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In the social sciences, a secondary source is usually a scholar book, journal article, or digital or print document that was created by someone who did not directly experience or participate in the events or conditions under investigation. Secondary sources are not evidence per se, but rather, provide an interpretation, analysis, or commentary derived from the content of primary source materials and/or other secondary sources.

Value of Secondary Sources

To do research, you must cite research. Primary sources do not represent research per se, but only the artifacts from which most research is derived. Therefore, the majority of sources in a literature review are secondary sources that present research findings, analysis, and the evaluation of other researcher's works.

Reviewing secondary source material can be of valu e in improving your overall research paper because secondary sources facilitate the communication of what is known about a topic. This literature also helps you understand the level of uncertainty about what is currently known and what additional information is needed from further research. It is important to note, however, that secondary sources are not the subject of your analysis. Instead, they represent various opinions, interpretations, and arguments about the research problem you are investigating--opinions, interpretations, and arguments with which you may either agree or disagree with as part of your own analysis of the literature.

Examples of secondary sources you could review as part of your overall study include:     * Bibliographies [also considered tertiary]     * Biographical works     * Books, other than fiction and autobiography     * Commentaries, criticisms     * Dictionaries, Encyclopedias [also considered tertiary]     * Histories     * Journal articles [depending on the discipline, they can be primary]     * Magazine and newspaper articles [this distinction varies by discipline]     * Textbooks [also considered tertiary]     * Web site [also considered primary]

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• Primary vs. Secondary Sources | Difference & Examples

Primary vs. Secondary Sources | Difference & Examples

Published on June 20, 2018 by Raimo Streefkerk . Revised on May 31, 2023.

When you do research, you have to gather information and evidence from a variety of sources.

Primary sources provide raw information and first-hand evidence. Examples include interview transcripts, statistical data, and works of art. Primary research gives you direct access to the subject of your research.

Secondary sources provide second-hand information and commentary from other researchers. Examples include journal articles, reviews, and academic books . Thus, secondary research describes, interprets, or synthesizes primary sources.

Primary sources are more credible as evidence, but good research uses both primary and secondary sources.

Table of contents

What is a primary source, what is a secondary source, primary and secondary source examples, how to tell if a source is primary or secondary, primary vs secondary sources: which is better, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about primary and secondary sources.

A primary source is anything that gives you direct evidence about the people, events, or phenomena that you are researching. Primary sources will usually be the main objects of your analysis.

If you are researching the past, you cannot directly access it yourself, so you need primary sources that were produced at the time by participants or witnesses (e.g. letters, photographs, newspapers ).

If you are researching something current, your primary sources can either be qualitative or quantitative data that you collect yourself (e.g. through interviews , surveys , experiments ) or sources produced by people directly involved in the topic (e.g. official documents or media texts).

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A secondary source is anything that describes, interprets, evaluates, or analyzes information from primary sources. Common examples include:

• Books , articles and documentaries that synthesize information on a topic
• Synopses and descriptions of artistic works
• Encyclopedias and textbooks that summarize information and ideas
• Reviews and essays that evaluate or interpret something

When you cite a secondary source, it’s usually not to analyze it directly. Instead, you’ll probably test its arguments against new evidence or use its ideas to help formulate your own.

Examples of sources that can be primary or secondary

A secondary source can become a primary source depending on your research question . If the person, context, or technique that produced the source is the main focus of your research, it becomes a primary source.

Documentaries

If you are researching the causes of World War II, a recent documentary about the war is a secondary source . But if you are researching the filmmaking techniques used in historical documentaries, the documentary is a primary source .

Reviews and essays

If your paper is about the novels of Toni Morrison, a magazine review of one of her novels is a secondary source . But if your paper is about the critical reception of Toni Morrison’s work, the review is a primary source .

Newspaper articles

If your aim is to analyze the government’s economic policy, a newspaper article about a new policy is a secondary source . But if your aim is to analyze media coverage of economic issues, the newspaper article is a primary source .

To determine if something can be used as a primary or secondary source in your research, there are some simple questions you can ask yourself:

• Does this source come from someone directly involved in the events I’m studying (primary) or from another researcher (secondary)?
• Am I interested in evaluating the source itself (primary) or only using it for background information (secondary)?
• Does the source provide original information (primary) or does it comment upon information from other sources (secondary)?

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Most research uses both primary and secondary sources. They complement each other to help you build a convincing argument. Primary sources are more credible as evidence, but secondary sources show how your work relates to existing research. Tertiary sources are often used in the first, exploratory stage of research.

What do you use primary sources for?

Primary sources are the foundation of original research. They allow you to:

• Make new discoveries
• Provide credible evidence for your arguments
• Give authoritative information about your topic

If you don’t use any primary sources, your research may be considered unoriginal or unreliable.

What do you use secondary sources for?

Secondary sources are good for gaining a full overview of your topic and understanding how other researchers have approached it. They often synthesize a large number of primary sources that would be difficult and time-consuming to gather by yourself. They allow you to:

• Gain background information on the topic
• Support or contrast your arguments with other researchers’ ideas
• Gather information from primary sources that you can’t access directly (e.g. private letters or physical documents located elsewhere)

When you conduct a literature review or meta analysis, you can consult secondary sources to gain a thorough overview of your topic. If you want to mention a paper or study that you find cited in a secondary source, seek out the original source and cite it directly.

Remember that all primary and secondary sources must be cited to avoid plagiarism . You can use Scribbr’s free citation generator to do so!

If you want to know more about ChatGPT, AI tools , citation , and plagiarism , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

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Common examples of primary sources include interview transcripts , photographs, novels, paintings, films, historical documents, and official statistics.

Anything you directly analyze or use as first-hand evidence can be a primary source, including qualitative or quantitative data that you collected yourself.

Common examples of secondary sources include academic books, journal articles , reviews, essays , and textbooks.

Anything that summarizes, evaluates or interprets primary sources can be a secondary source. If a source gives you an overview of background information or presents another researcher’s ideas on your topic, it is probably a secondary source.

To determine if a source is primary or secondary, ask yourself:

• Was the source created by someone directly involved in the events you’re studying (primary), or by another researcher (secondary)?
• Does the source provide original information (primary), or does it summarize information from other sources (secondary)?
• Are you directly analyzing the source itself (primary), or only using it for background information (secondary)?

Some types of source are nearly always primary: works of art and literature, raw statistical data, official documents and records, and personal communications (e.g. letters, interviews ). If you use one of these in your research, it is probably a primary source.

Primary sources are often considered the most credible in terms of providing evidence for your argument, as they give you direct evidence of what you are researching. However, it’s up to you to ensure the information they provide is reliable and accurate.

Always make sure to properly cite your sources to avoid plagiarism .

A fictional movie is usually a primary source. A documentary can be either primary or secondary depending on the context.

If you are directly analyzing some aspect of the movie itself – for example, the cinematography, narrative techniques, or social context – the movie is a primary source.

If you use the movie for background information or analysis about your topic – for example, to learn about a historical event or a scientific discovery – the movie is a secondary source.

Whether it’s primary or secondary, always properly cite the movie in the citation style you are using. Learn how to create an MLA movie citation or an APA movie citation .

Articles in newspapers and magazines can be primary or secondary depending on the focus of your research.

In historical studies, old articles are used as primary sources that give direct evidence about the time period. In social and communication studies, articles are used as primary sources to analyze language and social relations (for example, by conducting content analysis or discourse analysis ).

If you are not analyzing the article itself, but only using it for background information or facts about your topic, then the article is a secondary source.

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Primary, Secondary, & Tertiary Sources

• Source Types
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tertiary Sources
• Examples by Discipline

What are secondary sources?

Secondary sources depend upon primary sources. Secondary sources describe, discuss, interpret, comment upon, analyze, evaluate, summarize, and process primary sources. The important thing to keep in mind when trying to decide if a source is primary or secondary is whether or not the author did the thing they are reporting on. If they did, it is a primary source; if they did not, it is a secondary source.

What is the role of secondary sources in research?

Secondary sources represent the scholarly conversation that has taken place, or is currently taking place, on a given topic. Thus, it is imperative that researchers acquire a comprehensive knowledge of the secondary literature on their topic to be able to then engage with it and offer their own perspective through their writing. Scholars show their deep knowledge of their topic by demonstrating in their writing their awareness of secondary literature. Research that does not include substantial references to both primary and secondary sources is not likely to be authoritative or reliable. For that reason, looking at the listed references in a piece of research can help you determine its value.

What are some examples of secondary sources?

Like primary sources, secondary sources can be lots of different kinds of resources depending on discipline and application. Secondary sources can be:

• Journal articles
• Monographs (books written on a single subject)
• Newspaper or magazine articles
• Book or movie reviews 

In the sciences, secondary sources tend to be things like literature reviews (synthesized descriptions of previous scholarship on a topic), systematic reviews (overviews of primary sources on a topic), or meta analyses (studies in which conclusions are drawn from consideration of systematic reviews).

In the humanities, secondary sources tend to be journal articles that discuss or evaluate someone else's research, monographs, or reviews. 

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Secondary Sources in Research

Other Academics' Observations on Primary Sources

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In contrast to primary sources in  research  activities, secondary sources consist of information that has been gathered and often interpreted by other researchers and recorded in books, articles, and other publications. 

In her "Handbook of Research Methods , "  Natalie L. Sproull points out that secondary sources "are not necessarily worse than primary sources and can be quite valuable. A secondary source may include more information about more aspects of the event than did a primary source ."

Most often though, secondary sources act as a way to keep up with or discuss progress in a field of study, wherein a writer may use another's observations on a topic to summarize his or her own viewpoints on the matter to progress the discourse further.

The Difference Between Primary and Secondary Data

In the hierarchy of the relevance of the evidence to an argument, primary sources like original documents and first-hand accounts of events provide the strongest support to any given claim. By contrast, secondary sources provide a type of back-up to their primary counterparts.

To help explain this difference, Ruth Finnegan distinguishes primary sources as forming the "basic and original material for providing the researcher's raw evidence" in her 2006 article "Using Documents." Secondary sources, while still highly useful, are written by someone else after an event or about a document and can therefore only serve the purpose of furthering an argument if the source has credibility in the field.

Some, therefore, argue that secondary data is neither better nor worse than primary sources—it's simply different. Scot Ober discusses this concept in "Fundamentals of Contemporary Business Communication," saying "the source of the data is not as important as its quality and its relevance for your particular purpose."

Advantages and Disadvantages of Secondary Data

Secondary sources also provide advantages unique from primary sources, but Ober posits that the major ones are economic saying that "using secondary data is less costly and time-consuming than collecting primary data."

Still, secondary sources can also provide hindsight to historical events, providing the context and missing pieces of narratives by relating each event to others happening nearby at the same time. In terms of evaluations of documents and texts, secondary sources offer unique perspectives like historians have on the impact of bills such as the Magna Carta and the Bill of Rights in the U.S. Constitution.

However, Ober warns researchers that secondary sources also come with their fair share of disadvantages including quality and scarcity of sufficient secondary data, going so far as to say "never use any data before you have evaluated its appropriateness for the intended purpose."

A researcher must, therefore, vet the qualifications of the secondary source as it relates to the topic—for instance, a plumber writing an article about grammar may not be the most credible resource, whereas an English teacher would be more qualified to comment on the subject.

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Primary Sources

Texts of laws and other original documents.

Newspaper reports, by reporters who witnessed an event or who quote people who did.

Speeches, diaries, letters and interviews - what the people involved said or wrote.

Original research.

Datasets, survey data, such as census or economic statistics.

Photographs, video, or audio that capture an event.

Secondary Sources

Secondary Sources are one step removed from primary sources, though they often quote or otherwise use primary sources. They can cover the same topic, but add a layer of interpretation and analysis. Secondary sources can include:

Most books about a topic.

Analysis or interpretation of data.

Scholarly or other articles about a topic, especially by people not directly involved.

Documentaries (though they often include photos or video portions that can be considered primary sources).

When is a Primary Source a Secondary Source?

Whether something is a primary or secondary source often depends upon the topic and its use.

A biology textbook would be considered a secondary source if in the field of biology, since it describes and interprets the science but makes no original contribution to it.

On the other hand, if the topic is science education and the history of textbooks, textbooks could be used a primary sources to look at how they have changed over time.

Examples of Primary and Secondary Sources

Adapted from Bowling Green State University, Library User Education, Primary vs. Secondary Sources .

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Secondary Research Guide: Definition, Methods, Examples

Apr 3, 2024

8 min. read

The internet has vastly expanded our access to information, allowing us to learn almost anything about everything. But not all market research is created equal , and this secondary research guide explains why.

There are two key ways to do research. One is to test your own ideas, make your own observations, and collect your own data to derive conclusions. The other is to use secondary research — where someone else has done most of the heavy lifting for you. 

Here’s an overview of secondary research and the value it brings to data-driven businesses.

Secondary Research Definition: What Is Secondary Research?

Primary vs Secondary Market Research

What Are Secondary Research Methods?

Advantages of secondary research, disadvantages of secondary research, best practices for secondary research, how to conduct secondary research with meltwater.

Secondary research definition: The process of collecting information from existing sources and data that have already been analyzed by others.

Secondary research (aka desk research ) provides a foundation to help you understand a topic, with the goal of building on existing knowledge. They often cover the same information as primary sources, but they add a layer of analysis and explanation to them.

Users can choose from several secondary research types and sources, including:

• Journal articles
• Research papers

With secondary sources, users can draw insights, detect trends , and validate findings to jumpstart their research efforts.

Primary vs. Secondary Market Research

We’ve touched a little on primary research , but it’s essential to understand exactly how primary and secondary research are unique.

Think of primary research as the “thing” itself, and secondary research as the analysis of the “thing,” like these primary and secondary research examples:

• An expert gives an interview (primary research) and a marketer uses that interview to write an article (secondary research).
• A company conducts a consumer satisfaction survey (primary research) and a business analyst uses the survey data to write a market trend report (secondary research).
• A marketing team launches a new advertising campaign across various platforms (primary research) and a marketing research firm, like Meltwater for market research , compiles the campaign performance data to benchmark against industry standards (secondary research).

In other words, primary sources make original contributions to a topic or issue, while secondary sources analyze, synthesize, or interpret primary sources.

Both are necessary when optimizing a business, gaining a competitive edge , improving marketing, or understanding consumer trends that may impact your business.

Secondary research methods focus on analyzing existing data rather than collecting primary data . Common examples of secondary research methods include:

• Literature review . Researchers analyze and synthesize existing literature (e.g., white papers, research papers, articles) to find knowledge gaps and build on current findings.
• Content analysis . Researchers review media sources and published content to find meaningful patterns and trends.
• AI-powered secondary research . Platforms like Meltwater for market research analyze vast amounts of complex data and use AI technologies like natural language processing and machine learning to turn data into contextual insights.

Researchers today have access to more market research tools and technology than ever before, allowing them to streamline their efforts and improve their findings.

Want to see how Meltwater can complement your secondary market research efforts? Simply fill out the form at the bottom of this post, and we'll be in touch.

Conducting secondary research offers benefits in every job function and use case, from marketing to the C-suite. Here are a few advantages you can expect.

Cost and time efficiency

Using existing research saves you time and money compared to conducting primary research. Secondary data is readily available and easily accessible via libraries, free publications, or the Internet. This is particularly advantageous when you face time constraints or when a project requires a large amount of data and research.

Access to large datasets

Secondary data gives you access to larger data sets and sample sizes compared to what primary methods may produce. Larger sample sizes can improve the statistical power of the study and add more credibility to your findings.

Ability to analyze trends and patterns

Using larger sample sizes, researchers have more opportunities to find and analyze trends and patterns. The more data that supports a trend or pattern, the more trustworthy the trend becomes and the more useful for making decisions. 

Historical context

Using a combination of older and recent data allows researchers to gain historical context about patterns and trends. Learning what’s happened before can help decision-makers gain a better current understanding and improve how they approach a problem or project.

Basis for further research

Ideally, you’ll use secondary research to further other efforts . Secondary sources help to identify knowledge gaps, highlight areas for improvement, or conduct deeper investigations.

Tip: Learn how to use Meltwater as a research tool and how Meltwater uses AI.

Secondary research comes with a few drawbacks, though these aren’t necessarily deal breakers when deciding to use secondary sources.

Reliability concerns

Researchers don’t always know where the data comes from or how it’s collected, which can lead to reliability concerns. They don’t control the initial process, nor do they always know the original purpose for collecting the data, both of which can lead to skewed results.

Potential bias

The original data collectors may have a specific agenda when doing their primary research, which may lead to biased findings. Evaluating the credibility and integrity of secondary data sources can prove difficult.

Outdated information

Secondary sources may contain outdated information, especially when dealing with rapidly evolving trends or fields. Using outdated information can lead to inaccurate conclusions and widen knowledge gaps.

Limitations in customization

Relying on secondary data means being at the mercy of what’s already published. It doesn’t consider your specific use cases, which limits you as to how you can customize and use the data.

A lack of relevance

Secondary research rarely holds all the answers you need, at least from a single source. You typically need multiple secondary sources to piece together a narrative, and even then you might not find the specific information you need.

To make secondary market research your new best friend, you’ll need to think critically about its strengths and find ways to overcome its weaknesses. Let’s review some best practices to use secondary research to its fullest potential.

Identify credible sources for secondary research

To overcome the challenges of bias, accuracy, and reliability, choose secondary sources that have a demonstrated history of excellence . For example, an article published in a medical journal naturally has more credibility than a blog post on a little-known website.

Assess credibility based on peer reviews, author expertise, sampling techniques, publication reputation, and data collection methodologies. Cross-reference the data with other sources to gain a general consensus of truth.

The more credibility “factors” a source has, the more confidently you can rely on it. 

Evaluate the quality and relevance of secondary data

You can gauge the quality of the data by asking simple questions:

• How complete is the data? 
• How old is the data? 
• Is this data relevant to my needs?
• Does the data come from a known, trustworthy source?

It’s best to focus on data that aligns with your research objectives. Knowing the questions you want to answer and the outcomes you want to achieve ahead of time helps you focus only on data that offers meaningful insights.

Document your sources 

If you’re sharing secondary data with others, it’s essential to document your sources to gain others’ trust. They don’t have the benefit of being “in the trenches” with you during your research, and sharing your sources can add credibility to your findings and gain instant buy-in.

Secondary market research offers an efficient, cost-effective way to learn more about a topic or trend, providing a comprehensive understanding of the customer journey . Compared to primary research, users can gain broader insights, analyze trends and patterns, and gain a solid foundation for further exploration by using secondary sources.

Meltwater for market research speeds up the time to value in using secondary research with AI-powered insights, enhancing your understanding of the customer journey. Using natural language processing, machine learning, and trusted data science processes, Meltwater helps you find relevant data and automatically surfaces insights to help you understand its significance. Our solution identifies hidden connections between data points you might not know to look for and spells out what the data means, allowing you to make better decisions based on accurate conclusions. Learn more about Meltwater's power as a secondary research solution when you request a demo by filling out the form below:

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What is Secondary Research? Types, Methods, Examples

Appinio Research · 20.09.2023 · 13min read

Have you ever wondered how researchers gather valuable insights without conducting new experiments or surveys? That's where secondary research steps in—a powerful approach that allows us to explore existing data and information others collect.

Whether you're a student, a professional, or someone seeking to make informed decisions, understanding the art of secondary research opens doors to a wealth of knowledge.

What is Secondary Research?

Secondary Research refers to the process of gathering and analyzing existing data, information, and knowledge that has been previously collected and compiled by others. This approach allows researchers to leverage available sources, such as articles, reports, and databases, to gain insights, validate hypotheses, and make informed decisions without collecting new data.

Benefits of Secondary Research

Secondary research offers a range of advantages that can significantly enhance your research process and the quality of your findings.

• Time and Cost Efficiency: Secondary research saves time and resources by utilizing existing data sources, eliminating the need for data collection from scratch.
• Wide Range of Data: Secondary research provides access to vast information from various sources, allowing for comprehensive analysis.
• Historical Perspective: Examining past research helps identify trends, changes, and long-term patterns that might not be immediately apparent.
• Reduced Bias: As data is collected by others, there's often less inherent bias than in conducting primary research, where biases might affect data collection.
• Support for Primary Research: Secondary research can lay the foundation for primary research by providing context and insights into gaps in existing knowledge.
• Comparative Analysis : By integrating data from multiple sources, you can conduct robust comparative analyses for more accurate conclusions.
• Benchmarking and Validation: Secondary research aids in benchmarking performance against industry standards and validating hypotheses.

Primary Research vs. Secondary Research

When it comes to research methodologies, primary and secondary research each have their distinct characteristics and advantages. Here's a brief comparison to help you understand the differences.

Primary Research

• Data Source: Involves collecting new data directly from original sources.
• Data Collection: Researchers design and conduct surveys, interviews, experiments, or observations.
• Time and Resources: Typically requires more time, effort, and resources due to data collection.
• Fresh Insights: Provides firsthand, up-to-date information tailored to specific research questions.
• Control: Researchers control the data collection process and can shape methodologies.

Secondary Research

• Data Source: Involves utilizing existing data and information collected by others.
• Data Collection: Researchers search, select, and analyze data from published sources, reports, and databases.
• Time and Resources: Generally more time-efficient and cost-effective as data is already available.
• Existing Knowledge: Utilizes data that has been previously compiled, often providing broader context.
• Less Control: Researchers have limited control over how data was collected originally, if any.

Choosing between primary and secondary research depends on your research objectives, available resources, and the depth of insights you require.

Types of Secondary Research

Secondary research encompasses various types of existing data sources that can provide valuable insights for your research endeavors. Understanding these types can help you choose the most relevant sources for your objectives.

Here are the primary types of secondary research:

Internal Sources

Internal sources consist of data generated within your organization or entity. These sources provide valuable insights into your own operations and performance.

• Company Records and Data: Internal reports, documents, and databases that house information about sales, operations, and customer interactions.
• Sales Reports and Customer Data: Analysis of past sales trends, customer demographics, and purchasing behavior.
• Financial Statements and Annual Reports: Financial data, such as balance sheets and income statements, offer insights into the organization's financial health.

External Sources

External sources encompass data collected and published by entities outside your organization.

These sources offer a broader perspective on various subjects.

• Published Literature and Journals: Scholarly articles, research papers, and academic studies available in journals or online databases.
• Market Research Reports: Reports from market research firms that provide insights into industry trends, consumer behavior, and market forecasts.
• Government and NGO Databases: Data collected and maintained by government agencies and non-governmental organizations, offering demographic, economic, and social information.
• Online Media and News Articles: News outlets and online publications that cover current events, trends, and societal developments.

Each type of secondary research source holds its value and relevance, depending on the nature of your research objectives. Combining these sources lets you understand the subject matter and make informed decisions.

How to Conduct Secondary Research?

Effective secondary research involves a thoughtful and systematic approach that enables you to extract valuable insights from existing data sources. Here's a step-by-step guide on how to navigate the process:

1. Define Your Research Objectives

Before delving into secondary research, clearly define what you aim to achieve. Identify the specific questions you want to answer, the insights you're seeking, and the scope of your research.

2. Identify Relevant Sources

Begin by identifying the most appropriate sources for your research. Consider the nature of your research objectives and the data type you require. Seek out sources such as academic journals, market research reports, official government databases, and reputable news outlets.

3. Evaluate Source Credibility

Ensuring the credibility of your sources is crucial. Evaluate the reliability of each source by assessing factors such as the author's expertise, the publication's reputation, and the objectivity of the information provided. Choose sources that align with your research goals and are free from bias.

4. Extract and Analyze Information

Once you've gathered your sources, carefully extract the relevant information. Take thorough notes, capturing key data points, insights, and any supporting evidence. As you accumulate information, start identifying patterns, trends, and connections across different sources.

5. Synthesize Findings

As you analyze the data, synthesize your findings to draw meaningful conclusions. Compare and contrast information from various sources to identify common themes and discrepancies. This synthesis process allows you to construct a coherent narrative that addresses your research objectives.

6. Address Limitations and Gaps

Acknowledge the limitations and potential gaps in your secondary research. Recognize that secondary data might have inherent biases or be outdated. Where necessary, address these limitations by cross-referencing information or finding additional sources to fill in gaps.

7. Contextualize Your Findings

Contextualization is crucial in deriving actionable insights from your secondary research. Consider the broader context within which the data was collected. How does the information relate to current trends, societal changes, or industry shifts? This contextual understanding enhances the relevance and applicability of your findings.

8. Cite Your Sources

Maintain academic integrity by properly citing the sources you've used for your secondary research. Accurate citations not only give credit to the original authors but also provide a clear trail for readers to access the information themselves.

9. Integrate Secondary and Primary Research (If Applicable)

In some cases, combining secondary and primary research can yield more robust insights. If you've also conducted primary research, consider integrating your secondary findings with your primary data to provide a well-rounded perspective on your research topic.

You can use a market research platform like Appinio to conduct primary research with real-time insights in minutes!

10. Communicate Your Findings

Finally, communicate your findings effectively. Whether it's in an academic paper, a business report, or any other format, present your insights clearly and concisely. Provide context for your conclusions and use visual aids like charts and graphs to enhance understanding.

Remember that conducting secondary research is not just about gathering information—it's about critically analyzing, interpreting, and deriving valuable insights from existing data. By following these steps, you'll navigate the process successfully and contribute to the body of knowledge in your field.

Secondary Research Examples

To better understand how secondary research is applied in various contexts, let's explore a few real-world examples that showcase its versatility and value.

Market Analysis and Trend Forecasting

Imagine you're a marketing strategist tasked with launching a new product in the smartphone industry. By conducting secondary research, you can:

• Access Market Reports: Utilize market research reports to understand consumer preferences, competitive landscape, and growth projections.
• Analyze Trends: Examine past sales data and industry reports to identify trends in smartphone features, design, and user preferences.
• Benchmark Competitors: Compare market share, customer satisfaction, and pricing strategies of key competitors to develop a strategic advantage.
• Forecast Demand: Use historical sales data and market growth predictions to estimate demand for your new product.

Academic Research and Literature Reviews

Suppose you're a student researching climate change's effects on marine ecosystems. Secondary research aids your academic endeavors by:

• Reviewing Existing Studies: Analyze peer-reviewed articles and scientific papers to understand the current state of knowledge on the topic.
• Identifying Knowledge Gaps: Identify areas where further research is needed based on what existing studies still need to cover.
• Comparing Methodologies: Compare research methodologies used by different studies to assess the strengths and limitations of their approaches.
• Synthesizing Insights: Synthesize findings from various studies to form a comprehensive overview of the topic's implications on marine life.

Competitive Landscape Assessment for Business Strategy

Consider you're a business owner looking to expand your restaurant chain to a new location. Secondary research aids your strategic decision-making by:

• Analyzing Demographics: Utilize demographic data from government databases to understand the local population's age, income, and preferences.
• Studying Local Trends: Examine restaurant industry reports to identify the types of cuisines and dining experiences currently popular in the area.
• Understanding Consumer Behavior: Analyze online reviews and social media discussions to gauge customer sentiment towards existing restaurants in the vicinity.
• Assessing Economic Conditions: Access economic reports to evaluate the local economy's stability and potential purchasing power.

These examples illustrate the practical applications of secondary research across various fields to provide a foundation for informed decision-making, deeper understanding, and innovation.

Secondary Research Limitations

While secondary research offers many benefits, it's essential to be aware of its limitations to ensure the validity and reliability of your findings.

• Data Quality and Validity: The accuracy and reliability of secondary data can vary, affecting the credibility of your research.
• Limited Contextual Information: Secondary sources might lack detailed contextual information, making it important to interpret findings within the appropriate context.
• Data Suitability: Existing data might not align perfectly with your research objectives, leading to compromises or incomplete insights.
• Outdated Information: Some sources might provide obsolete information that doesn't accurately reflect current trends or situations.
• Potential Bias: While secondary data is often less biased, biases might still exist in the original data sources, influencing your findings.
• Incompatibility of Data: Combining data from different sources might pose challenges due to variations in definitions, methodologies, or units of measurement.
• Lack of Control: Unlike primary research, you have no control over how data was collected or its quality, potentially affecting your analysis. Understanding these limitations will help you navigate secondary research effectively and make informed decisions based on a well-rounded understanding of its strengths and weaknesses.

Secondary research is a valuable tool that businesses can use to their advantage. By tapping into existing data and insights, companies can save time, resources, and effort that would otherwise be spent on primary research. This approach equips decision-makers with a broader understanding of market trends, consumer behaviors, and competitive landscapes. Additionally, benchmarking against industry standards and validating hypotheses empowers businesses to make informed choices that lead to growth and success.

As you navigate the world of secondary research, remember that it's not just about data retrieval—it's about strategic utilization. With a clear grasp of how to access, analyze, and interpret existing information, businesses can stay ahead of the curve, adapt to changing landscapes, and make decisions that are grounded in reliable knowledge.

How to Conduct Secondary Research in Minutes?

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• Fast Insights: Say goodbye to lengthy research processes. With Appinio, you can transform questions into actionable insights in minutes.
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• Seamless Integration: Appinio handles the research and technical complexities, freeing you to focus on what truly matters: making rapid data-driven decisions that propel your business forward.

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05.04.2024 | 27min read

What is Field Research? Definition, Types, Methods, Examples

03.04.2024 | 29min read

What is Cluster Sampling? Definition, Methods, Examples

Organizing Academic Research Papers: Secondary Sources

• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Executive Summary
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tertiary Sources
• What Is Scholarly vs. Popular?
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Annotated Bibliography
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• How to Manage Group Projects
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Essays
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Acknowledgements

In general, secondary sources are accounts written after the fact with the benefit of hindsight. They are interpretations and evaluations of primary sources. Secondary sources are not evidence per se, but rather, commentary on and discussion of evidence.

Value of Secondary Sources

To do research, you must cite to research. Primary sources do not represent research per se, but only the artifacts from which most research is derived. Therefore, the majority of sources in a literature review are secondary sources that present research findings, analysis, and the evaluation of other researcher's works.

Reviewing secondary source material can be of value in improving your overall research paper because secondary sources facilitate the communication of what is known, the level of uncertainty in what is known, and what further information is needed from research. It is important to note, however, that secondary sources are not the subject of your analysis. Instead, they represent various opinions, interpretations, and arguments about the research problem you are investigating--opinions, interpretations, and arguments with which you may either agree or disagree with as part of your own analysis of the literature.

Examples of secondary sources you could review as part of your overall study include:     * Bibliographies (also considered tertiary);     * Biographical works;     * Books, other than fiction and autobiography;     * Commentaries, criticisms;     * Dictionaries, Encyclopedias (also considered tertiary);     * Histories;     * Journal articles (depending on the disciple can be primary);     * Magazine and newspaper articles (this distinction varies by discipline);     * Textbooks (also considered tertiary);     * Web site (also considered primary).

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• Library Research Tutorial
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• Scholarly vs. Popular Sources

Primary vs. Secondary Sources

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Primary vs. Secondary sources

This is the difference between a source written BY someone versus one written ABOUT something that someone else wrote.

• Primary Sources  are created  by someone first hand
• Secondary Sources  are written about something that someone else created

Primary Sources

A  primary source is an artifact, document, diary, manuscript, autobiography, recording, or any other source of information that was created at the time under study. It serves as an original source of information about the topic. 

One way to think of a primary source is it's the creator's original ideas, thoughts, or observations. They can be:

• Raw, unedited, unpublished - such as, a diary, personal letters, or data set
• Published - such as, an article in an academic/scholarly journal or book

For most research articles, you'll find all of these elements as headings and subheadings:

• Method  -  explains how the research was designed and carried out; identifies the population studied; explains how the data was collected 
• Results  - gives an analysis of the data
• Discussion  – includes limitations of the research (what went right and what went wrong)
• Conclusion  - explains how the research was either conclusive or inconclusive and what might be the next step
• References  –gives credit to the other scholars in the "conversation" and is a potential gold mine of more articles on this topic for your reader

As you progress in your studies, you'll be using primary sources more and more for research papers in your upper-level classes. The definition shifts a bit between the disciplines and can include such things as:

Social Sciences and Health Sciences 

• Pilot/prospective studies
• Cohort studies
• Survey research
• Case studies
• Lab notebooks, field reports
• Clinical trials 
• Dissertations and conference papers
• a novel or play
• a painting, photograph, or sculpture
• diaries, letters
• newspaper articles (from the period being researched)
• video and sound recordings

Secondary Sources

They are someone's interpretation or analysis of another person's original work. Secondary sources will support, refute or review the original idea, so can help you prove the point you set out to make in your research paper.  

They're an important part of the "scholarly conversation" in that they're responding to someone else's ideas and ensuing research.

You'll find them in academic books and articles.

Tertiary Sources

Tertiary sources consist of primary and secondary source information which has been  collected  and  distilled . They present summaries of or an introduction to the current state of research on a topic.

Some common examples of sources that can be tertiary are:

• dictionaries
• encyclopedias

These sources are great places to begin your research as they provide introductory or background information on a topic, such as definitions and explanations of important terms and concepts. However, these sources aren't providing any new thoughts or interpretation to the scholarly conversation on the topic.

Wikipedia is an example of a tertiary source.

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• Next: Lesson 3: Evaluate Sources for Credibility >>
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Understanding Scientific Literature

Primary sources, secondary sources, tertiary sources.

• Identifying a Research Article
• Scholarly vs. Popular Literature

What are primary sources?

In the sciences primary sources are original research or data. Primary sources can include any of the following publications 

• Journal Articles -- Journal articles can be primary sources if they contain original research, but keep in mind that not all journal articles are primary sources.
• Reports -- Reports are publications on research that are published independently of a journal. They are often published by governments or companies.
• Theses and Dissertations -- Theses and Dissertations are the original research of an academic working on a degree. 
• Conference Proceedings -- Conference Proceedings are a collection of papers that have been presented at a conference. 
• Published Data -- Data can be considered a primary source, as it is the product of original research.

Why use primary sources?

  Primary sources are a researchers firsthand account of their research. They provide an in depth view into how the research was conducted, and may contain supplemental materials like questionnaires used. A summary of a study or experiment in a book or review paper may not discuss all the findings, and you can gain more insight into a particular topic or issue by looking at the primary sources. 

How to find primary sources:

Resources for finding primary sources include: 

• Databases and Indexes -- The exact database or index you choose to search will depend on the discipline you are searching in. 
• Review Papers -- Review papers are often synthesized from other researchers to give an in-depth understanding of the current state of knowledge on a topic. If you have found a review paper when you are looking for a research paper don't fear! If the review paper is on the write topic it will cite plenty of research papers on your topic of interest. 

What are secondary sources?

In the sciences secondary sources analyze, interpret, summarize, or evaluate the findings of primary sources. Secondary sources can include any of the following publications: 

• Journal review articles -- A review article summarizes past research on a given topic. Review articles can range from highly intensive systematic or integrative reviews or less rigorous literature reviews.
• Textbooks -- The information in textbooks in the sciences is the product of past research.  
• Monographs -- A monograph is a book-length scholarly publication dedicated to a single topic. 

Secondary sources can save you time by providing information on the current state of knowledge on a given topic, and also as a way to find primary resources. If you are interested to know what are important, seminal papers in on a topic look at what papers are cited in a textbook on that topic. Review papers can give you in-depth information on a particular research area. Secondary resources are also often less technical than primary resources. 

How to find secondary sources:

Resources for finding secondary sources 

• Databases and Indexes -- Databases and indexes are particularly useful for finding review articles.  
• The Library Catalog or Ram Search -- The library catalog or Ram Search will help you locate books on the topic you are interested in. 

What are tertiary sources?

In the sciences tertiary resources are synthesized from primary and secondary resources. They usually provide summaries on the current state of knowledge. Tertiary sources can include the following publications: 

• Encyclopedias
• Dictionaries 
• Factbooks 
• Almanacs 

Why use tertiary sources?

Tertiary sources can be viewed as a jumping off point for your own research. They provide succinct  summaries on topics, and can be a good way to familiarize yourself with the terminology on a topic before you begin searching the databases.

How to find tertiary sources:

Resources for finding tertiary sources include: 

• The Library Catalog or Ram Search -- Keep in mind a majority of our encyclopedias are in the reference room. 
• LibGuides and the Library Website -- We have a number of digital encyclopedias. Check the LibGuide for your field to see what digital encyclopedias we might offer!
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APA Citation Style, 7th edition: Secondary Sources

• General Style Guidelines
• One Author or Editor
• Two Authors or Editors
• Three to Five Authors or Editors
• Article or Chapter in an Edited Book
• Article in a Reference Book
• Edition other than the First
• Translation
• Government Publication
• Journal Article with 1 Author
• Journal Article with 2 Authors
• Journal Article with 3–20 Authors
• Journal Article 21 or more Authors
• Magazine Article
• Newspaper Article
• Basic Web Page
• Web page from a University site
• Web Page with No Author
• Entry in a Reference Work
• Government Document
• Film and Television
• Youtube Video
• Audio Podcast
• Electronic Image
• Twitter/Instagram
• Lecture/PPT
• Conferences

Secondary Sources

• Citation Support
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Formatting Your Paper

Sometimes an author writes about research that someone else has done, but you are unable to track down the original research report.

In this case, because you did not read the original report, you will include only the source you did consult in your References.

The words “as cited in” in the parenthetical reference indicate you have not read the original research.

         In-Text Citation (Paraphrase):  

Subject Guide

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How To Do Secondary Research or a Literature Review

• Secondary Research
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What is Secondary Research?

Secondary research, also known as a literature review , preliminary research , historical research , background research , desk research , or library research , is research that analyzes or describes prior research. Rather than generating and analyzing new data, secondary research analyzes existing research results to establish the boundaries of knowledge on a topic, to identify trends or new practices, to test mathematical models or train machine learning systems, or to verify facts and figures. Secondary research is also used to justify the need for primary research as well as to justify and support other activities. For example, secondary research may be used to support a proposal to modernize a manufacturing plant, to justify the use of newly a developed treatment for cancer, to strengthen a business proposal, or to validate points made in a speech.

Why Is Secondary Research Important?

Because secondary research is used for so many purposes in so many settings, all professionals will be required to perform it at some point in their careers. For managers and entrepreneurs, regardless of the industry or profession, secondary research is a regular part of worklife, although parts of the research, such as finding the supporting documents, are often delegated to juniors in the organization. For all these reasons, it is essential to learn how to conduct secondary research, even if you are unlikely to ever conduct primary research.

Secondary research is also essential if your main goal is primary research. Research funding is obtained only by using secondary research to show the need for the primary research you want to conduct. In fact, primary research depends on secondary research to prove that it is indeed new and original research and not just a rehash or replication of somebody else’s work.

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Academic Writing

• Getting Started
• Introductions
• Thesis Statements
• Organization
• Conclusions

Using Secondary Sources

• Global vs. Local Revision
• Suggestions for Revision
• Why is Grammar Important?
• Suggestions for Further Reading
• Academic Success Center This link opens in a new window
• Citing Sources This link opens in a new window

Associate Professor-Librarian

• What are Primary and Secondary Sources?
• Using Summary
• Make Your Sources Speak

What Are Primary and Secondary Sources?

A primary source is a source that you are analyzing as the writer. In other words, there is no mediary between you and the text; you are the one doing the analysis.

Some examples of primary sources:

A secondary source , then, is a source that has also done analysis of the same (or a similar) topic. You will then use this source to discuss how it relates to your argument about the primary source. A secondary source is a mediary between you and the primary source. Secondary sources can also help your credibility as a writer; when you use them in your writing, it shows that you have done research on the topic, and can enter into the conversation on the topic with other writers.

Some examples of secondary sources:

Summary: When and How Do I Use It?

  One of the important distinctions to make when coming to terms with a text is knowing when to summarize it, when to paraphrase it, and when to quote it. Here’s what Joseph Harris, author of the textbook Rewriting: How to Do Things with Texts ,  has to say:

  “Summarize when what you have to say about a text is routine and quote when it is more contentious” (21).

In other words, quote when you need to rely on the voice of the writer, when you need the language of the text to help you make a point. Otherwise, try to use paraphrase or summary, so that your ideas are still the main focus.

 Summarizing a text can distract your reader from your argument, especially if you rely on lengthy summaries to capture a source in a nutshell. However, it can also prove an effective rhetorical tool: you just need to know when to use it.

You can use summary in the following ways:  

         - When the source offers important background about your ideas

       - When you need to provide your readers with an overview of a source’s entire argument before analyzing certain ideas from it

       - When the source either supports your thesis, or when it offers a position you want to argue against or analyze more in-depth

Here is a sample summary. What do you notice about it?

Ryuko Kubota argues in “Ideologies of English in Japan” that the debate over English’s place in the Japanese language disappeared with the militaristic rule of the 1930s and 1940s, when Japan rejected and/or suppressed the learning of English and other languages in favor of heavy nationalism. However, he adds that the debate returned during America’s occupation of Japan and has periodically been a topic for debate since.  Japanese politicians have always seen English as an important tool for Japan’s success as an industrial nation on a global scale. However, instead of molding itself to the English of the Western world, Japan has integrated English to fit its ideologies, to serve its own needs; indeed, to become part of the Japanese language.

1. This is a succinct summary; the entire summary is only three sentences.

2. The final sentence of the paragraph is the writer's attempt to make a connection between the article and her own ideas for her paper. This is an important step in using summary; it's important to always show the reader how/why the summary is important/relevant.

Paraphrasing: When/How/Why Should I Do It?

Paraphrasing gives you the room to condense a text’s ideas into your own words.  You can use this, for example, to rewrite a definition, to emphasize important points, or to clarify ideas that might be hard for the reader to understand if you quote the original text.

When you paraphrase, remember that you still need to cite the source in-text!

Depending on your field and the style guide your field follows, you may be required to paraphrase more than quote or summarize. Make sure you are familiar with the writing conventions for your field. APA, for example, draws much more on paraphrase than MLA.

Example of a Paraphrase

Let’s look at an example of a paraphrase.  Note that here the author of this paraphrase has used the author’s name first as an attributive tag – she is letting the reader know who wrote this.  She then goes on to put the writer’s ideas into her own words, but acknowledges directly where the ideas came from by using the in-text citation at the end of the second sentence.

    - This is a paraphrase for MLA; in APA, the year would come after Honna's name in parentheses.

In source-based or synthesis writing, we try to not only express our ideas using our own voice, but to also express our ideas through the voices of those we are citing. In their book Wriiting Analytically , Rosenwasser and Stephen offer six strategies to use in researched writing to make our sources speak, to make them come alive.

Here are some typical problems we encounter when using primary and secondary sources:

     - Leaving quotations and paraphrases to speak for themselves

     - Not differentiating your own voice from the voices of your sources (ventriloquizing)

     - Resorting to overly agreeing and disagreeing as your only means of responding to a source (other than summary)

Primary and secondary sources are nothing to fear. Many times we either leave sources to speak for themselves or ignore them altogether because we are afraid of losing our own voices. These strategies, listed below, are designed to help us know when and how to use quotes, and how not to become lost in the process.

Strategy 1: Make Your Sources Speak

v Quote, paraphrase, or summarize in order to analyze , as opposed to in place of analyzing.  Don’t assume that the meaning of your source material is self-evident.  Instead, explain to your readers what the quote, paraphrase, or summary means.  For example, what aspects do you find interesting or strange?  And relate these aspects to your overall thesis.   Your focus here in analysis should be on how the source leads you to your conclusion – beware of generalizing or putting two quotes next to each other without explaining the connection.

Using Strategy #1 : How are you using your sources?  Are you taking the time to develop points from your sources, or are you just using evidence – and is it clear why you are using it?  Highlight/bracket analysis, mark in a different color where analysis is not present immediately following source.  

Strategy 2: Use Your Sources to Ask Questions, Not Just to Provide Answers

v Use your selections from your sources as a means to raise issues and questions; avoid the temptation to use selections that provide answers without any commentary or further elaboration.  If you feel stuck with this, consider the source alongside other contexts (other sources, for example) and compare and contrast them to see if there are aspects of your topic that your source does not adequately address.

Using Strategy #2: Again, ask: how are you using your sources as question generators?  What how/why questions do your sources generate?  Look over the evidence you’ve used, and jot down the how/why questions you think your evidence creates.  Next, go through your paper.  Do you see yourself addressing these questions?  Mark your analysis appropriately so you can see how you’re addressing these questions (or not).  

Strategy 3: Put Your Sources in Conversation with One Another

v This is an extension of strategy 2.  Rather than limiting yourself to the only conversationalist with each source, aim for conversation among them.  Although it is not wrong to agree or disagree with your sources, it is wrong to see these as your only possible moves.  You should also understand that although it is sometimes useful and perhaps even necessary to agree or disagree, these judgments should 1) always be qualified and 2) occur only in certain contexts .  Instead of looking just at how you agree or disagree, try to imagine what these critics might say to one another.  Looking at sources in this way may prove useful as you explore your topics further in depth.

Using Strategy #3:

    This is a way for your sources to address one another directly, while also giving you more room to expand on your ideas through a slightly different form of analysis.  For example: what might the person you interviewed think about the secondary sources you found?  Would they agree with the claims you see your sources making, or would they disagree?  Why – what about their interview suggests this?  Make a list of possible dialogues your sources could have with one another.  

Strategy 4: Find Your Own Role in the Conversation

v Even though it’s important to not be the only person in the essay agreeing and disagreeing with the texts, it is important that you establish what you think and feel about each source.  After all, something compelled you to choose it, right?  In general, you have two options when you are in agreement with a source.  You can apply it in another context to qualify or expand its implications, or you can seek out other perspectives in order to break the hold it has on you.  In the first option, to do this, instead of focusing on the most important point, choose a lesser yet equally interesting point and work on developing that idea to see if it holds relevance to your topic.  The second option can also hold new perspectives if you allow yourself to be open to the possibilities of other perspectives that may or may not agree with your original source.

Using Strategy #4: While it’s important that you create a distinct voice for all the different kinds of sources you’ve used (interview, fieldwork, scholarly journals/books, etc.), it’s perhaps even more important that you have a clear role in this conversation that is your research essay.  Look over your paper: is it clear what you think?  Is it clear what is your voice, and what are the ideas/opinions of your sources? (Hint: your voice should still be clear in the midst of your sources, if you are taking the time to analyze them and develop your analysis as fully as possible.)  Highlight places where you voice – what you think – is clear.  Highlight in a different color places where your voice is unclear, or needs to be expressed more fully.

Strategy 5: Supply Ongoing Analysis of Sources (Don’t Wait Until the End)

v Instead of summarizing everything first and then leaving your analysis until the end, analyze as you quote or paraphrase a source .  This will help yield good conversation, by integrating your analysis of your sources into your presentation of them.

Using Strateg y #5:

Are your sources presented throughout the paper with careful analysis attending to each one?  Or are you presenting all your sources first, and analyzing them later?  Look through your paper, and mark places where you see yourself not analyzing your sources as you go.  Also: are there places where you see too much analysis, and not enough evidence?  Be sure to mark those places as well.  

Strategy 6: Attend Carefully to the Language of Your Sources by Quoting or Paraphrasing Them

v Rather than generalizing broadly about the ideas in your sources, you should spell out what you think is significant about their key words.  Quote sources if the actual language they use is important to your point; this practice will help you to present the view of your source fairly and accurately.  Your analysis will also benefit from the way the source represents its position (which may or may not be your position) with carefully chosen words and phrases.  Take advantage of this, and use the exact language to discuss the relevance (or not) of the quote to the issue you’re using it for.

Using Strategy #6: When paraphrasing or quoting a source, it’s important that you use the language of the source to help explain it – it keeps the reader in the moment with you, and helps him/her understand the key terms of that source – why you chose, why these words are so important, etc.  Look over your evidence, both quoted and paraphrased: are you using the language of the quote to help explain it?  Or is your analysis removed from the “moment of the source” (i.e. the language which the source uses to illustrate its point)?  Mark places where you think it’s important to use the language of the source to help analyze and develop the evidence more completely.  

• Strategies for Using Quotes
• Floating Quotations
• How to Integrate Quotations

Attributed Quotations

Integrated Quotations

Strategies for Using Quotations In-Text

Acknowledge sources in your text, not just in citations:  

      “According to Lewis” or “Whitney argues.”

Use a set-up phrase, and splice the most important part of quotations in with your own words:

     According to Paul McCartney, “All you need is love.”

  Or phrase it with a set-up:

     Patrick Henry’s famous phrase is one of the first American schoolchildren memorize:

     “Give me liberty, or give me death.”

Anytime you use a quote, cite your source after the quotation:  

     Maxine Greene might attribute this resistance to “vaguely perceived expectations; they

     allow themselves to be programmed by organizations and official schedules or forms” (43).

Use ellipses to shorten quotations:

      “The album ‘OK Computer’ …pictured the onslaught of the information age and a young

        person’s panicky embrace of it” (Ross 85) .

Use square brackets to alter or add information within a quotation:  

      Popular music has always “[challenged] the mores of the older generation,” according to

      Nick Hornby.

Acc ording to Janet Gardner in her book Writing About Literature , there are three ways that we tend to use quotes:

Gardner advocates that we stay away from “floating quotations,” use at least an “attributed quotation,” and use “integrated quotations” as much as possible.

You will recognize a floating quotation when it looks as though the writer has simply lifted the passage from the original text, put quotations around it, and (maybe) identified the source.

Doing this can create confusion for the reader, who is left to guess the context and the reason for the quote.

This type of quoting reads awkward and choppy because there is no transition between your words and the language of the text you are quoting.

Example of a Floating Quotation; text taken from All She was Worth , by Miyuki Miyabe    

  Both Honma and Kyoko were rejected and looked down upon by Jun and Chizuko’s family when entering into marriage with their respective partners. “About her cousin – Jun’s father – and his family: what snobs they were, with fixed ideas on education and jobs” ( Miyabe 17).This passage shows that Honma and Kyoko were both being judged by their future in-laws by superficial stipulations.

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Types of Research Papers: Overview

A research paper is simply a piece of writing that uses outside sources. There are different types of research papers with varying purposes and expectations for sourcing.

While this guide explains those differences broadly, ask your professor about specific disciplinary conventions.

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CPS Online Library Research Guide (UNH Manchester Library): Primary & Secondary Sources

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Primary Sources

A primary source is information in such as a speech, a diary, a novel, a legislative bill, a laboratory study, photograph, a field research report, or an eyewitness account. While not necessarily more reliable than a secondary source, a primary source has the advantage of being closely related to the information it conveys and as such is often considered essential for research. In the natural and social sciences, the results of an experiment or study are typically found in scholarly articles or papers delivered at conferences, so those articles and papers that present the original results are considered primary sources.

Examples of Primary Sources

Diaries, journals, speeches, interviews, letters, memos, manuscripts and other papers in which individuals describe events in which they were participants or observers;

Memoirs and autobiographies;

Records of organizations and agencies of government;

Published materials written at the time of the event;

Photographs, audio recordings, moving pictures, video recordings documenting what happened;

Artifacts of all kinds; and

Research reports in the sciences and social sciences

Useful Chart on Primary Sources

Secondary Sources

Secondary Sources: are works that interpret or analyze an historical event or phenomenon. Examples of secondary sources include textbooks and encyclopedias. The website provides tips for locating primary source material and offers an excellent bibliography.   (UCLA Institute on Primary Sources)

Secondary Sources include materials that are written or collected on a particular topic. An example of a secondary source would be a journal article written about the Middle east events of 2011. In general secondary sources have the value of time and perspective in assessing an event. Secondary sources usually have citations to other works used in the writing of the resource.

One type of secondary source is a periodical. This is where the issue of peer review and popular publications come into play. Following is information that should help you think about the resources you are using and if they are appropriate for your research project.

Useful Chart on Secondary Sources

Tertiary Sources

Tertiary sources ( may also be called Reference Sources ) consist of information which is a distillation and collection of primary and secondary sources.

• Bibliographies (also considered secondary);
• Chronologies;
• Dictionaries and Encyclopedias (also considered secondary);
• Directories;
• Fact books;
• Guidebooks;
• Indexes, abstracts, bibliographies used to locate primary and secondary sources;
• Textbooks (also be secondary).

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History research seminar: best practices for students.

• Choosing Topics
• "Unconventional" Primary Sources
• The Role of Secondary Sources
• Should I use a Block Quote?

Secondary Sources

As upper-level history students, you will have learned about, searched for, and used secondary sources in previous research assignments. Building on your previous experience, finding secondary sources for History Research Seminars papers on independent/original topics will feel a little bit different.

Why is this? This is because secondary sources here should be centered within the discipline of History and this will requires that you use unfamiliar Library Databases and some advanced search and filter settings. This is also because your research question and arguments will be narrower than in previous papers, for example Women Artists situated with Irish History, and this may make it difficult to notice useful books or journal articles by their titles or abstracts alone. Finally, your professors may recommend scholarly authors to read, and and this may require some additional skills in finding and accessing these specific sources. 

More about the types of secondary sources we're talking about:

Scholarly books are written by a specialist and intended for other specialists in the field. They provide In-depth research on large topics, which can include analysis of an issue's context and consequences, comparison of multiple views, or broad interdisciplinary approaches to a topic as well as historical information. You can identify these by their publishers, usually a university press (like our own UC Press) or a dedicated academic publishing company. However, even mainstream popular presses occasionally publish academic works. Look for these signs of "scholarliness:"*

Before you start searching databases: Explore your syllabus for recommended books. Your professor, once they know the topic you're workign on, may recommend authors or books to start with. This is something to work on right away: Finding these right away and quicky aquinat yourself with the book looking for background information; primary sources they uses; their questions and arguments. You can do this by skimming.

Likewise, you can also get a background by reading a relevant and short encyclopedia entry. Wikipedia is okay, but its entries often do not reference the most recent scholarship and its bibliography frequently leaves out key sources. you will be better served by an encyclopedia from an Academic Press, which will be written by a scholar familiar with all the most important works for you to know. This is a quick way to read an overview of the topic and quickly shift to getting started on your research.

From there, you can expand your search for books by using UC Library Search . Sign in for full access. Some books will be in the Library, and you'll need to pick these up off the shelf. Some books will be availabel as eBooks (if you have problems, use the Ask Us button to report problems). Some books might need to be "Requested through InterLibrary Loan." Use the opens on the left of the page to see books at other UCs, like Berkeley or Los Angeles.

Articles in Peer Reviewed Journals are shorter in length because they often exclude background information and explanations. These provide narrowly focused analysis, detailed findings from individual studies, and the latest information on a topic. Because of this, they can prove useful, after you've narrowed down your topic and need to find very specific information.*

Journal articles are interesting because they're more closely aligned with the research you're doing in this course. The main exception is that the authors have, to an extent, mastered the core texts in their field study (as part of their PhD work and beyond), and their interaction with primary sources are deeper (they may travel to archives and they may have extended time with the primary sources under study).

Their narrowness and uniqueness sometimes makes them harder to engage with for use in research papers. The ways they are useful is that they can inform use of methods they used to read or evaluate primary sources; they can shed light on the topic through their interpretations and arguments; or you can read these and think about what's missing in their work that you'd like to show in your work or analysis. Therefore, a journal article need not be exactly on your topic, for example they could an approach to reading primary sources that you want to mirror or they could make an argument that you agree with or disagree with and so on. This is more than just mining for quotes to make your paragraph sound better. Read and reflect on their research and where your work sits in comparison.  

For finding, you may already have go tos. What are these for you? For some it's often just Google (in which case, have you heard of Google Scholar ) or JSTOR . Some other database search engines to use include Web of Science (which includes a very neat "cited by" tool); the new UC Library Search allow you to narrow to peer reviewed articles (but this is a good last resort tool); America History and Life or Historical Abstracts or Periodicals Archive Online are also quite useful. Depending on the area of study of your course, there may be other databases out there, for example HAPI (Hispanic American Periodicals Index) . 

*Borrows from  Articles, Books, and . . . ? Understanding the Many Types of Information Found in Libraries

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Secondary Sources: Basic Resources

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America: History and Life  (1955- ) includes books, book chapters, journal art icles, and book reviews for North American history.

Historical Abstracts  (1954- ) includes books, book chapters, journal articles (but not book reviews) for non-North American history, 1450-date.

Oxford Bibliographies Online  are literature guides in several humanities and social sciences areas.  Oxford Bibliographies by subject

When you have an old reference, use it to find more recent works with the Web of Science Citation Indexes .

If you find an online bibliography (Search in Google, say, "Civil War" Medicine Bibliography), run interesting books or articles through the  Web of Science  [Covers: science, 1900- ; social science, 1900- ; arts/humanities, 1975- .]  Cited Reference Search .  This search gives you more recent articles (or books, 2005- ) citing a particular book or article, and which may be available via HOLLIS.

Open Cited Reference Search.  Put your author in the first box (initials only): Harris E.  Specify the work with its date, not its title (Titles are abbreviated variously).  Select the pertinent records, which are largely unordered, in the results screen.  Searching a common name will yield numerous irrelevant results.  Finish search. A guide is available:  Searching the Citation Indexes (Web of Science) .

Several online collections of secondary sources are full text searchable.  Records for articles in them are in HOLLIS, but if you have a specific topic, say a person’s name or organization, these databases may give you online books or articles containing them.

ACLS Humanities E-Book Project  includes over 2200 largely history titles. Largely 1950-1999, some earlier, later.  Browsable and searchable by LC Subject Heading.

Arts & Humanities Full Text  offers about 500 journals and magazines

Cambridge University Press . To search within specific subjects, start from "Browse subjects" (an option in the top nav bar). If you hit a paywall, search for the title in HOLLIS; it's likely that Harvard has licensed the item via a different platform.

JSTOR  offers full-text of the full runs of scholarly journals from a range of disciplines. Harvard's subscription does not include the JSTOR books. There is often a "moving wall" excluding recent issues.  Advanced search is best

Latin American History Collection eBooks  offers full text of monographs on Latin American history, mostly published in Spain

CAIRN (2001- ) is a searchable collection of French-language ejournals for the humanities and social sciences.

Periodicals Archive Online  contains several hundred English and Western European language journals from their inceptions to 1995 or 2005.  Limit to historical journals by adjusting Journal Subject(s) menu to History (General) or History  (various regional categories), although this will exclude historical articles in non-history journals

Project Muse  offers full-text of scholarly journals and books. Primarily humanities and social sciences.

UPSO: University Press Scholarship Online

Torrossa: Casalini offers full text of books and journals in humanities and social sciences from Italian, Spanish, French, Portuguese publishers.

Digitalia Française  is a collection of French language ebooks.

Digitalia Catalan ,  Digitalia Hispanica  and  Digitalia Portuguesa  are e-book collections.

L'Harmatheque  offers ebooks, articles, videos, and audio recordings in the humanities and social sciences from a variety of French publishing imprints.  Contains over 26,000 ebooks, 17,000 articles, 400 films, and 600 audio files. At least 2,300 new titles are added to the collection annually.

Zentrales Verzeichnis Digitalisierter Drucke  (ZVDD) is the German national portal for digitized scholarly imprints. Searches easily limited by century of publication.

Leo S. Olschki eBooks Collection: Post 2000 (2000-2010) includes over 1,000 monographs and conference proceedings published by Leo S.Olschki covering humanities and social sciences. Strongest in Italian literature, history, and philosophy.

Bibliographies

Dissertations

Main General Sources

Other General Sources and Special Topics

Early Modern

• By Country/Region

Look for specialized subject bibliographies which may include secondary sources in the  HOLLIS Catalog : Search, e.g., < "science and state" [Keyword search] AND bibliography [Subject Keyword search] > on Advanced Search screen or in  WorldCat .

Finding Dissertations and Theses

Periodical Indexes

America: History and Life  (1955- ) includes books, book chapters, journal art icles, and book reviews.

Historical Abstracts (1954- ) includes books, book chapters, journal articles (but not book reviews) for non-North American history, 1450-date.

Web of Science Citation Indexes allow citation searching, that is, starting with an article of interest and finding more recent articles that have cited it. Covers: science, 1900- ; social science, 1900- ; arts/humanities, 1975- . More information .

JSTOR offers full-text of complete runs (up to about 5 years ago) of over 1900 journals. Allows simultaneous or individual searching, full-text searching optional, of many historical journals. Included journals are listed under discipline on the Advanced Search page. Harvard does not have access to the JSTOR full text books.

Periodicals Index Online  (PIO) indexes over 5500 English and Western European language journals from their inceptions to 1995. Includes 218 journals in American history and 840 journals in world history . Also numerous journals in related subjects. Limit to historical journals by adjusting Journal Subject(s) menu to History (General) or History (The Americas), although this will exclude historical articles in non-history journal s. Includes book reviews. PIO searches full text Periodicals Archive Online  (PAO)which contains a, roughly 700 journal subset  of the journals in PIO.  PAO extends to 2000, and to 2005 for recently added journals.

Bibliographie internationale de la demographie historique (1978- ) offers references with brief annotations arranged by subject classification, with author, chronological, and geographical indexes. LOCATION: Widener: WID-LC HB871.B52x

C.R.I.S.: the combined retrospective index set to journals in history (1838 -1974) indexes historical articles in over 900 journals. World history in vols. 1-4; United States history in vols. 5-9; author index in vols. 10-11. LOCATION: Widener: WID-LC D20.Z99 C65 1977x Library has: 11 v.

Current bibliography of urban history (1974- ) is published in Urban history (1992- ) and previously in Urban history yearbook (1974-91) . LOCATION: Loeb Design: Per LOCATION: Widener: WID-LC HT101.U675 Current Issues: Periodicals Reading Room Stacks LOCATION: Loeb Design: NAC 210g85 Ur 1 1974-79 (Urban history yearbook ) LOCATION: Widener: Soc 574.143.30 (Urban history yearbook )

Historische Bibliographie (1986- ) covers the Ancient world through twentieth century. Largely European: small section for Asia, Africa, and the Americas. Includes monographs, journal articles, and articles in collective works. LOCATION: Widener: WID-LC D20.Z99 H575x LOCATION: Widener: XVTS 38 CD-ROM, 1990-96

International bibliography of historical sciences (1926- ) is a classified, selected bibliography of historical works, including book reviews, on history, broadly defined. Volume (15) for 1940-1946 has not appeared. LOCATION: Widener: RR 3601.22 Latest 5 years WID-LC D20.Z99 I58x Earlier

JSTOR allows simultaneous or individual searching, full-text searching optional, of several historical journals from their inceptions to about 5 years ago. JSTOR provides a list of included History journals.

Mariner's mirror bibliography (1983- ) lists books and articles on maritime history. LOCATION: Widener: WID-LC VK145.Z99 M37x

International Medieval Bibliography .

Feminae: Medieval Women and Gender Index .

Iter Bibliography covers Medieval and Renaissance studies literature, including journal articles (some since 1794), essays, books, and dissertations.

Bibliographie annuelle du moyen-âge tardif , 1991- .

Medioevo latino , 1980- . Medioevo latino (CD-ROM version).

Index of Medieval manuscripts allows location of references to specific medieval manuscripts in secondary works.

Archiv fur Reformationsgeschichte. Beiheft, Literaturbericht (1972- ) includes general as well as religious history. LOCATION: Andover-Harv. Theol: Ref. Z7830.A7 LOCATION: Widener: C 7525.14.5 LOCATION: Widener: C 7525.14.6

Bibliografia italiana di studi sull'umanesimo ed il Rinascimento (1989- ). Bibliographies for 1985-88 were published in the journal, Rinascimento , 2nd ser. vols. 26-29. LOCATION: Widener: WID-LC DG533.Z99 B53x LOCATION: Widener: Ital 370.77 ( Rinascimento )

Bibliographie internationale de l'Humanisme et de la Renaissance (1965- ) is an annual bibliography of books and articles on all aspects of the 15th and 16th centuries. There is about a 4 year delay in publication. Print version: LOCATION: Andover-Harv. Theol: Ref. D228.B52 LOCATION: Fine Arts: RFA 246.8 LOCATION: Widener: H 680.7 .

Iter: Gateway to the Middle Ages and Renaissance. The Journals Bibliography contains over 100,000 records for periodical articles in over 200 journals dating 1700 to the present. Includes book reviews.

Literature of the Renaissance (1953-1968) emphasizes literature but with general and historical material as well. Subject classification with index of proper names. LOCATION: Widener: Lit 305.50 (1953-1968 incomplete)

Continues Recent literature of the Renaissance. In: Studies in Philology (April issue), 1939-53. LOCATION: Lamont: Periodicals LOCATION: Widener: Philol 344.5

Eighteenth century , 1975- . LOCATION: Widener: RR 3603.8 Latest WID-LC CB411.E333x Earlier

Continues: Eighteenth century: A current bibliography. In: Philological quarterly , 1926-1974. LOCATION: Lamont: Periodicals LOCATION: Widener: Philol 346.6 LOCATION: Widener: Philol 346.6.2 Cumulated in: English literature, 1660-1800; a bibliography of modern studies. LOCATION: Child Memorial: ChM 1003.12.5 Library has: v.1-4 LOCATION: Lamont: REF.ROOM PR83.Z99 E53x 1950 Library has: 6 v. LOCATION: Widener: WID-LC PR437.Z99 E53x Library has: 6 v. LOCATION: Widener: 10441.474 Library has: v.1-2; 1926-50

Bibliographie zur Zeitgeschichte (1953-2009) covers twentieth century world history, but focus is strongly on Germany and the World Wars in Europe. LOCATION: History Dept: Ordered--currently received LOCATION: Law School: ILS D 410.V5 Suppl. 1954- LOCATION: Widener: HP1.4 v.1-30 HP144.2 v.31-36 LOCATION: WID-LC D421.Z99B53x v.37-

Cumulated in: Bibliographie zur Zeitgeschichte , 1953-1980. LOCATION: Widener: WID-LC D421.Z99 B52 x, 1982 Library has: 5 v. v. 4 Supplement, -1989 v. 5 Supplement, -1995

Scandinavia

• UK/Commonwealth

Latin America

Middle East

United States

Africa-Wide: NiPAD (NISC) (19th century- ) includes 40 African studies databases

For more sources see Finding Periodical Articles and Book Reviews on Africa

Bibliography of Asian Studies (1971- ) indexes humanities and social sciences literature on East, Southeast, and South Asia. Monographs published since 1992 are not included.

More indexes in: East Asian Studies Research Guide: 4. Journal Literature Finding Periodical Articles and Book Reviews on South and Southeast Asia

See also the reference guides listed under Conducting Research on the Harvard Yenching website .

European National Historical Bibliographies

Bibliographie annuelle de l'histoire de France du cinqième siècle à ... (1953- ) is a classified index to French historical writings. LOCATION: Widener: RR 3731.46 Latest 10 years WID-LC DC38.Z99B53x Earlier

Coverage has changed: Volumes for 1953-1963 cover "cinqième siècle à 1939". Volumes for 1964-1974 cover "cinqième siècle à 1945". Volumes for 1975-current cover "cinqième siècle à 1958". For earlier articles see: Repertoire bibliographique de l'histoire de France . LOCATION: Widener: RR 3731.45 Library has: 1-6, 1920-1931 Repertoire methodique de l'histoire moderne et contemporaine de la France . LOCATION: Widener: RR 3731.43 Library has: 1898-1912 Bibliographie des travaux publies de 1866 a 1897 sur l'histoire de la France de 1500 à 1789 , by E. Saulnier. LOCATION: Widener: RR 3731.42 Library has: v. 1-2 in 1 Bibliographie des travaux publies de 1866 a 1897 sur l'histoire de la France depuis 1789 , by P. Caron. LOCATION: Microforms (Lamont): Harvard Depository Film W 16971 LOCATION: Widener: Harvard Depository XP 6 LOCATION: Widener: RR 3731.42.5

Bibliographie en langue francaise d'histoire du droit (1957- ) is a bibliography of books and periodical articles on French social history from 987 to 1875. LOCATION: Law School: FRA 020 LEP 1960-94 LOCATION: Widener: Fr 55.102 .

Bibliographie générale des travaux historiques et archéologiques: publiés par les sociétés savantes de la France . Paris: Imprimerie nationale, 1885-1918. 6 v. Google Books (v 2 & 4 only) Full text in Hathi Trust   (6 v.) Location : Widener WID-LC DC17.Z99 L37 1888x --Contents : t. 1. Ain-Gironde -- t. 2. Hérault-Haute-Savoie -- t. 3. Seine: Paris -- t. 4. Seine: Paris. Seine-et-Marne-Yonne. Colonies. Instituts francais à l’étranger -- t. 5. Supplement. Ain-Savoie (Haute-) -- t. 6. Supplement. Seine: Paris. Seine-et-Marne-Yonne. Colonies. Instituts français à l’étranger. Index des volumes analysés dans les tomes I à VI. Vols. 1-4 cover the literature published to the year 1885; v. 5-6, 1886-1900.

Continued by: Bibliographie générale des travaux historiques et archéologiques publiés par les sociétés savantes de la France: période 1910-1940 , by René Gandilhon and Charles Samaran. Paris: Impr. nationale, 1944-1961. 5 v. Google Books v. 2 only Full text in Hathi Trust   (5 v.) Widener | Harvard Depository HOLLIS Record

Bibliographie zur Zeitgeschichte (1953- ) covers twentieth century world history, but focus is strongly on Germany and the World Wars in Europe. LOCATION: History Dept: Ordered--currently received LOCATION: Law School: ILS D 410.V5 Suppl. 1954- LOCATION: Widener: HP1.4 v.1-30 HP144.2 v.31-36 WID-LC D421.Z99B53x v.37-

Cumulated in: Bibliographie zur Zeitgeschichte , 1953-1980. LOCATION: Widener: WID-LC D421.Z99 B52 x, 1982 Library has: 3 v. Available online from 1996 to present . Adjust the menu of one field to Bibliogr. z. Zeitgesch. About the Bibliographie zur Zeitgeschichte .  Note some of the links in this article do not work

Jahresberichte für deutsche geschichte (1925-40, 1949- ) is a list of new publications on German history. Covers Antiquity through World War II. The online version of Jahresberichte für deutsche Geschichte  includes from 1974 forward. Issues from 1925-1938 are also available online . LOCATION: Widener: Ger 55.64.15

Continues: Jahresberichte der Geschichtswissenschaft , 1878-1913. LOCATION: Microforms (Lamont): Film SC 416 Microfilm. 1.-36. Jahrg. (1878-1913) LOCATION: Widener: H 8.78.3 About the Jahresberichte für deutsche geschichte .

Writings on Irish history (1984- ) lists citations by author under major chronological periods. LOCATION: Widener: WID-LC DA910.Z99.W75x (1984- ) LOCATION: Widener: WID-LC DA910.Z99 C85 1986x (1984: with addenda from 1973-84) LOCATION: Microforms (Lamont): Microfiche S 407 (1979-82)

Bibliografia storica nazionale , 1939- HOLLIS Record Print 1939-1999, Online 2000-2008.

Bibliografia anual de historia de Portugal: da prehistoria a 1974 . LOCATION: Widener: WID-LC DP538.Z99 B53x (1989-91)

Svensk historisk bibliografi (1977- ; strongest 1994- ) indexes monographs and collections, articles in periodicals and collections, and book reviews. An English version is available.

ABSEES (American Bibliography of Slavic and East European Studies) (Late 1980s-)

European Bibliography of Slavic and East European Studies (EBSEES), 1991-2007.

Continues: European bibliography of Soviet, East European and Slavonic studies . Paris: Editions de l'Ecole des hautes études en sciences sociales, Institut d'études slaves. Fung Library | Davis Center for Russian and Eurasian Studies | DJK 9.Z99 E97 x Widener | WID-LC | DJK 9.Z99 E97x

Bibliografía española de revistas científicas de ciencias sociales y humanidades (1995- ) is a CD-ROM LOCATION: Widener: Harvard Depository

Continues: Indice espanol de humanidades. Serie B, Ciencias historicas , 1989-1997. LOCATION: Widener: WID-LC D20.Z99 I53x Which continues: Indice espanol de humanidades , 1976-88. LOCATION: Widener: WID-LC AS1.I5

Indice historico espanol , 1953- . LOCATION: History Dept: Hist 44.200 LOCATION: Widener: RR3761.6 Latest 5 years WID-LC DP66.Z99 I53x Earlier Online version

For earlier articles see:

Fuentes de la historia espanola e hispanoamericana: ensayo de bibliografia sistematica de impresos y manuscritos que ilustran la historia politica de Espana y sus antiguas provincias de ultramar , by B. Sanchez Alonso. 1952. LOCATION: History Dept: Hist 1300.507 Library has: 3 v. LOCATION: Widener: RR 3761. 4 Library has: 3 v. in 2

UK and Commonwealth

Bibliography of British and Irish History is a comprehensive bibliography of books and periodical articles on British and British colonial history. Most historical society publications were excluded. Includes Writings on British history (1901-1974; Widener: WID-LC DA30.Z99 W75x) but excludes its book reviews (1901-1947). More information from Institute of Historical Research and Royal Historical Society .

Index to journal articles on Australian history for 1979 [-1988]. LOCATION: Widener: WID-LC DU110.Z99 C75 x 1981, etc. LOCATION: Widener: Harvard Depository DU110.Z99 C74 x, 1981 (for 1974-78) LOCATION: Widener: Harvard Depository DU110.Z99 H63x (through 1973)

Victorian Database Online (1945- ) emphasizes literature but also covers other aspects of Victorian culture and society in Britain and in the colonies where publications concern political/administrative subjects or relationships with Great Britain. Covers approx. 1830-1914. Includes books, articles, and book reviews.

In printed form: Cumulative bibliography of Victorian studies , 1985-99 LOCATION: Widener: RR 3703.19.25.1 Which continues: A Comprehensive bibliography of Victorian studies , 1970-84. LOCATION: Widener: RR 3703.19.25.05 Library has: 3 v.

Victorian bibliography (1932- ) is a selective, classified bibliography, with author and subject index, on all aspects of the Victorian period. Published in the journal Victorian studies , 1958- . LOCATION: Widener: Br 22.5 Current Issues: Periodicals Reading Room

Cumulated in: Bibliographies of studies in Victorian literature , 1932-1984: LOCATION: Child Memorial: ChM 1047.1 [1945-54] LOCATION: Lamont: PR731.Z99 T4x [1932-44] LOCATION: Widener: 10441.350 [1932-44] LOCATION: Widener: RR 3115.26 [1932-84]

Handbook of Latin American studies (1936- ) is a comprehensive annotated bibliography. Not every subject occurs in each volume. Since 1963, social science and humanities are issued in alternate years. A topical article is included in each volume. Also available in print: LOCATION: Gutman Education: Z1605.I123 1963-1971 LOCATION: Lamont: REF.ROOM F1408.Z99 H23x Latest fifteen years only LOCATION: Tozzer: REF F 1401.Z99 H3 1936- . LOCATION: Widener: RR3653.4 Latest ten years only LOCATION: Widener: WID-LC F1408.Z99 H36x Earlier

HAPI, Hispanic American periodicals index (1970- ) indexes most Latin American periodicals in full, and articles on Latin America and U. S. Hispanics from periodicals worldwide. Includes book reviews. Also available in print: LOCATION: Tozzer: REF F 1408.H3 LOCATION: Widener: RR 663.219 & 663.221.

For more sources see Finding Periodical Articles and Book Reviews on Latin America

Index Islamicus (1906- ) indexes publications in European languages on all aspects of Islam and the Muslim world. It covers journals, series, conference proceedings, monographs, multi-authored works, and book reviews.

For earlier and supplementary material: Index Islamicus, 1665-1905: a bibliography of articles on Islamic subjects in periodicals and other collective publications , by W. H. Behn. LOCATION: Andover-Harv. Theol: Ref. DS44.I36 LOCATION: Fine Arts: Reading Room RFA31.60 LOCATION: Gibb Islamic: DS35.6.Z99 I518 x, 1989 LOCATION: Law School: Islamic Reference DS 44.Z99 I525x 1989 LOCATION: Widener: RR 4881.10.9

Index Islamicus supplement 1665-1980. Bio-bibliographical supplement to Index Islamicus , by W. H. Behn, 1665-1980; 2 pts. LOCATION: Fine Arts: Reading Room RFA31.60.7 LOCATION: Gibb Islamic: DS35.6.Z99 B45 1995x LOCATION: Law School: Islamic Reference DS 44.Z99 I5252x 1995 LOCATION: Widener: RR 4881.10.5

America: History and Life (1955- ) includes books, book chapters, journal articles, and book reviews.

Bibliography of American historical societies (the United States and the dominion of Canada) gives contents of their proceedings and other publications with a subject index. HathiTrust Version HOLLIS Record

Classified bibliography of the periodical literature of the trans-Mississippi West (1811-1957). Classified by subject with author index. No subject index. LOCATION: Widener: Soc 501.461 vol.19 LOCATION: Widener: Soc 501.461 vol.26 A supplement (1957-67), 1970

Cumulated magazine subject index (1907-1949) indexes periodicals not included in other indexes. Good for history, especially local history, outdoor subjects, library science (1918-49), and fine arts. Arranged by subject, except for literary works by major authors, which are listed by author. Minor literary works are omitted. LOCATION: Widener: RR 663. 3.5 F Library has: 2 v.

Periodical source index (1986- ) indexes genealogical periodicals. LOCATION: Widener: WID-LC CS1.P47 (1986-1997)

Retrospective edition: Periodical source index, 1847-1985 covers the United States (fiche 1-20), non-U.S. (fiche 21-23), and families (fiche 24-40). Location :  Microforms (Lamont) Microfiche W 5296 Location :  Widener WID-LC CS9.Z99 P47 1988x (vol. 17 only)

Writings on American history (1902-1990) is a classified bibliography of books (through 1973 only) and articles (book reviews included through 1940). Author, title, and subject indexes. None issued for 1904-1905 and 1941-1947. There is a cumulative index for 1902-1940. Canada was included through 1935. The years 1962-1973 are cumulated in 4 v. Note the lists of periodicals cited for coverage. Contains many items not in America, History and Life, especially those appearing in local publications. HOLLIS Record HathiTrust Version (Full text 1902-1990)

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ENG 201: Northrop Spring 2024

Source types.

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• Primary Sources in History by Greg Murphy Last Updated Feb 16, 2024 61 views this year
• Zines, Pamphlets, Artists' Publications, and Chapbooks: The World of Self-Publishing & Small Press by Susan Thomas Last Updated Mar 26, 2024 1085 views this year

Source Types & Their Uses

When doing most kinds of research, you will use a variety of source types for different purposes. For example, a professor asks you to find and evaluate a Scholarly Source  for a research paper on the pros and cons of harm reduction programs in the treatment of addiction in the United States. In this case, it's likely  you'll be looking for a research study   that presents  primary data  and subsequent results and conclusions. 

What does this mean? How is a scholarly source different from other types of sources, like a newspaper or magazine article?

Sources can be split into several major categories, including: 

• Information Content (primary v. secondary)
• Publication/Creator (e.g. scholarly sources, popular sources, trades, etc.)

Depending on the research, its creator(s), and the audience it's intended for, certain sources may work better than others. To determine the appropriateness of a source to your research, it's important to understand the differences between each type and their uses in research. 

It is essential to understand which source type will best support the purpose , evidence , and needs of your research , particulary if it's academic in nature. It is also important to keep your audience  in mind. Writing a paper for a class taught by an English professor with a PhD will likely require different source types than gathering raw data sets for a Market Research Report given in a Business Seminar. 

• Types of Sources by Information
• Types of Sources by Publication
• Machine Readable Types of Sources Infographic

There are three different classes of information types: primary, secondary , and tertiary , though some consider secondary and tertiary sources to be grouped together.

• Primary sources include original, unanalyzed information.
• Secondary sources include analyses or use of that original information.
• Tertiary sources are collections of secondary source information. 

Primary, secondary, and tertiary sources and information are used in most kinds of academic, scientific, and business research, but examples vary within certain disciplines. For example, a primary source in the context of history research could be the text of a letter written by President John Adams to his wife, Abigail Adams, in 1799, while a primary source in the medical field would be the results of a clinical trial on the effects of harm reduction treatment on adults aged 18-24.

For examples of each type by discipline, please refer to the table below. 

(Credit to the UC Merced Library, Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Sources LibGuide.)

(Credit to the  Suffolk County Community College Library)

Sources may also be grouped in specific Publication Types, such as scholarly sources , popular sources , trade publications , and more! 

Scholarly sources are those created BY and FOR scholars in a particular academic discipline and/or field. You may find these kinds of sources in an academic journal or from a book published by a University Press. These sources also go through a rigorous, multi-step peer-review process where fellow scholars within the same discipline read, evalaute, and provide constructive critique of paticular research to make sure its methods, evidence, and conclusions are well-developed and worthy of publication. This level of peer-review encoruages healthy scholarly debate. 

By contrast, popular sources  are created for a general audience by journalists, professional writers, and others. These sources are created and written to appeal to a wide swath of people, either to inform or entertain.   For example, magazine and newspaper articles are considered popular sources. These types of sources are NOT necessarily peer-reviewed, and rarely include the level of citations and credibility exhibited schoalrly sources. However, they can still be useful for a variety of research needs.  

Finally, trade publications   are similar to scholarly sources in that they are created by and for a specific community or field, but they do NOT go through such a rigorous peer-review and publishing process. Examples of these sources would be The Hollywood Reporter, The Financial Times, and/or  Library Journal . 

For more information, please refer to the following table detailing the differences between each source publication type: 

( Credit to University of North Carolina at Greensboro Libraries)

Access the next tab in this box to open a Machine Readable PDF version of the Comparing Scholarly versus Popular Sources Infographic.

• Comparing Scholarly & Popular Sources Infographic
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SCHC 328 (Brown): Public Monuments

• Developing Search Strategies
• Top Databases

How Do I...?

• Citing in Chicago Style

Ask a Librarian Online

Finding scholarly secondary sources.

Developing Search Strategies Learn to create more effective search strategies and improve your research skills.

Top Databases Search in these databases for scholarly articles, book chapters, book reviews, and dissertations on your topic.

• America: History and Life This link opens in a new window Emphasis is on history journals related to the history of the U.S. and Canada
• Historical Abstracts This link opens in a new window Includes journals focused on world history and history topics outside the U.S and Canada. Can be searched together with America: History & Life for topics with overlapping geographies.
• Art Full Text This link opens in a new window Publications focused on art and architecture, including scholarly journals, museum bulletins, and select magazines. Can be searched together with either or both of the history databases listed above.
• Dissertations and Theses Global This link opens in a new window Search for PhD dissertations by topic or specific title from institutions across North America.
• JSTOR This link opens in a new window Great source for book chapters and journal articles (though does not include most recent 2-6 years in most cases.)
• Project Muse This link opens in a new window Another source for online books and book chapters as well as articles from scholarly journals.
• L'Année Philologique This link opens in a new window Best source for secondary articles if your topic is related to Ancient Greek or Roman civilizations.
• Google Scholar This link opens in a new window Connect directly to USC subscription content: *Click on the three horizontal bars in the corner, Select Settings and click on Library links *Search and select UofSC University Libraries - ViewIt@UofSC *Click Save Never purchase an article! Check the library's resources or make a free ILL request.
• Find Full Text of an Article
• Use PASCAL Delivers
• Request Materials through Interlibrary Loan (ILL)
• Find a Dissertation
• Access Resources from Off Campus
• Next: Citing in Chicago Style >>
• Last Updated: Apr 9, 2024 6:09 PM
• URL: https://guides.library.sc.edu/schc-328-monuments

AI Index Report

The AI Index Report tracks, collates, distills, and visualizes data related to artificial intelligence. Our mission is to provide unbiased, rigorously vetted, broadly sourced data in order for policymakers, researchers, executives, journalists, and the general public to develop a more thorough and nuanced understanding of the complex field of AI. The report aims to be the world’s most credible and authoritative source for data and insights about AI.

Read the 2023 AI Index Report

Coming Soon: 2024 AI Index Report!

The 2024 AI Index Report will be out April 15! Sign up for our mailing list to receive it in your inbox.

Steering Committee Co-Directors

Ray Perrault

Steering committee members.

Erik Brynjolfsson

John Etchemendy

Katrina Ligett

Terah Lyons

James Manyika

Juan Carlos Niebles

Vanessa Parli

Yoav Shoham

Russell Wald

Staff members.

Loredana Fattorini

Nestor Maslej

Letter from the co-directors.

AI has moved into its era of deployment; throughout 2022 and the beginning of 2023, new large-scale AI models have been released every month. These models, such as ChatGPT, Stable Diffusion, Whisper, and DALL-E 2, are capable of an increasingly broad range of tasks, from text manipulation and analysis, to image generation, to unprecedentedly good speech recognition. These systems demonstrate capabilities in question answering, and the generation of text, image, and code unimagined a decade ago, and they outperform the state of the art on many benchmarks, old and new. However, they are prone to hallucination, routinely biased, and can be tricked into serving nefarious aims, highlighting the complicated ethical challenges associated with their deployment.

Although 2022 was the first year in a decade where private AI investment decreased, AI is still a topic of great interest to policymakers, industry leaders, researchers, and the public. Policymakers are talking about AI more than ever before. Industry leaders that have integrated AI into their businesses are seeing tangible cost and revenue benefits. The number of AI publications and collaborations continues to increase. And the public is forming sharper opinions about AI and which elements they like or dislike.

AI will continue to improve and, as such, become a greater part of all our lives. Given the increased presence of this technology and its potential for massive disruption, we should all begin thinking more critically about how exactly we want AI to be developed and deployed. We should also ask questions about who is deploying it—as our analysis shows, AI is increasingly defined by the actions of a small set of private sector actors, rather than a broader range of societal actors. This year’s AI Index paints a picture of where we are so far with AI, in order to highlight what might await us in the future.

- Jack Clark and Ray Perrault

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Prestigious cancer research institute has retracted 7 studies amid controversy over errors

Seven studies from researchers at the prestigious Dana-Farber Cancer Institute have been retracted over the last two months after a scientist blogger alleged that images used in them had been manipulated or duplicated.

The retractions are the latest development in a monthslong controversy around research at the Boston-based institute, which is a teaching affiliate of Harvard Medical School. 

The issue came to light after Sholto David, a microbiologist and volunteer science sleuth based in Wales, published a scathing post on his blog in January, alleging errors and manipulations of images across dozens of papers produced primarily by Dana-Farber researchers . The institute acknowledged errors and subsequently announced that it had requested six studies to be retracted and asked for corrections in 31 more papers. Dana-Farber also said, however, that a review process for errors had been underway before David’s post. 

Now, at least one more study has been retracted than Dana-Farber initially indicated, and David said he has discovered an additional 30 studies from authors affiliated with the institute that he believes contain errors or image manipulations and therefore deserve scrutiny.

The episode has imperiled the reputation of a major cancer research institute and raised questions about one high-profile researcher there, Kenneth Anderson, who is a senior author on six of the seven retracted studies. 

Anderson is a professor of medicine at Harvard Medical School and the director of the Jerome Lipper Multiple Myeloma Center at Dana-Farber. He did not respond to multiple emails or voicemails requesting comment. 

The retractions and new allegations add to a larger, ongoing debate in science about how to protect scientific integrity and reduce the incentives that could lead to misconduct or unintentional mistakes in research. 

The Dana-Farber Cancer Institute has moved relatively swiftly to seek retractions and corrections. 

“Dana-Farber is deeply committed to a culture of accountability and integrity, and as an academic research and clinical care organization we also prioritize transparency,” Dr. Barrett Rollins, the institute’s integrity research officer, said in a statement. “However, we are bound by federal regulations that apply to all academic medical centers funded by the National Institutes of Health among other federal agencies. Therefore, we cannot share details of internal review processes and will not comment on personnel issues.”

The retracted studies were originally published in two journals: One in the Journal of Immunology and six in Cancer Research. Six of the seven focused on multiple myeloma, a form of cancer that develops in plasma cells. Retraction notices indicate that Anderson agreed to the retractions of the papers he authored.

Elisabeth Bik, a microbiologist and longtime image sleuth, reviewed several of the papers’ retraction statements and scientific images for NBC News and said the errors were serious. 

“The ones I’m looking at all have duplicated elements in the photos, where the photo itself has been manipulated,” she said, adding that these elements were “signs of misconduct.” 

Dr.  John Chute, who directs the division of hematology and cellular therapy at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center and has contributed to studies about multiple myeloma, said the papers were produced by pioneers in the field, including Anderson. 

“These are people I admire and respect,” he said. “Those were all high-impact papers, meaning they’re highly read and highly cited. By definition, they have had a broad impact on the field.” 

Chute said he did not know the authors personally but had followed their work for a long time.

“Those investigators are some of the leading people in the field of myeloma research and they have paved the way in terms of understanding our biology of the disease,” he said. “The papers they publish lead to all kinds of additional work in that direction. People follow those leads and industry pays attention to that stuff and drug development follows.”

The retractions offer additional evidence for what some science sleuths have been saying for years: The more you look for errors or image manipulation, the more you might find, even at the top levels of science. 

Scientific images in papers are typically used to present evidence of an experiment’s results. Commonly, they show cells or mice; other types of images show key findings like western blots — a laboratory method that identifies proteins — or bands of separated DNA molecules in gels. 

Science sleuths sometimes examine these images for irregular patterns that could indicate errors, duplications or manipulations. Some artificial intelligence companies are training computers to spot these kinds of problems, as well. 

Duplicated images could be a sign of sloppy lab work or data practices. Manipulated images — in which a researcher has modified an image heavily with photo editing tools — could indicate that images have been exaggerated, enhanced or altered in an unethical way that could change how other scientists interpret a study’s findings or scientific meaning. 

Top scientists at big research institutions often run sprawling laboratories with lots of junior scientists. Critics of science research and publishing systems allege that a lack of opportunities for young scientists, limited oversight and pressure to publish splashy papers that can advance careers could incentivize misconduct. 

These critics, along with many science sleuths, allege that errors or sloppiness are too common , that research organizations and authors often ignore concerns when they’re identified, and that the path from complaint to correction is sluggish. 

“When you look at the amount of retractions and poor peer review in research today, the question is, what has happened to the quality standards we used to think existed in research?” said Nick Steneck, an emeritus professor at the University of Michigan and an expert on science integrity.

David told NBC News that he had shared some, but not all, of his concerns about additional image issues with Dana-Farber. He added that he had not identified any problems in four of the seven studies that have been retracted. 

“It’s good they’ve picked up stuff that wasn’t in the list,” he said. 

NBC News requested an updated tally of retractions and corrections, but Ellen Berlin, a spokeswoman for Dana-Farber, declined to provide a new list. She said that the numbers could shift and that the institute did not have control over the form, format or timing of corrections. 

“Any tally we give you today might be different tomorrow and will likely be different a week from now or a month from now,” Berlin said. “The point of sharing numbers with the public weeks ago was to make clear to the public that Dana-Farber had taken swift and decisive action with regard to the articles for which a Dana-Farber faculty member was primary author.” 

She added that Dana-Farber was encouraging journals to correct the scientific record as promptly as possible. 

Bik said it was unusual to see a highly regarded U.S. institution have multiple papers retracted. 

“I don’t think I’ve seen many of those,” she said. “In this case, there was a lot of public attention to it and it seems like they’re responding very quickly. It’s unusual, but how it should be.”

Evan Bush is a science reporter for NBC News. He can be reached at [email protected].

Using pulp and paper waste to scrub carbon from emissions

Researchers at McGill University have come up with an innovative approach to improve the energy efficiency of carbon conversion, using waste material from pulp and paper production.

The technique they've pioneered using the Canadian Light Source at the University of Saskatchewan not only reduces the energy required to convert carbon into useful products, but also reduces overall waste in the environment.

"We are one of the first groups to combine biomass recycling or utilization with CO 2 capture," said Ali Seifitokaldani, Assistant Professor in the Department of Chemical Engineering and Canada Research Chair (Tier II) in Electrocatalysis for Renewable Energy Production and Conversion. The research team, from McGill's Electrocatalysis Lab, published their findings in the journal RSC Sustainability .

Capturing carbon emissions is one of the most exciting emerging tools to fight climate change. The biggest challenge is figuring out what to do with the carbon once the emissions have been removed, especially since capturing CO 2 can be expensive. The next hurdle is that transforming CO 2 into useful products takes energy. Researchers want to make the conversion process as efficient and profitable as possible.

• Energy and Resources
• Energy Technology
• Energy and the Environment
• Environmental Science
• Renewable Energy
• Global Warming
• Hazardous waste
• Photosynthesis
• Climate change mitigation
• Radioactive waste
• Carbon cycle
• Carbon dioxide

Story Source:

Materials provided by McGill University . Note: Content may be edited for style and length.

Journal Reference :

• Roger Lin, Haoyan Yang, Hanyu Zheng, Mahdi Salehi, Amirhossein Farzi, Poojan Patel, Xiao Wang, Jiaxun Guo, Kefang Liu, Zhengyuan Gao, Xiaojia Li, Ali Seifitokaldani. Efficient integration of carbon dioxide reduction and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural oxidation at high current density . RSC Sustainability , 2024; 2 (2): 445 DOI: 10.1039/D3SU00379E

Cite This Page :

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