, see the Tips on Formatting page.
• Abstract - the abstract should be on a separate page from the rest of the paper and immediately follow the title page. It consists of a brief paragraph or two highlighting the major points of your argument. For a sample of an abstract, click here (insert link to a sample, either below or on separate page).
• Content - this is your paper, complete with introduction, development of the argument (body), and conclusion.
• Works Cited Page - This page includes bibliographic data of all of the sources you cited within the paper.

Questions to Consider When Writing a Seminar Paper

Your paper is likely to be evaluated according to these same questions, so it will do you a world of good to ask them of yourself as you draft your paper.

* Is your thesis (your stance on the issues or proposed solution to a problem) clearly evident ? * How well have you used evidence to develop your thesis and to support your own point of view? * How well do you demonstrate valid logic and sound reasoning in the course of making your argument? * How thoroughly have you researched this topic? Did you consult a broad range of sources , or are the sources too concentrated in one type or category of evidence (or a single disciplinary approach)? Are your sources current? Are they representative of the field(s) of research on this topic? * How flexible have you been in approaching the topic, rather than letting your preconceptions influence your analysis of issues and their implications? * How fair and accurate have you been in presenting complicating viewpoints, and in citing evidence that helps reconcile the opposition ? * How well have you conceptualized your audience in composing this argument, and what adaptations to your technique and style have you made in order to connect with that audience?

Examples of Seminar Paper Topics (Coming Soon)

Sample seminar paper (coming soon), next: conference presentations.

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Make Your Seminar Paper Rock With Our Ultimate Guide!

Introduction

Welcome to The Knowledge Nest, your ultimate resource for all things related to seminar paper writing. Whether you're a student or a professional looking to enhance your paper writing skills, this guide is designed to help you create an outstanding seminar paper that stands out from the rest.

Why Seminar Papers Matter

Seminar papers hold great importance in academia and professional settings. They allow you to showcase your understanding of a particular subject, delve deeper into research, and present your findings to an audience. A well-written seminar paper can leave a lasting impact on your readers, leading to opportunities such as publication or career advancement.

Understanding the Structure

A solid seminar paper is built upon a strong structure. Let's dive into each section:

1. Introduction

The introduction serves as the foundation of your seminar paper. It should provide background information, introduce the topic, and clearly state your research question or thesis statement. Grab the reader's attention with a compelling opening, and set the stage for the rest of your paper.

2. Literature Review

A thorough literature review demonstrates your knowledge of existing research and helps establish the context for your own work. Summarize key studies, identify research gaps, and showcase your understanding of the subject matter.

3. Methodology

Describe the methodology you used to conduct your research. Discuss your research design, data collection methods, and any ethical considerations. This section highlights the rigor and validity of your findings.

4. Results and Analysis

Present your research findings and analyze them in a clear and concise manner. Use tables, figures, and graphs to support your data and help readers visualize the results. Interpret the findings and discuss their implications.

5. Discussion

In the discussion section, reflect on your results, compare them to previous studies, and provide possible explanations for any discrepancies. Address limitations of your research and suggest areas for future exploration.

6. Conclusion

Summarize your main findings and restate the significance of your research. Emphasize the contribution your seminar paper makes to the existing body of knowledge. Leave the reader with a strong closing statement that leaves a lasting impression.

Tips and Strategies for Success

To help you create a seminar paper that truly stands out, consider the following tips:

• Plan and Organize: Start early and create a detailed timeline for your paper. Break the work into manageable sections and allocate time for research, writing, and revisions.
• Thorough Research: Dive deep into the existing literature to gain a comprehensive understanding of the topic. Use reputable sources and critically evaluate the information you find.
• Clear Writing: Use a clear and concise writing style to effectively communicate your ideas. Avoid jargon and ensure your paper is accessible to a wide range of readers.
• Effective Arguments: Support your claims with strong evidence and logical reasoning. Build a coherent and compelling argument throughout your paper.
• Proper Referencing: Cite all your sources properly and adhere to the required citation style. This demonstrates academic integrity and allows readers to verify your research.
• Seek Feedback: Share your paper with peers, mentors, or professors to gather valuable feedback. Incorporate their suggestions to improve the quality of your work.
• Revision and Proofreading: Allocate sufficient time for revising and proofreading your paper. Check for grammar, spelling, and formatting errors to ensure a polished final product.

Writing a seminar paper doesn't have to be a daunting task. With our ultimate guide and expert tips, you have all the tools you need to create a paper that rocks. Remember, attention to detail, diligent research, and clear writing are the keys to success. Start writing your seminar paper today and leave a lasting impression on your audience.

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7 Student Scholarly Writing: The Seminar Paper

Writing a seminar paper is often a student’s first experience with scholarly legal writing. Even those students who have already written a case note for a journal write-on competition are often surprised to find it a more difficult process than they had anticipated. While the memoranda and briefs that are typically the focus of the first year legal research and writing curriculum were new types of documents with which most students had little, if any, prior experience, most of our students have been writing research papers for many years. They thus typically expect that the writing process will be relatively easy and therefore are overwhelmed and frustrated when they discover that it is, in fact, a very time-consuming and difficult process. This struggle is often reflected in what a professor will perceive to be a “badly written” draft of the paper, when most of the problems with the paper are not deficiencies in writing ability but are, instead, a reflection of the fact that the students are novices when it comes to scholarly thinking and writing and are unsure of both the expectations of the audience and their own authority in taking a position on a difficult legal issue. [1]

Teaching students how to write effective seminar papers can be equally overwhelming and frustrating. However, it can also be exciting and rewarding when the professor is able to intervene in the students’ writing process [2] and help their papers develop from a general idea into strong pieces of scholarly analysis. In the most general terms, the keys to getting good seminar papers from students are:

• challenging the students to assume the role of “expert” and to take a stance on the topic that they will use legal analysis to support, rather than simply reporting on what others have said;
• incorporating discussions of the writing process into the seminar itself, allowing time in class to lay the foundation for students to understand the expectations during each step and to discuss the students’ questions and concerns about their work on that step of the process;
• setting deadlines that require students to start early and to work on the papers at a steady pace, while at the same time allowing enough time for each stage in the writing process; and
• intervening in the students’ writing process as often as possible to provide feedback and guidance about the students’ progress thus far.

The following discussion outlines the stages of the writing process for a typical seminar paper and how faculty teaching a paper course might be able to assist students at each of these stages.

  A.  Selecting a Topic

Many students, and particularly those who are new to the subject matter of the seminar, have great difficulty selecting a topic for their papers.  Without clear deadlines and guidance from the professor, some students will delay selecting their topics so long that they do not have enough time to fully research the issue and develop a coherent thesis and they do not have enough time to change topics if they discover mid-way through the research process that the topic is too broad or too narrow to form the basis for a seminar paper. [3]

A professor has a variety of available options to make topic selection easier for the students.  Some professors offer a list of topics for students to choose from.  This can be particularly helpful for seminars dealing with complex or difficult subject-matter with which most students will have little prior familiarity.  However, there must be a broad enough range of pre-selected topics for students to be able to find a topic of interest, as the research and writing process can be much more difficult for students who must write about a topic that does not fully engage their interest. If providing a list of topics, the professor can greatly aid students in this early stage of the writing process by organizing the seminar syllabus so that foundational material for most of the topics is covered earlier in the course, enhancing the students’ understanding of the subject matter. Or, if the list of topics cross-references the syllabus, students can readily look to the readings assigned in the syllabus for the subject matter relating to the potential topic and use those readings to gauge whether or not the topic will be of interest. This option is a good choice for faculty who prefer to have the seminar papers cover in depth something that will be a topic of discussion during the course of the seminar.

If a professor prefers to allow students to find their own topics, students can be greatly aided in their topic selection if they are given a list of, or links on an online course management system to, helpful sources of current topics in the particular area of law. Most law schools’ librarians are willing and able to assist in creating such lists or links.  Professors can also encourage students to read ahead in the course materials, looking for topics that interest them that may not be covered until late in the course.  In addition, professors can schedule individual consultations with students to discuss the students’ particular areas of interest, possible topics, and resources that students could look to in narrowing down their possible topics. This option is a good choice for faculty who encourage students to move beyond the topics specifically covered in the course, particularly if the seminar is designed to include student presentations of their papers during the final weeks of the course. By allowing students to select their own topics, those presentations expand the scope of the seminar, with students becoming teachers of new material that they have researched and considered in depth by the end of the course.

In addition to providing lists or links for topic selection, it is also helpful for the professor to expressly identify, either in class or in a written handout, his or her specific goals for the students’ papers.  Such goals might include:

• mastering a narrow topic relating to the subject matter of the seminar;
• demonstrating original analysis of a legal issue discussed in the seminar or relating to its subject matter;
• synthesizing complex material;
• engaging in careful research of a subject;
• proposing law-related solutions to problems relating to the seminar’s subject matter;
• critiquing a position taken by scholars in the field; and/or
• creating a dialogue in the seminar classroom.

Providing samples of past seminar papers that the professor found to be particularly strong could also be helpful in giving students some perspective on what the professor’s expectations will be – but be sure to provide multiple samples so that students feel free to explore different approaches rather than mimicking a sample. Once students know what the professor expects the paper to accomplish, they may feel more confident in selecting a topic.

  B.  Developing and Articulating a Thesis

Students often have difficulty understanding the difference between a topic and a thesis for their papers.  Once they have selected their topic, often they will dive into research and sometimes begin writing or even complete a first draft without articulating what the thesis is.  As a result, their drafts read like reports on their research or general discussions of a broad topic, and the paper lacks focus and direction.

Professors can help students with this process by requiring students to hand in express, written thesis statements and by providing feedback to students on their thesis statements. [4]   If an early thesis statement is required, the professor should expressly inform students that they are free to refine/revise the thesis as they work on the paper, as a thesis will often evolve during the research and drafting process.

A professor who expects students’ seminar papers to share the qualities of novelty, non-obviousness, and usefulness common in academic scholarly writing [5] should discuss the importance of conducting preemption checks before settling on a topic and thesis. To qualify as novel, the thesis must be distinct from what has previously been written on the subject. Thus, if a student has a point she wants to make on the topic at the outset of her research process, an express step in her research process must be to find and review what scholars have already written on the topic. If other scholars have already made the argument that the student intended to make, then the student’s thesis must be revised or refined, or the student will need to reconsider the topic and focus on something different. Discussing this process with students as they begin developing a topic and thesis will help them to anticipate that dead ends and shifts in focus are a common part of the scholarly writing process and to allow sufficient time early in the process.

Students will also benefit if the professor makes it clear that the novelty component of a scholarly paper does not require that everything that the student says in the paper should be something that has never been said before.  In fact, scholarly papers often build off of work that has preceded them, adding something to the current discourse in existing scholarly papers and judicial opinions. For example, a paper might note that there is an ongoing debate about a particular issue, describe the main points made by the key participants in that debate, and then go on to (1) offer new criticisms of certain of the arguments that have been made in the debate, or (2) offer new arguments for adopting one or another solution to the problem, or (3) propose an entirely new resolution of the problem.  Indeed, a paper might be original by pointing out that something is a problem that has not previously been perceived as a problem, or, conversely, that something that has been thought to be a problem is not in fact a problem.

It is often helpful to devote seminar time to having students discuss their draft thesis statements, with the entire class responsible for asking questions about and helping each student refine his or her thesis.  Requiring students to write out and submit a thesis statement early in the process highlights the need for them to begin the process of actively engaging with the issues. Professor and peer feedback on their initial thesis statements will help them to focus their research and craft a draft with a strong initial thesis.

When commenting on the first draft of students’ papers, the professor should make a point of identifying where in the paper the thesis is stated; if it is difficult to find or does not (at the very least) appear in the introductory and conclusion sections of the paper, the professor’s comments should highlight this issue. If it is imprecise, too obvious, or impractical, the professor can reserve time in the paper conference to brainstorm alternative iterations of the thesis.

Many students begin writing with one thesis in mind but end up convincing themselves as they write that a more moderate, or more extreme, or completely different, position is appropriate.  Students should be encouraged to continuously evaluate and adjust their thesis as necessary throughout the research and writing phases of the paper, but they should also be reminded to maintain a consistent stance throughout the paper.  When commenting on their drafts, the professor should watch for and identify sections in which the stance slips from neutral to argumentative, from confident to ambivalent, from analytical to descriptive.  Remind students that the reader should be aware of their position from the beginning of the paper and use the comments on the draft to point out arguments that are surprising to you as the reader because they seem inconsistent with or unconnected to the paper’s main thesis.

To help students develop their thesis statements, give them feedback on their submitted thesis statements (or in the seminar discussion) that asks them to consider the following:

• What is the primary purpose of your paper? Is it to clarify a murky area of law, evaluate a decision or statute or line of cases, develop empirical data and interpret it, criticize a position, compare similar ideas in different contexts, or something else?
• Who is your target audience ? Are you writing for scholars who are experts in this area of the law, practitioners who advise clients in this area of the law, legislators who are drafting or revising statutes governing this area of the law, executives who deal with this area of the law in the business community, or some combined or other potential audience?
• What is the intended scope of your paper? Keep in mind that you must be able to develop your thesis in a coherent, self-sustained manner within the required length and by the end of the semester.  Are your thesis and topic narrow enough to avoid the necessity of pages and pages of background introduction yet broad enough to warrant twenty-five pages (or whatever the requirement is) of discussion and analysis?
• What stance will you take in your paper? You may choose to be strong, quiet, questioning, cautious, concerned, curious, or some other adjective.  Consciously select your stance, however, so that you can connect your stance on your topic with your feeling about the topic and thus maintain a unified point of view throughout the paper.
• What is original about your theme? Indicate what you are adding to the field and what your paper will bring to the development of the particular theories that you discuss.

Examples of Comments on Draft Papers Relating to the Paper Thesis

Example 1 (relating to the paper’s Purpose, from an end note):  I know there is a balance to be struck between laying a foundation and building your own argument, but right now the paper seems to go in a couple different directions. As you revise each section, ask yourself whether the information you provide is closely tied to your ultimate thesis and whether the assertions you make in your ultimate proposal/recommendation are tied to information provided in the background sections. For example, the paper’s initial focus is on the shift in the industry from a property/ownership model to an access model, but when you get to your proposal, the focus shifts to discussing options for artists in offering their recordings for sale – there isn’t really any discussion of how artists get compensated from subscription streaming or what the issues are in that revenue-base for artists who act independently of labels. Thus, your discussion of possible solutions seems disconnected from the opening sections of the paper. Similarly, one aspect of your suggestions at the end deals with transparency by labels – but there was no preceding discussion of a lack of transparency as a problem relating to digitization in the industry, so it seemed to have come out of the blue. As you revise, think of the thesis (where you end up in the paper) as a guide for the rest of the paper – if sections of the paper don’t lead directly to the thesis either as background or as analysis, then they might belong in just a footnote or might not belong in the paper at all. If there are points that you make in the paper that are not tied to the ultimate thesis/proposal, then perhaps the thesis needs to be expanded/tweaked. We can talk about how you might focus the discussion as you revise.

  C.  Researching Materials Other than Cases and Statutes and Keeping Track of a Large Number of Sources

Although the first year Legal Research and Writing program in most law schools familiarizes students with researching cases and statutes and introduces them to some commonly-used secondary sources, students are often not familiar with the specialized legal resources that they will need to thoroughly research a seminar paper.  As a result, their research is often inefficient or incomplete.  In addition, scholarly research is typically different in nature from the research that students do in preparing to write client-driven documents like memos and briefs.  Problems in researching are also often related to the students’ indecision about a paper topic or failure to articulate and focus on an express thesis while engaging in research. Without a clear topic/thesis in mind, students can find themselves going down research rabbit holes, focusing on tangential issues rather than delving deeply into material that is most pertinent to their thesis.

Students often struggle with the sheer magnitude of sources of information available to them on a given topic.  Sometimes they do not yet have a complete understanding of the topic and thus they can benefit from referral to helpful secondary sources that will put the legal issue in perspective for them.  Sometimes their topic is too broad or their thesis statement not clearly enough articulated.  Sometimes they are unsure of the purpose of the document they are creating or the depth of their target audience’s understanding of the issue.  Will they need to lay an elaborate foundation for their analysis, or can they assume that the reader knows the relevant background information?  Identifying your expectations from the outset and requiring the students to expressly identify their target audience can help them to better focus their attention on the most relevant sources.

In addition to helping students with their topic selection, target audience, purpose, and thesis statements, professors can help students with the research process by providing them with research guides that are tailored to the subject-matter of the seminar [6] and by holding conferences with students to discuss their research process.  Professors can require students to hand in research reports so that they can provide feedback and guidance for students who seem to be struggling with research.  In addition, professors can invite the law school’s librarians to speak to the seminar about researching for seminar papers and can encourage students to set up individual research conferences with a reference librarian during the course of the semester for help with topic selection, preemption checks, and general topical research.

Providing students with guidance, either with a handout or an express discussion, about effective note-taking and organization of research materials can also help students to be more efficient and will enhance the quality of their final product.  Although the tools available on Westlaw and Lexis for tracking a research trail on a particular topic are helpful, they should not be relied upon as substitutes for the student’s own system for documenting and organizing her research – in part because research for a seminar paper will typically take the student well beyond either of these two commercial legal databases, and in part because note-taking and organization of materials is best if done deliberately and thoughtfully after reviewing the materials the student has found rather than merely being a reflection of the path that her research has taken.  Below are some suggestions to highlight with students regarding effective note-taking and organizing research findings to best suit the student’s individual writing process. [7]

• Critical Researching: Tell students to focus their note-taking on their own thoughts, reactions, questions, and ideas that arise when reading the source. Is it a helpful source? Is it on point, or does it diverge from the thesis the student’s paper seeks to advance? Is it well-researched and argued, or are there flaws in the research and analysis? Note-taking that focuses on the students’ critical reactions to the source and how they think it relates to their working thesis will be most helpful in the writing process.
• Supporting Normative Assertions: Encourage students to look for sources that lend support to value-laden judgments that support their initial thesis. Many students assume that certain results are inherently “good” or “bad” rather than working to establish those normative assumptions, leaving gaps in their analysis or weakening the foundation for their ultimate conclusions. As they research, they should be considering how they will support the normative assertions that they make in the paper.
• Tracking Research: Remind students to write down the date of each source and the date when each set of research notes is made. Many students spend too much time repeating searches that they have already done or too little time following up on good research leads because they leave big gaps in time between searches and do not accurately track what they research or when they research it.
• Noting Citation Information: Make sure students know to include all of the information needed for a proper Bluebook (or other citation manual) citation for each source that they think will be helpful. This information will be essential for the paper’s footnotes. If the citation manual is not handy at the time the student is researching, the student should be sure to include all of the information about the source that is available to her, including dates, authors, titles, and page numbers. Looking it up during the writing or rewriting stage of the process is a tremendous waste of time.
• Dealing with Quotations: If the student is cutting and pasting materials from an online source rather than downloading entire documents, she should be sure to include the citation with the pasted material. Encourage students to take advantage of options on Westlaw and Lexis that allow them to “paste with citation” or to type the citation and pinpoint reference immediately before or after the pasted material. In addition to including the citation, remind the students to always place quotation marks around material taken verbatim from a source so that they do not run into plagiarism problems in the final product.
• Tracking Ideas: Students should aim to be consistent in how they treat notes that are their own thoughts about information from a source and notes that are taken verbatim from a source. Using a marker such as a “*” or “#” next to or brackets around notes that are the student’s own thoughts/reactions to material will allow the student to be comfortable incorporating those ideas into the paper during the writing process and will still provide a citing reference for the inspiration for those ideas.
• Creating Organized Notes and Research: Encourage students to create a deliberate and organized note-taking system. Although the computer revolution has left fewer and fewer students relying on traditional note-taking systems like note cards and legal pads, some still find it helpful to print out materials and organize them in loose-leaf binders or folders, separating material by topic or sub-topic in a way that makes it easier to have all of the relevant research materials on a given part of the paper in front of the writer during the drafting process. Those materials can then be marked up with margin notes, post-its, and/or highlights to remind the student of what she found most helpful or relevant in the material or what she wanted to say about it and to help her find specific materials more quickly.  Some students find color-coding systems to be helpful as well.
• Using Online Organization Tools : If a student is comfortable working with documents in purely electronic form, individual computer sub-files can be opened for her notes and research materials and organized by topic.  Students who are working with a large number of research sources and materials may find it helpful to use one of the many research organizing tools available online, including Zotero, EndNote, Mendeley, and RefWorks, which can be used to store and organize research materials. These tools typically allow the user to import citations from research sources like databases and web sites, insert her own annotations, and create footnotes.  The Georgetown Law Library has published a helpful chart that sums up the features of some of these tools that students might consider reviewing to decide whether one of these tools might be helpful as they begin gathering research materials; it is available at http://www.law.georgetown.edu/library/research/citation-tools/features.cfm (note, however, that none of these organizing tools is a reliable source for proper Bluebook citation).
• Using Active Thinking : Instruct students to use active thinking in their note-taking. Rather than merely transcribing key points from a source, students should focus their notes on how each source relates to their working thesis. Does it support the thesis? Which part? How? Instead of quoting (or cutting and pasting) long tracts from a source, it is typically more effective to paraphrase the source and explain how it relates to the topic/thesis in the student’s own words. Quotations should be clearly marked, with reference to the pinpoint page numbers, as noted above. Effective notes will also include questions that the student has about the source.
• Mining Footnotes: Encourage students to keep a separate list of research tasks that come up as they read each source and to “mine” the footnotes of the material they find most helpful – to find and read the most relevant-seeming material that is cited by each key source.
• Revisiting Research after Writing: Underscore the recursive nature of the research and writing process. Initial research should help students to identify an initial, rough organizational structure for their paper. As more helpful materials are found, they can be organized according to that initial organizational structure; choices can also be made about revisions to that initial structure if newly-discovered sources suggest new topics or a different organization.

When commenting on the draft seminar paper, the professor should address the effectiveness of the student’s research as it is reflected in the analysis and citations. Are there leading sources that are missing from the discussion and footnotes? Has the student addressed scholarly commentary relevant to the topic, or does the paper rely primarily on primary sources like cases and statutes?  Are the cited sources authoritative? Is the student over-relying on Internet sources?  Are there assertions in the draft that an experienced legal reader would expect to see supported with a citation to authority? Do you have suggested research strategies for the student seeking to fill research gaps as s/he revises the paper? Having these questions in mind as the professor reads and comments on each draft paper can help the professor to provide focused feedback on the student’s research for the draft and tips for expanding it in the rewriting and revising process.

Examples of Comments on Draft Papers Relating to Research

Example 1 (inadequate discussion of existing scholarship relevant to the topic): You have a solid start to your research and have found a good initial universe of authority supporting the interpretation of the various requirements for the DMCA safe harbor that are relevant to Facebook Live. As a general research matter, it will be important for you to look for more scholarly sources to support your analysis, as the current draft relies too heavily on just primary sources like the statute’s language, legislative history materials, and cases. Those sources are important and helpful, of course, but there has been a lot of scholarly comment on the DMCA and on the performance right (including law review articles more generally addressing compulsory licensing and its pros and cons, which would be helpful for your final proposal section). One purpose of your paper should be to “place” your arguments within the greater scholarly commentary on related topics even if no one has written about your exact topic. I encourage you to take a couple days and read through some of the past scholarly discussion related to your topic; I think you will find that it helps you to fine-tune your thesis and to expand both the introductory/background sections and to provide greater support to your arguments, both by anticipating and addressing some of the arguments that might be raised in opposition to what you propose and by showing that the concerns raised in your paper are important ones that need to be addressed.

Example 2 (additional research needed):   You’ve found some helpful materials as a starting point for the past performance right arguments, so the next step is to incorporate more of a variety of the available background materials into your citations and discussion.  You rely fairly heavily on just a couple of sources (or ones to be found later) for a lot of your background discussion, so I recommend doing some additional research into both primary sources like Supreme Court cases discussing the purposes of the Copyright Clause in the Constitution and secondary sources like scholarly articles advocating for or against an expanded performance right to lend further support to some of the discussion.  In addition, the Feb. 2015 Copyright Office report on the music marketplace will likely be a good source for you as you move forward, and you could mine the footnotes in that document to find even more helpful material.  I’ve noted quite a few places throughout where citations to authority would be expected, and I know that there are materials out there to support those points – the challenge will just be to narrow down the universe to what is most authoritative and helpful.

  D.  Writing the Outline

Requiring students to submit some form of outline of their paper well before the draft paper is due can greatly enhance the quality of the draft. A draft that is not sufficiently researched or that is poorly organized can make it hard for the professor to provide meaningful feedback on the quality of the student’s thesis and analysis, so providing feedback on the outline is an opportunity for the professor to focus on those two foundational aspects of a strong paper.

Be specific about what information you expect to see students include in the outline and how far along in the research process they should be when writing it. Requiring students to list the main sources of authority that will be cited and to use an outline-numbering format (i.e., with main headings and sub-headings to show which points will be subsidiary to others) will help them to think about how they want to structure the paper and will help you to provide feedback about how each part of the paper might be more effectively organized or supported.

Requiring a detailed outline before the students begin writing their papers enables the students to set out their vision of the entire analysis of the paper without the need to worry about good prose.  Preparing this outline also will help to focus the student’s thought, reveal gaps in the analysis that must be filled and criticisms that must be dealt with, inspire new ideas that were not previously clear to the student, and force the student to consider the most effective organization for the analysis.

A good outline will provide a clear idea of the thesis, discussion, and probable conclusion of the paper.  It should be as detailed as possible, specifying particular arguments and sources that serve as the basic foundation of the thesis and starting points for additional research.  It should provide a coherent, logical framework of the arguments and discussion that the student intends to include in her paper.

In giving instructions about the nature of the outline and feedback on it to students, the professor should make sure that the students know they are not wedded to this initial outline; it will change as their research progresses and more ideas develop.  However, it is essential to have a good, starting roadmap to guide the students’ writing process.

Ideally, a student outline should include more than simply a list of topics that the student intends to discuss; a strong outline for a 25-page paper is typically at least three pages in length. It should sketch out the analysis that will be applied to the issue and the key authorities that will be examined.  It might include a discussion of the legal doctrine that is being criticized, examined, or discussed.  It might also list the key criticisms of the approach taken in the analysis and suggested responses.  To the extent possible at this stage in the student’s writing and analysis, it should also sketch out the student’s current thoughts about her conclusions and/or recommendations.  It should include a list of key references as well as a description of any additional research that remains to be done. These components will allow the professor to provide feedback that will help to guide the student in the writing process.

  E.  Writing the Draft Paper With Audience and Purpose in Mind

Students may have a strong understanding of the subject matter of their papers but will still produce weak papers if they do not have a clear understanding of 1) their target audience and 2) the purpose of the paper.  Engaging in an express discussion of your goals for the paper as a professor, forcing students to think about their audience, and requiring students to turn in a written thesis statement can provide students with a more precise understanding of the purpose of the paper.

Audience: Either during the seminar itself or during individual conferences with students, it can be very helpful to have the students expressly identify their target audience.  Are they just writing for the professor?  For the readers of a law journal to whom they might submit the paper for publication?  For the judges in a student writing competition?  For experts in the subject matter, laypersons, or lawyers without expertise in the particular area?  For legislators or judges who might be in a position to change a challenged rule of law?  Without a clear idea of the target audience, students have great difficulty choosing the appropriate level of detail to provide in analyzing their topic.  Moreover, without a clear idea of the students’ intended target audience, it is hard for the professor to provide helpful feedback about whether the student has provided an appropriate level of detail for his or her intended audience.

Purpose: In addition, students tend to organize their drafts around the sources that they consult rather than letting the substance of the legal topic and the purpose drive the organization of the paper.  Many of their drafts will read more like undergraduate research papers than creative legal analysis, with students reporting on the information that they have found elsewhere and quoting large blocks of text from authorities.  As you comment on their drafts, it can be helpful to identify the legal issues discussed in each paragraph, ask questions about the purpose of each section, and suggest ways that the document can be reorganized to focus the discussion on legal issues and sub-issues rather than focusing on sources of information.

Forcing students to clearly articulate their thesis before handing in a draft will help reduce some organizational problems.  In addition, requiring students to turn in detailed outlines well before their draft is due will give the professor an opportunity to determine whether the students have an appropriate understanding of the legal issue, to meet with students to discuss the complexities of the issue, and to provide feedback and guidance on more effective organizational schemes for the paper that students can use in drafting the paper.  In addition, when commenting on the draft, the professor can include an express discussion of the paper’s legal analysis and organizational structure, noting problems with analysis, omissions of issues or authorities, awkward transitions, order of presentation, and redundancy.  Ideally, such comments will give students a sense of the reader’s perspective on the paper and will suggest several possible ways to improve the paper’s analysis, purpose, and structure.  Often, creating a reverse outline for or with the student can help identify both analytical and organizational problems.

Specific Suggestions for Providing Guidance and Feedback

It can be difficult to determine whether a poorly written paper is the result of problems with the underlying ideas, or problems with the student’s ability to express those ideas, or both.  The following are suggestions for working with students to help them to craft stronger final papers for a seminar: [8]

  1.  Establish the Parameters of a Good Paper in Seminar .

Discuss what features you expect in good scholarly writing.  Assign an article, such as Eugene Volokh, Writing a Student Article , 48 J. Legal Educ. 247 (1998), that addresses student scholarly writing, [9] and devote some time to discussing it in class. If you have them available, give students samples of good seminar papers – or give them a couple of A papers and a couple of B papers and have them evaluate which papers fall within each category and explain why. [10] If you do not have samples of student papers, it can be helpful to pick two or three short, published articles on subjects relevant to the course and assign them for the students to read, giving them specific questions regarding how well the papers are researched, how clearly (and where) the thesis is stated, how well (or poorly) organized the discussion is, what each section’s purpose is, and how well the thesis is supported with both foundational material and analysis. When students are asked to do the intellectual work of evaluating someone else’s work and expressly considering the structure of the article or paper and nature of the support provided for the thesis, and when they have an opportunity to discuss their evaluations in seminar, their own writing will be stronger as a result.

Talking with students in the seminar about their papers at each stage of the writing process will also keep expectations clear, enable students to ask questions as they work on the paper, and help the students to connect their work on their papers with the classroom rather than separating the paper from the seminar discussions.

   2.  Provide both General and Specific Feedback when you Comment on and Discuss a Student’s Draft Paper. [11]

The professor’s comments on the paper are an opportunity for the student to gain a better understanding of the expectations of the intended audience for the paper. If, as suggested above, you provide guidance to students before they write the draft paper about your expectations, then your comments can help the student to calibrate where she has met those expectations.  Praise strong elements of the draft and identity places where the paper still falls short of those expectations by pointing out specific examples of where the paper is effective and other places where it needs improvement. The feedback the professor provides on a draft paper should be formative, not summative, in nature at this stage of the writing process – i.e., designed to help the student improve the paper in the revision process without attempting to compare its quality to other students’ papers or to give it a grade. [12]

Look for patterns in the student’s draft – such as summarizing information rather than analyzing it in light of the paper’s thesis, making the reader wait until the end of a section to understand its purpose, failing to provide sufficient foundation or authority for an assertion, or organizing around sources rather than around topics – and use the comments to point those patterns out to the student.  In addition to jotting notes in the margins in response to specific points made by the student, include a cover or end note with several paragraphs that provide more global, overarching feedback as to the overall organization, depth of analysis, and tone of the paper.

Examples of Comments on Organization

• Making a few organizational tweaks as you revise with help to make the paper flow even more smoothly for the reader.  First, you’ve included a general statement of your thesis and start to a traditional scholarly “roadmap” on p. 2, but it would be useful to be even more express about what each part of the paper will address and about what you recommend and why. Doing so will make it clearer to the reader how the pieces of the paper work together to support your ultimate thesis.
• On page 22, you raise some arguments about the impact of the Internet on copyright protection. Organizationally, it would make sense to introduce these things in the earlier sections of the paper where you demonstrate that there is a problem in need of fixing. This seems like too late in the paper to begin to introduce new problems, and there is a fair amount of overlap in the background to the DMCA and this background in terms of how the Internet age has affected copyright.
• It might be useful to more expressly break out subsections within more of the main sections that you’ve identified, to more clearly separate distinct points. If you do so, it would be helpful to incorporate guiding “roadmap” paragraphs at the start of each of the main sections, before you break out subsections (A, B, etc.), so that the reader understands from the start of a section how each subsection that follows leads up to and supports your ultimate thesis and what the progression of analysis will be within that individual section. Right now, you have what looks like a roadmap for part IV on p. 8, but it lists only three “threshold” requirements and then does not seem to really match the subsections that you include within that section.
• I’ve also suggested including conclusions within each main part and subpart of the paper before you move on to a different section, so that the reader knows where the discussion is leading – every section should be funneling towards your thesis/proposal, so that the reader knows the relevance of the particular issue just discussed. In addition, an overall Conclusion section at the end would be helpful to wrap up the paper.

Examples of Comments on Depth of Analysis

• It would be nice to see you get into some of the normative arguments here about why we impose burdens on certain parties and why we limit burdens on others in this context – some of those normative arguments could be introduced in the introductory section to show why the language was adopted that now exists, and then if you want to make the case that times have changed, you can do so with that foundation in place.
• Ideally, this section would include a more detailed, concrete proposal that engages with some of the past scholarship addressing performance rights in sound recordings (most of those articles have been in favor of expanding the right, but for a variety of reasons). Right now, Part III is under-developed and seems to repeat your thesis at a general level without engaging in detailed analysis or support through citation to/engagement with past authority on the subject.  Without more development of this section, the rest of the paper is mostly agreement with prior articles that have made the same argument about why it’s time for greater recognition of performance rights in sound recordings, so this is the section that should be engaging with those prior articles more expressly and explaining why those arguments are even more strongly supported if the new digital marketplace and role of radio in that marketplace is considered in light of the Framers’ purpose underlying the Copyright Clause.  We can talk more in conference about ways you could expand this section to place your own “take” on the arguments and reasons why the hesitancy to provide a full performance right is no longer justified.
• You mention the current statutory license for webcasters for the first time on p. 25, stating that you propose a similar model be adopted for live streaming uses of music. Ideally, because it seems to be an essential part of your proposal, the statutory license for webcasters would be explained in some depth earlier in the paper as part of the background, so that it does not come as a surprise at the end of the paper.
• Let’s talk in conference about how best to deal with your application of the DMCA safe harbor provisions to Facebook Live in Part V.  You’ve done a nice job of laying out all of the requirements for the various potentially-applicable safe harbors in Part IV, but when you apply them to Facebook Live in Part V, you seem to be arguing just from the statutory language rather than applying the cases you’ve discussed for each required piece of the safe harbor protection. There are a number of options for addressing this – one might be an organizational tweak by merging Parts IV and V to include a paragraph or two at the end of each subsection that applies the requirement to Facebook Live, so that you are immediately applying the cases/provisions/legislative history that was just discussed for the particular requirement rather than making the reader wait. Another might be to incorporate more express sub-sections that mirror one another in Parts IV and V and that allow you to isolate individual issues and apply them using the precedent. Let’s talk about other options when we meet so that you can decide what approach is most consistent with where you ultimately want to take the paper.

Examples of Comments on Tone or Stance

• The introduction to the paper does a nice job of explaining the topic and thesis of the paper, but it is fairly dry in tone. If you can think of a good, real-life example that illustrates the problem your paper is trying to solve, that can often be a good way to “bookend” the paper – at the start of the Intro by engaging the reader in a compelling illustration of why there’s a problem that needs fixing, and then coming back to it in the final section to show in a concrete way how your proposal would be at least a step towards a better solution to the problem.
• My biggest suggestion moving forward as you revise is to work on your final section(s), to tie the different pieces of the discussion in the paper into a cohesive stance that addresses how you think Barbados should address the issue of cultural appropriation – what options does it have that might provide its artists with greater protection against cultural appropriation than exist in the current legal regime, and how can it avoid the same problems that exist under U.S. law in protecting (or not protecting) against cultural appropriation?  Right now, it’s not clear where you ultimately want to end up, and without knowing where you intend to end up, it is difficult to make choices about what discussions are important foundation for that ultimate conclusion and what discussions are tangents that don’t advance your actual thesis.  We can talk more in conference about ways you could expand these final sections to place your own “take” on the issues and what you ultimately decide to recommend.

In crafting the cover or end note, it is helpful to try to list the two or three (but no more than four, to avoid overwhelming the student) priorities that the student should focus on in revising the paper.  Think about it as a form of triage and let the student know where her efforts are most needed for improving the paper. If it lacks a clear thesis, for example, the student should work on clarifying the thesis before addressing organizational problems in the background sections of the paper; clarifying the thesis will likely help the student to then make choices about how to best organize the background sections to lend support to that thesis. If the paper is missing foundational information to support the thesis, researching and drafting the missing foundational sections will likely be a priority for the revision process. However, it is also helpful to praise the parts of the draft that you believe are strong, or that are at least a good start. If you can point to an example from the student’s own work in the draft that is effective, she will have a better sense of what her audience expects and how to approach revisions to sections that need more work.

Example of Introductory Paragraphs to a Cover/End Note

Below are some general points to consider as you finalize the paper.  You’ve selected an interesting topic and have a strong start on supporting your thesis; it’s clear that you’ve given some careful thought to this area of the law. The next steps as you revise are to flesh out your ultimate proposal more precisely, to be sure to lay the foundation for the points that you want to make, and to address some of the potential obstacles your proposal might face in being implemented.

When reviewing your comments and revising their papers, students will focus on “fixing” specific problems that you note in the margin, but their papers might be more in need of a complete restructuring or additional analysis. [13] Thus, resist the urge to act as the student’s editor. Keep line-edits and corrections to a minimum, or omit them entirely in favor of a more general note reminding the student to proofread carefully on the final paper. Other common issues that you might briefly point out in a general manner in the cover or end note in lieu of line editing the student’s draft, perhaps with a page number reference or an example, might be repeated comma issues; improper citation form; use of jargon or long, complex sentences; use of elegant variation instead of using consistent terminology for important legal concepts; or overuse of transitions like “moreover” and “however.” Students will learn more from looking through their own paper for these common writing or proofreading issues than from mechanically applying corrections that the professor has made to the draft, and the professor’s time in commenting is better spent in crafting comments that will help the student to rethink her premises, expand her research, fill in gaps in analysis, and organize her ideas more effectively.

Examples of Polishing Comments as a Substitute for Line Editing the Student’s Draft

In the cover or end note, include a category called “Miscellaneous” or “Editing” or whatever is most appropriate for the content you will include there. This can serve as a substitute for line-editing in the paper itself. Below are examples from end notes on a student seminar paper.

Miscellaneous

I know you were still in the midst of figuring out where you wanted to take the paper, but be sure to proofread carefully for the final version and bluebook all of the citations.  I’ve noted a consistent pattern of comma errors (e.g., see where I’ve marked in the margin on page 10), so watch for those as you revise. For those sources that don’t have a clear category in the Bluebook, just make sure to provide enough information in the citation that the reader is able to track down the source if needed (e.g., author(s), title, date, page numbers, and URL if available).  There were quite a few places that I’ve indicated in the margin where the reader would expect to see citations, so if you have trouble finding sources for some of those items we can discuss possibilities in our conference.

I’ve also noted a tendency for you to write really long, complex sentences (particularly when you are trying to incorporate a quote), and as a result, important information gets buried in the sheer volume of material conveyed in a single sentence.  As you revise, work on taking it a little slower and walking through the points that you are making in a series of sentences rather than trying to say it all at once.

Thus, in the margins, instead of providing edits to the student’s language, ask questions to prompt the student to rethink her premise; identify what the reader expected a particular subsection or paragraph to address and why that expectation was not met; give prompts for where more explanation of or foundation for a point is needed. Brooke Horvath’s article [14] lists several types of formative responses that can be useful tools for faculty when commenting in the margins on specific pieces of a draft paper, the most pertinent of which are:

• Describing : What is this portion of the text addressing? Is it consistent with what the author said the purpose of the section would be, or has the author deviated from that purpose? Marginal notes that describe the reader’s understanding of what a paragraph or section is doing can be used to show students where an idea is repeated or out of place or where a section is attempting to accomplish too much.
• Questioning : Although overuse of questions in the margins can be frustrating for students, judicious use of questions can help students to retain ownership over the material but to recognize where their draft does not adequately explain a point or support it. Questions have the benefit of being non-directive – they do not necessarily (if well-crafted) suggest an answer, but allow the students to see where their reader is confused and to develop strategies for addressing that confusion.
• Reminding: Cross-referencing assigned readings and class discussions in comments on papers can provide powerful reinforcement of concepts discussed in the seminar and how they might apply to the student’s paper topic and thesis. Reminders of materials provided or class discussions of the paper-writing process, expectations of the audience, and research tips can also be effective tools in helping students to find strategies for improving the paper. Remember to use the same vocabulary about writing that you have used during the seminar and in the readings.
• Assigning: Giving the student an assignment for the paper conference as a part of the written feedback on the draft paper can be a very effective technique. Assignments could include rewriting the thesis statement, outlining a new structure for the paper, revising a section or paragraph to incorporate opposing views or provide more foundation, doing additional research and bringing the results to the conference, or drafting a new paragraph or section that addresses gaps in research or analysis. Giving an assignment in the written feedback on a draft paper can be an effective tool for the professor to evaluate whether the student has understood key feedback in the written comments and for focusing the discussion during the conference.

The assignment mode of formative assessment is particularly effective in a cover or end note, as it helps to focus the student on a key issue that needs to be addressed in the revision. In addition, using headings in the cover or end note to identify the two or three overarching priorities that the student should focus on will help the student to “re-envision” the paper when revising. It will also help the professor to tailor the cover/end note to the big-picture, take-away points for the student. Some common topics to address in the main headings of a cover/end note include Research, Analysis, Organization, and Stance. Keep in mind, though, that you will need to avoid overwhelming the student with minutia in the cover/end note. Use it to point the student to the key issues that the revision will need to address for the paper to be more effective.

For more information, see Chapter 1 on Commenting.

  3.  Use the Conference [15] to Discuss Both Product and Process.

Holding a conference with students after they have had an opportunity to review the professor’s comments on the draft paper is an effective supplement to the written comments on the paper, particularly if the professor ensures that the conference is not merely a rehashing of the written feedback. Too often, the focus of paper conferences between the professor and a student ends up being the product – the text of a draft and the ways in which it is deficient – without any discussion of process.  A focus on the problems with the paper can overwhelm the student and leave her without a clear idea of how to convert the deficient draft into a strong final paper. The professor should thus try to use the paper conference to discuss both the stage in the student’s writing process in which the problem most likely occurred and to help the student develop a step-by-step approach to remedying the problem.

Possible product-based problems that you might have identified in your comments on the draft paper include the research, content, point of view, organization, or thesis.  Problems in research could relate to the nature of authority cited, the scope of authority cited, or gaps in authority. Problems in content could include substantive errors, lack of depth, or too little analysis. Problems in point of view could include the failure to take a stance or the failure to recognize competing arguments. Problems in organization could involve the absence of guideposts like roadmaps and headings, the repetition of ideas, the placement of foundational material too late in the paper, or the lack of express connections between different ideas or sections and the ultimate conclusions of the paper. Problems in the thesis could include lack of clarity, lack of specificity, lack of originality, or over-breadth.

Each of these problems suggests a different process for revision for the student:

• A problem in the research or content might require the student to circle back to the prewriting phase of the paper, and you might suggest secondary sources or other materials for the student to read to help address the problem. A consultation with a librarian for research help could be recommended, or the professor could have the student explain or demonstrate her research process in the conference itself so that the professor can make suggestions for improving the process.
• A problem in the point of view or organization of the paper might require substantial rewriting, moving pieces of existing text around and adding sections, and thus the professor might have the student write out a new outline for the paper during the conference so that they can discuss various options for expanding, moving, or combining sections.
• A problem with the paper’s thesis might be addressed in the conference by having the student explain how she arrived at her thesis, what materials best support that thesis, what materials might conflict with her thesis, and how she could revise the thesis to address the problem. Having the student rewrite the thesis statement in the conference is also an effective tool. Often, the exchange during the conference will lead the student to verbally state her thesis much more effectively than she did in the draft paper; if the professor asks her to write it out during the conference, she will leave with a start on revision and a clearer sense of where her final paper will take her.

For more information, see Chapter 2 on Conferencing .

  4.  Send Students to the Writing Center to Discuss their Papers.

The more feedback the students get, the more effective their papers will be.  Many schools have writing centers designed to help students in the writing process. For example, at the Georgetown Law Center’s Writing Center, “Senior Writing Fellows” are trained to assist students in selecting topics, refining research strategies, organizing complex materials, drafting and redrafting for the scholarly audience, framing a thesis, and polishing.  The Writing Center also has a library of examples and a database of helpful guide sheets, located in the Useful Documents tab, on a variety of topics relating to legal research and writing, many of which are available on the Writing Center’s web page.  More information about the Writing Center can be found on the Law Center web site at http://www.law.georgetown.edu/writingcenter/

[1] See, e.g. , Joseph Williams, On the Maturing of Legal Writers: Two Models of Growth and Development , 1 L. Writing 1 (1991) (discussing the cognitive difficulties faced by novices in a new field of discourse); Linda Flower, Negotiating Academic Discourse , National Center for the Study of Writing and Literacy, Technical Report No. 29 (2003), at http://www.nwp.org/cs/public/print/resource/615 (discussing student writing difficulties when entering a new discourse community in the context of college freshman composition courses and academic writing expectations).

[2] See generally George Hillocks, Jr., The Interaction of Instruction, Teacher Comment, and Revision in Teaching the Composing Process , 16 Research in the Teaching of English 261-78 (Oct. 1982) (discussing process approach to teaching writing and effectiveness of teacher intervention in students’ writing process); Nancy Sommers, Responding to Student Writing , 33-2 College Composition and Communication 148-156 (May, 1982) (emphasizing that effective feedback on student drafts recognizes that the work is still in progress, focusing on ideas underlying the work and how they might be better developed rather than on line edits).

[3] At Georgetown Law, seminar papers that satisfy the upper class writing requirement must be at least 6000 words in length, not including footnotes. This translates to approximately 25 pages. See Georgetown University Law Center Student Handbook of Academic Policies, Juris Doctor Program, page 5, available at http://www.law.georgetown.edu/campus-services/registrar/handbook/upload/Juris_Doctor_Program.pdf.

[4] For a helpful discussion of considerations involved in choosing a thesis, see Eugene Volokh, Writing a Student Article , 48 J. Legal Educ. 247, 248-52 (1998).

[5] See Eugene Volokh, Writing a Student Article , 48 J. Legal Educ. 247, 248-52 (1998).

[6] Georgetown’s law librarians have welcomed requests from faculty to create a research guides for specific subject matters and have made them available on the Williams Library web page.  See Research Guides, http://www.law.georgetown.edu/library/research/guides/index.cfm (last visited August 10, 2016).

[7] Thanks to Prof. Jill Ramsfield, former Director of the Writing Program, Georgetown University Law Center, for an early version of this set of tips for note-taking when students research papers, which has since been revised over time and updated to incorporate technological tools for organizing one’s research.

[8] Some of these suggestions are adapted from materials prepared by Prof. Jill Ramsfield and the GULC Writing Center. For a series of specific guides for students on various aspects of writing a seminar paper, see the “Useful Documents” link on the GULC Writing Center webpage: https://www.law.georgetown.edu/academics/academic-programs/legal-writing-scholarship/writing-center/usefuldocuments.cfm .

[9] Other helpful articles include Elizabeth Fajans & Mary Falk, Scholarly Writing for Law Students (4th ed. 2011); Richard Markowitz, Legal Scholarship:  The Course , 48 J. Legal Educ. 539 (1999); Richard Delgado, How to Write a Law Review Article , 20 U.S.F. L. Rev. 445 (1986); and Jessica I. Clark & Kristin E. Murray, Scholarly Writing (2010).

[10] Because many students learn by using models, if you provide examples you should try to provide several, so that students can see a variety of appropriate models.  Evaluating or comparing samples as a part of your seminar discussions with the students allows you to point out – or to have them point out – effective writing techniques such as a precise thesis statement, strong organizational techniques like headings and roadmaps, consistent stance, recognition of potential counterarguments, and appropriate use of authority.

[11] For more on effective commenting on student work, see the Chapter in this book on Commenting . Although it is aimed at professors of first-year LRW courses, the advice is easily transferable to commenting on seminar papers.

[12] ABA Standard 314, effective for the incoming class of law students in 2016, requires law schools to provide both “formative” and “summative” assessment methods across the curriculum as a means of improving student learning. Formative assessment provides meaningful feedback to students that they can implement in subsequent work for the course, whereas summative assessment occurs at the end of a course to evaluate learning. American Bar Association, 2016-2017 Standards and Rules of Procedure for Approval of Law Schools, Standard 314, available at http://www.americanbar.org/content/dam/aba/publications/misc/legal_education/Standards/2016_2017_standards_chapter3.authcheckdam.pdf .  Seminars that require papers are an ideal place in the typical law school curriculum for employing formative assessment techniques in compliance with the new ABA standards.

[13] See Nancy Sommers, Responding to Student Writing , 33-2 College Composition and Communication 148-156 (May, 1982).

[14] Brooke K. Horvath, The Components of Written Response: A Practical Synthesis of Current Views , Rhetoric Review, Vol. 2, No. 2 (January 1984), available at http://www.jstor.org/stable/465572 .

[15] See the Chapter in this book on Conferences for more on holding effective conferences. Although it is aimed at teachers of first-year LRW courses, the advice is also applicable to conferences on seminar papers.

Legal Writing Pedagogy: Commenting, Conferencing, and Classroom Teaching Copyright © 2013 by Diana Donahoe and Julie Ross. All Rights Reserved.

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Preparing And Presenting a Seminar - A Guide.

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The primary objective of seminar presentation is to enhance presentation skills when persuading, educating, or informing an audience. Specifically, it provides a focus on the fundamental aspects of a quality academic, professional and business communications including structure, preparation and strategy for delivery, using visual aids, and handling question and answer sessions. The presenter/student practices by preparing and delivering an ideal real-life academic/business presentation. Strict adherence to the instructions outlined allows the presenter to evaluate his/her progress and alter any distracting behaviours before and during presentation. It also enables the participant to learn by doing. The aim of this paper is to introduce students to simple principles on how to plan, writs and present their findings as technical conference papers, then act as the mini-conference programme committee members in reviewing each other's submissions. Finally, in addition to the model itself, description of some variations in instantiation and an assessment of the benefits of this general approach and recommendation for adoption by faculties and educators are proffered. Introduction Rarely are the three pillars of academia-research, teaching and service-addressed together, within one intellectually cohesive context in the graduate curriculum. Such a context is important for exposing students to the interrelationships among these facets. Oftentimes, people are confused what a seminar, workshop or conference means. They are sometimes considered to mean the same thing. However, workshop is a brief intensive educational programme for a relatively small group of people that focuses on techniques and skills in a particular field. Seminar on the other hand is a meeting of a group of advanced students studying under a professor/officer with each doing original research and all exchanging results of their findings through reports and discussions. A conference is a meeting of two or more persons/bodies organized for the benefit of discussing matters of common concern, which usually involves formal interchange of views.

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How to write a seminar paper: A helpful step-by-step guide

Most students find drafting a seminar paper less tedious after conducting well-done research and seeking guidance from reliable sources. This article offers detailed step-by-step directions on how to write a seminar paper, from preparing for research to reviewing the final copy.

A seminar paper presents your original research on a specific thesis. A seminar can be a conference or any other meeting for discussion/training. It can also be a university class that includes doing a project/research. In both cases, a group(s) of people/students write a seminar paper about their research topics.

This article covers the following topics about a seminar paper:

• How to brainstorm about the research topic
• How to create a plan for your research
• How to start your research and where to get data
• How to write a good seminar paper (format)
• Tips for revising the paper

How to write a seminar paper in Nigeria

Although there are various formats for writing a seminar paper, depending on school and course of study, these formats are not too different from the general format. The steps outlined below will guide you on how to write a good seminar paper:

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1. Brainstorm about the research topic

Your group should generate ideas for the research. Brainstorming takes some time, but it is easier to research after listing ideas than diving into it without giving it much thought. The group can use the following methods to develop ideas for the research:

Write down the questions

Write down the questions for the research on a piece of paper and brainstorm answers. Below are some essential questions researchers should write down and provide answers:

• What is the topic of research?
• What do you know now about the topic?
• What type of research suits the topic (exploratory or confirmatory research)?
• What do you want to find out, or what is your objective for conducting the research?
• What type of data do you need (Quantitative or Qualitative)?
• Where will you get the data (primary and secondary data sources)?
• What is your target population?
• How large should your sample population be?
• How large should your data be?
• What data analysis method will you use?
• How long will the research and writing of the seminar paper take?
• How much will it cost to collect the data, print the document, etc.?
• What risks or challenges will you face when collecting the data, and how can you overcome them?

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Use the freewriting, net/tree diagram, or lists when answering your questions

To answer the questions using a freewriting style, write anything that comes to your mind for 10-12 minutes. After that, read your answers and highlight useful points. When done, make a summary to help you create a schedule for your research and seminar paper.

When listing ideas on how to do the research and the seminar paper format, list all the good and the bad ideas that come to mind on the paper. After that, select similar ideas and expand your list further. By writing down everything, you will develop even more ideas that you can use for your seminar paper.

The net style requires you to write short answers (two or five words) in the middle of the paper. Circle each idea and draw a line from the circle towards the end of the paper. Draw branches on the line for each new idea you think relates to the main idea. You can also use a tree diagram instead of a net diagram.

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2. Create a plan for your research

Writing a seminar paper requires extensive research, original research, data collection and analysis, and excellent writing skills . Therefore, the group should start their research early instead of doing the workload a few days before the deadline.

Answering the research-related questions you brainstormed will help you plan a schedule for daily or weekly tasks during the research and writing the seminar paper.

Since there is no such thing as “enough time,” cover a section of your research or seminar paper as scheduled to avoid piling work. You will compile everything and write a final copy of your seminar paper at the end of the research.

3. Start your research and where to get data

After brainstorming and creating a schedule for your research, collect the materials and resources you need to do the work. You can use the following data sources , but always ensure your source is authentic and reliable.

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Primary data sources

Primary data sources provide direct or firsthand evidence/information about the topic to enable the researchers to understand what happens in real life. Your primary data sources can be:

• Oral and written interviews
• Observations
• Surveys and questionnaires
• Focus groups
• Oral histories

Secondary data sources

Secondary data sources provide data collected by other researchers or any other party. Analyzing such data allows researchers to enhance the quality and accuracy of their insights into their study topic. Most secondary data comes from external organizations, but you can collect it within an organization. Here are some types of secondary data sources:

• Autobiographies and memoirs
• Diaries, personal letters , and correspondence
• Internet (email, blogs, listservs, and newsgroups)
• Photographs, drawings, and posters
• Works of art and literature
• Government archives and databases.
• Corporate or an organization's archives and databases.
• Academic research copies and books from libraries

Below are things that can help you establish trustworthy secondary data :

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• An author is an expert or a well-respected publisher.
• Citations used in academic research copies are authentic.
• The writer made an unbiased analysis of the topic.
• The information is up-to-date.

4. Draft your seminar paper

A university seminar/research paper consists of the following major sections:

• Table of contents
• Introduction
• Data analysis and findings
• Conclusion and recommendations

The best way to write a seminar paper is to draft separate documents for each section and compile the final document later. For instance, write the findings from each data source separately and compile the data analysis and findings section at the end. The approach saves time and relieves you of the workload of writing the entire paper at the end of your research. You can follow the following guide when writing your seminar paper:

Write the cover page

The cover page of the seminar paper contains the topic of research. You should state your topic in the smallest possible number of words, bold it, and move it 3-4 inches down from the top margin.

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Right below the title, write the names of the researchers/students, their student ID numbers, the name of your department and university, and the date of submitting the seminar paper. Do not bold this section.

Write the abstract

The abstract is the overview of your thesis and is generally very short. A thesis is a statement or theory the researcher seeks to prove or maintain. It is usually a brief, direct statement that summarizes the main argument of a research paper. Your thesis should be practical, express your opinion, and present an original perspective.

A thesis statement sample: Community codes of conduct should be mandatory in new developments as they help improve home values, community involvement, and safety.

Write the table of contents

The table of contents shows the structure and elements of the seminar paper. You should insert it right after the abstract when you are done writing the paper. This way, you can reference the right pages for each section. The table of contents must also show the references and appendices page.

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Write the introduction

Your introduction kind of reviews the contents of the entire seminar paper. Therefore, only write the main ideas. Start with why the research topic is important, summarize the background information, state your thesis, and convey your data collection methods. The following questions will help you write a good introduction for your seminar paper:

• Why is the topic being studied?

Write why the research topic is important. They can be issues you seek to find solutions for through research.

• How is the topic being studied?

Write the data collection methods you will use to do the research.

• What is being studied?

Assume your readers need to learn about your research topic and write background information about it for them.

Write your data analysis results and findings

You can write your data analysis results and findings when your abstract and introduction are ready. You should be extremely careful when writing this section because it is the most important part of the seminar paper.

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Outline all facts you learned from the data analysis concerning your research topic. In this section, you do not discuss these facts. Instead, you only state them. Also, you should do in-text citations (using the appropriate citation format) to show secondary data sources you got the facts.

Write your conclusion and recommendations

After writing your data analysis results and findings, write your conclusion and recommendations. The conclusion supports or opposes your thesis statement, while recommendations are alternative solutions a researcher suggests as better ways of solving the problem the research addressed.

Your conclusion and recommendations report should emphasize the ideas presented in the research rather than the data you collected and proof.

For example, when writing a conclusion for the following thesis statement sample :

Community codes of conduct should be mandatory in new developments as they help improve home values, community involvement, and safety.

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The researcher must support or oppose making community codes of conduct mandatory. After that, the researcher should suggest other ways of improving home values, community involvement, and enhance safety without making community codes of conduct mandatory.

Write the references

Create a reference list of the secondary data sources you used in the research. They can be books, journals, magazines, periodicals, websites, eBooks, newspapers, etc. There are various citation formats or styles. Therefore, use the appropriate one for your school or course.

• The Humanities research papers use the MLA (Modern Language Association) style.
• APA (American Psychological Association) is used in Education, Psychology, and Sciences research papers.
• Chicago/Turabian style is used in Business, History, and Fine Arts research papers.

Write the appendices

You place the appendices section after the references page. It contains a list of pictorial data presentation methods you used to present your data analysis results. They can be tables, graphs, maps, etc.

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5. Revise the paper

When you finish writing your seminar paper, revise and proofread it to correct misleading information and grammar mistakes. You can also refine the contents of the paper before printing it out. Ensure you and your supervisor are satisfied before printing the final draft.

What is the difference between a seminar paper and a research paper?

A seminar paper shares many features with a regular research paper but is more advanced than a research paper. Unlike a basic research paper , a seminar paper also requires:

• An argument that makes an original contribution to the existing scholarship on your subject
• Vast research that supports your argument
• Comprehensive footnotes or endnotes (depending on your documentation style).

How do I start writing a seminar paper?

A seminar paper should have the following sections: a cover page, an abstract, a table of contents, an introduction, data analysis & findings, a conclusion & recommendations, a list of references, and appendices. These sections should follow each other systematically, from the cover page to the appendices as listed.

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How do I create a seminar file?

A seminar paper could be anywhere between 12-20 pages. After writing the abstract, introduction, data analysis & findings, and conclusion & recommendations sections insert the cover page above the abstract and table of contents between the abstract and introduction. Insert the references and appendices pages after the conclusion & recommendations. Appendices should be on the last page of your document.

There you have it - now you know how to write a seminar paper. Preparing for the research comes first, followed by the research itself. Writing the seminar paper comes last. Handle these tasks separately because they are time-consuming and require dedication.

Legit.ng published an article on how to write a formal letter . You can use your laptop, tablet, or smartphone to compose a formal letter instead of handwriting it. Also, some devices allow you to install apps that can scan your handwriting and transform it into typed text.

However you want to do it, remember to follow the standard rules for writing formal letters. Your letter will only look appealing if you observe formal writing rules.

Source: Legit.ng

How to write your seminar paper

Oct 12, 2014

1.45k likes | 2.83k Views

How to write your seminar paper. What we’re going to look at. The Writing Process What to aim for when you write Writing at the Paragraph Level Writing at the Document Level Revision of the Paper Some Tips on How to Write “Real Good”. The Writing Process (1).

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What we’re going to look at • The Writing Process • What to aim for when you write • Writing at the Paragraph Level • Writing at the Document Level • Revision of the Paper • Some Tips on How to Write “Real Good”

The Writing Process (1) • What method do you use when you start to write? • The personal approach • Asking questions such as: • Why am I doing this? • What is the problem etc? • The list-maker's approach • Write an outline • Expand the outline • The "moonshine" method (involves distillation)

The Writing Process (2) • Writing always involves the following cycle • Write • Read • Discard some • Write again • Read • Discard some more etc. (5x, 10x, 20x YMMV)

Good Writing (1) • On good writing, Sir Peter Medawar wrote: • Brevity, • cogency (convincing reasoning) • and clarity • are the principal virtues and the greatest of these is clarity

What to aim for when you write (2) • People who write obscurely : • are either unskilled in writing • or up to some mischief

What to aim for when you write (3) • Some cultural differences between Finns writing in Finnish and Speakers of English writing in English • Native Speakers of English write English with a respect for a reader’s time • Native Finns write Finnish with a respect for a reader’s intelligence • Please write with respect for a reader’s time

Every paragraph you write should have the following features: It should only express one idea or theme It should start with a sentence which clearly states this idea It should be coherent It should contain variation The Paragraph Level (1)

Every paragrah should only express one idea or theme The main sentence of a paragraph is known as the topic sentence It usually comes first in the paragraph The topic sentence can be supported by other secondary sentences The Paragraph Level (2)

Every paragraph should be coherent Paragraphs should have ordered patterns, i. e: An enumerative pattern (first, second, etc) A chronological pattern (on the first day, on the second day etc) A spatial pattern A logical pattern A general-to-particular pattern Etc The Paragraph Level (3)

Every paragraph should contain variation You can achieve this by Varying the length and structure of your sentences Using the stronger active voice rather than the passive (more on this later) Putting the more important words at the beginning or end of the sentence The Paragraph Level (4)

The Paragraph Level (5) It is important to make smooth transitions between sentences in paragraphs To do this, use some of the following transitional words on the other hand in addition likewise then

An example of a good paragraph The Paragraph Level (6) The town's traffic problems are appalling. For a start/First/To begin with the town lies on a major commercial route. Second/Next/In addition, it generates its own rush-hour traffic. Moreover/Furthermore it is near enough to London to be caught by the capitals weekend traffic. Anyway/Besides/In any case the narrow streets were not built for today's cars and lorries. Thus/Altogether action is urgently needed. Topic sentence

The Document Level A paper usually has the following sections: Abstract Introduction (Materials and Methods) (Results) Discussion References

Revision of the Paper (1) When you check your completed paper: Revise for content Revise for clarity Revise for completeness Revise for conciseness

Revision of the Paper (2) Points you should look for when revising for content: Does every sentence say something? Are you too caution when you draw conclusions? It is quite usual to show uncertainty about some of your findings, but don’t overdo it! Look out for ambiguous sentences

Revision of the Paper (3) Points you should look for when revising for clarity: Does every sentence say what you want it to say? Usually, we know what we want to say, but may write it down in such a way that only we know what it means!!!

Revision of the Paper (4) Points you should look for when revising for completeness: Make sure that your every thought is complete Can any of your pronouns be confused as to what they refer to? Look out for sentences where the reader might have problems interpreting what you mean

Revision of the Paper (5) Points you should look for when revising for conciseness: Throw out phrases such as: It should be noted that It is interesting to note that Throw out unnecessary prepositions Do not overuse the passive

Revision of the Paper (6) Use of the passive voice: Writers should use the active voice when possible, because: The active voice gets you closer to your readers You use fewer words when you write using the passive

Revision of the Paper (7) Use of the passive voice: However, you may still use the passive for the following: To get more variety in your writing For situations where you don’t want to be identified as the culprit

Revision of the Paper (8) Beware of spell checkers: Look at this paragraph which would have gone through a spell checker unchanged, and remember to never depend totally on a spell checker! I rote a text witch I ran threw a spelling checker. Sins their where know mistakes in the hole paper, it must bee perfect. I sawed the fail on may computer and I can use it whenever I wont two shoe that I can right good English.

How to Write “Real Good” (1) Watch out for articles (a, an, the and Ø) This is hard because the rules for the use of articles in English are so difficult to formulate The situation is so bad that over the last ten years, there have been at least four Ph.D’s at the English Department of Helsinki University on the use of articles in English

Flow Chart for Articles

How to Write “Real Good” (2) Watch out for American and British Spelling Even though the Americans are taking over everything in the world these days, apart from making efficient voting machines The British still hold on to their way of spelling words So Use either one of the other forms in your thesis

How to Write “Real Good” (3) Bone up on the rules for the use of punctuation in English The English comma is particularly difficult to pin down We’ll now look at some punctuation marks and their uses

The comma Used between words in a series Used between phrases in a series Used between clauses in a series

The Semicolon (;) The semicolon is usually used in long complex sentences. It gives a longer period of rest than a comma, but a shorter rest than a full stop. It is used to separate clauses which could have been two sentences, but have a similar meaning and are of equal importance e.g. I saw him the other day in the broad light of day, he was almost as I had known all those years ago; although he was much fatter.

The Colon (:) This punctuation mark is used to signal something ahead rather than separating or stopping the reader. We use it: To introduce a list To introduce direct speech: He said: "I like it here.” To introduce an explanation, or some other aspect of the first part of a sentence e.g. I had three problems with it: with its size, its ability to cope, and its inventor.

The Dash (–) It is used to mark a pause, like a comma

The Hyphen (-) This is used when we form compound words such as a 7-year-old boy, or in numbers such as twenty-seven.

The Apostrophe (‘) To form plurals of expressions which usually don’t have plurals, such as the 1990’s, this can be also written as the 1990s To form plurals of numbers and letters, e.g., 2 s’s or 2 20’s make 40. To form the possessive case e.g., Seppo’s books

The Apostrophe (‘) (2) However note that possessive pronouns do not take an apostrophe, note the difference between the it’s and its in the following sentence. It’s (it is) commonly known that its colour is blue.

How to Write “Real Good” (4) Beware of typical Finnish errors in English, such as: “Shortly”, when the writer means “briefly” “On the other hand” and “on the other hand”

How to Write “Real Good” (5) Finally, pay no regard to that well known mathematician and cabaret artist, Tom Lehrer when he says in his song, Lobachevsky: I am never forget the day I first meet the great Lochevsky. In one word he told me secret of success in mathematics:Plagiarize!

Happy Writing: “Real Good” Let’s now do a couple of exercises to start you off writing your papers. Donald Smart email: [email protected]

Which versus That Which is always used in a nonrestrictive relative clause (one that could be omitted without changing the meaning of the basic sentence): The most common examples of panel methods are the aerodynamic codes of Hess and Smith (ref. 26), which were originally developed for nonlifting surfaces. That is used in restrictive relative clauses (one that cannot be omitted without changing the meaning of the basic sentence): This is the house that Jack built.

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