research paper terms and definitions

Confusion to Clarity: Definition of Terms in a Research Paper

Explore the definition of terms in research paper to enhance your understanding of crucial scientific terminology and grow your knowledge.

Have you ever come across a research paper and found yourself scratching your head over complex synonyms and unfamiliar terms? It’s a hassle as you have to fetch a dictionary and then ruffle through it to find the meaning of the terms.

To avoid that, an exclusive section called ‘ Definition of Terms in a Research Paper ’ is introduced which contains the definitions of terms used in the paper. Let us learn more about it in this article.

What Is The “Definition Of Terms” In A Research Paper?

The definition of terms section in a research paper provides a clear and concise explanation of key concepts, variables, and terminology used throughout the study. 

In the definition of terms section, researchers typically provide precise definitions for specific technical terms, acronyms, jargon, and any other domain-specific vocabulary used in their work. This section enhances the overall quality and rigor of the research by establishing a solid foundation for communication and understanding.

Purpose Of Definition Of Terms In A Research Paper

This section aims to ensure that readers have a common understanding of the terminology employed in the research, eliminating confusion and promoting clarity. The definitions provided serve as a reference point for readers, enabling them to comprehend the context and scope of the study. It serves several important purposes:

• Enhancing clarity
• Establishing a shared language
• Providing a reference point
• Setting the scope and context
• Ensuring consistency

Benefits Of Having A Definition Of Terms In A Research Paper

Having a definition of terms section in a research paper offers several benefits that contribute to the overall quality and effectiveness of the study. These benefits include:

Clarity And Comprehension

Clear definitions enable readers to understand the specific meanings of key terms, concepts, and variables used in the research. This promotes clarity and enhances comprehension, ensuring that readers can follow the study’s arguments, methods, and findings more easily.

Consistency And Precision

Definitions provide a consistent framework for the use of terminology throughout the research paper. By clearly defining terms, researchers establish a standard vocabulary, reducing ambiguity and potential misunderstandings. This precision enhances the accuracy and reliability of the study’s findings.

Common Understanding

The definition of terms section helps establish a shared understanding among readers, including those from different disciplines or with varying levels of familiarity with the subject matter. It ensures that readers approach the research with a common knowledge base, facilitating effective communication and interpretation of the results.

Avoiding Misinterpretation

Without clear definitions, readers may interpret terms and concepts differently, leading to misinterpretation of the research findings. By providing explicit definitions, researchers minimize the risk of misunderstandings and ensure that readers grasp the intended meaning of the terminology used in the study.

Accessibility For Diverse Audiences

Research papers are often read by a wide range of individuals, including researchers, students, policymakers, and professionals. Having a definition of terms in a research paper helps the diverse audience understand the concepts better and make appropriate decisions. 

Types Of Definitions

There are several types of definitions that researchers can employ in a research paper, depending on the context and nature of the study. Here are some common types of definitions:

Lexical Definitions

Lexical definitions provide the dictionary or commonly accepted meaning of a term. They offer a concise and widely recognized explanation of a word or concept. Lexical definitions are useful for establishing a baseline understanding of a term, especially when dealing with everyday language or non-technical terms.

Operational Definitions

Operational definitions define a term or concept about how it is measured or observed in the study. These definitions specify the procedures, instruments, or criteria used to operationalize an abstract or theoretical concept. Operational definitions help ensure clarity and consistency in data collection and measurement.

Conceptual Definitions

Conceptual definitions provide an abstract or theoretical understanding of a term or concept within a specific research context. They often involve a more detailed and nuanced explanation, exploring the underlying principles, theories, or models that inform the concept. Conceptual definitions are useful for establishing a theoretical framework and promoting deeper understanding.

Descriptive Definitions

Descriptive definitions describe a term or concept by providing characteristics, features, or attributes associated with it. These definitions focus on outlining the essential qualities or elements that define the term. Descriptive definitions help readers grasp the nature and scope of a concept by painting a detailed picture.

Theoretical Definitions

Theoretical definitions explain a term or concept based on established theories or conceptual frameworks. They situate the concept within a broader theoretical context, connecting it to relevant literature and existing knowledge. Theoretical definitions help researchers establish the theoretical underpinnings of their study and provide a foundation for further analysis.

Also read: Understanding What is Theoretical Framework

Types Of Terms

In research papers, various types of terms can be identified based on their nature and usage. Here are some common types of terms:

A key term is a term that holds significant importance or plays a crucial role within the context of a research paper. It is a term that encapsulates a core concept, idea, or variable that is central to the study. Key terms are often essential for understanding the research objectives, methodology, findings, and conclusions.

Technical Term

Technical terms refer to specialized vocabulary or terminology used within a specific field of study. These terms are often precise and have specific meanings within their respective disciplines. Examples include “allele,” “hypothesis testing,” or “algorithm.”

Legal Terms

Legal terms are specific vocabulary used within the legal field to describe concepts, principles, and regulations. These terms have particular meanings within the legal context. Examples include “defendant,” “plaintiff,” “due process,” or “jurisdiction.”

Definitional Term

A definitional term refers to a word or phrase that requires an explicit definition to ensure clarity and understanding within a particular context. These terms may be technical, abstract, or have multiple interpretations.

Career Privacy Term

Career privacy term refers to a concept or idea related to the privacy of individuals in the context of their professional or occupational activities. It encompasses the protection of personal information, and confidential data, and the right to control the disclosure of sensitive career-related details. 

A broad term is a term that encompasses a wide range of related concepts, ideas, or objects. It has a broader scope and may encompass multiple subcategories or specific examples.

Also read: Keywords In A Research Paper: The Importance Of The Right Choice

Steps To Writing Definitions Of Terms

When writing the definition of terms section for a research paper, you can follow these steps to ensure clarity and accuracy:

Step 1: Identify Key Terms

Review your research paper and identify the key terms that require definition. These terms are typically central to your study, specific to your field or topic, or may have different interpretations.

Step 2: Conduct Research

Conduct thorough research on each key term to understand its commonly accepted definition, usage, and any variations or nuances within your specific research context. Consult authoritative sources such as academic journals, books, or reputable online resources.

Step 3: Craft Concise Definitions

Based on your research, craft concise definitions for each key term. Aim for clarity, precision, and relevance. Define the term in a manner that reflects its significance within your research and ensures reader comprehension.

Step 4: Use Your Own Words

Paraphrase the definitions in your own words to avoid plagiarism and maintain academic integrity. While you can draw inspiration from existing definitions, rephrase them to reflect your understanding and writing style. Avoid directly copying from sources.

Step 5: Provide Examples Or Explanations

Consider providing examples, explanations, or context for the defined terms to enhance reader understanding. This can help illustrate how the term is applied within your research or clarify its practical implications.

Step 6: Order And Format

Decide on the order in which you present the definitions. You can follow alphabetical order or arrange them based on their importance or relevance to your research. Use consistent formatting, such as bold or italics, to distinguish the defined terms from the rest of the text.

Step 7: Revise And Refine

Review the definitions for clarity, coherence, and accuracy. Ensure that they align with your research objectives and are tailored to your specific study. Seek feedback from peers, mentors, or experts in your field to further refine and improve the definitions.

Step 8: Include Proper Citations

If you have drawn ideas or information from external sources, remember to provide proper citations for those sources. This demonstrates academic integrity and acknowledges the original authors.

Step 9: Incorporate The Section Into Your Paper

Integrate the definition of terms section into your research paper, typically as an early section following the introduction. Make sure it flows smoothly with the rest of the paper and provides a solid foundation for understanding the subsequent content.

By following these steps, you can create a well-crafted and informative definition of terms section that enhances the clarity and comprehension of your research paper.

In conclusion, the definition of terms in a research paper plays a critical role by providing clarity, establishing a common understanding, and enhancing communication among readers. The definition of terms section is an essential component that contributes to the overall quality, rigor, and effectiveness of a research paper.

Also read: Beyond The Main Text: The Value Of A Research Paper Appendix

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Key research terms.

bias: any influence that may distort the results of a research study and lead to error; the loss of balance and accuracy in the use of research methods.

case study: presentation of data about selected settings, persons, groups or events. Data can have been gathered using variety of different research methods (e.g., questionnaire, observation, historical or literary analysis). Is chiefly descriptive and analytical, usually based on qualitative data, though statistics such as survey findings may be included.

causal relationship: relationship between variables where movements in one or more variable(s) are held to cause changes in the other (s).

coded data: data are put into groups or categories, such as age groups, and each category is given a code number. Data are usually coded for convenience, speed, and handling to enable statistical analysis. construct: a mental state that can’t be directly observed or manipulated, such as love, intelligence, hunger, feeling warm, and aggression; a concept developed (constructed) for describing relations among or between phenomena or for other research purposes.

construct validity: the degree to which the study actually measures and manipulates the elements that the researcher claims to be measuring and manipulating. If the operational definitions of the constructs are poor, the study will not have good construct validity. For example, a test claiming to measure “aggressiveness” would not have construct validity if it really measured assertiveness.

internal validity: the degree to which the study demonstrates that a particular factor caused a change in behavior. If a study lacks internal validity, the researcher may falsely believe that a factor causes an effect when it really doesn’t. Most studies involving humans do not have internal validity because they can’t rule out the possibility that some other factor may have been responsible for the effect.

controls: processes used to make uniform or constant the conditions for carrying out an investigation.

control group: in experimental research, the group or item which does not receive the treatment or intervention under investigation and is used to compare outcomes with the one that does. correlation: the extent to which two or more factors vary in relationship to one another; the extent of association between two or more variables. Correlation does not equal causation. For example, might suggest relationship between academic success and self-esteem, but cannot prove that a change in first variable causes a change in second variable. correlation coefficient: a measure of the degree of relationship between two variables. It usually lies between +1 (showing a perfect positive relationship), 0 (showing no relationship), to -1.0 (showing a perfect negative relationship). dependent variable: variable thought to be determined or influenced by others.

experiment: a special type of study (not all studies are experiments!) that allows researchers to determine the cause of an effect; usually involves randomly assigning participants to groups.

external validity: the degree to which the results of the study can be generalized to other places, people, or times.

hypothesis: a proposition which research sets out to prove or disprove: “experimental” where the hypothesis is a positive statement, or “null” where statement contains a negative.

independent variable: a variable that researcher believes precedes, influences or predicts the dependent variable.

informed consent: giving potential participants information about the study, especially in terms of factors that might lead them to refuse to be in the study, before they decide whether to participate. Institutional Review Board (IRB): a committee of at least five members--one of whom must be a nonscientist--that review proposed research and monitor approved research in an effort to protect human research participants.

literature review: often the first step in the research process, it is a review of the literature on and around the subject of inquiry. Its main purposes are to avoid duplication, to identify gaps in research and to place the researcher’s approach within the work and approaches of others.

primary/secondary sources: primary sources are original firsthand records or materials relating to an event or happening. They may include, for example, official minutes of meetings, diaries, verbatim transcripts of interviews, completed questionnaires or records of the results of experiments. Secondary sources are accounts bases upon these, which usually offer an interpretation, commentary, analysis, or restatement of the primary sources. They can include, for example, books, journal articles, and conference papers.

qualitative data: information gathered in narrative, non-numerical form (e.g., transcript of an interview). Qualitative research used for exploratory (hypothesis-generating) purposes or explaining puzzling quantitative results, while quantitative methods are used to test hypotheses.

quantitative data: information gathered in numerical form. reliability: extent to which the same result will be repeated/achieved by using the same measure.

statistical significance: tests used to estimate the likelihood that the finding in a sample is true of the population from which the sample is derived and not due to chance.

simple experiment: used to establish cause and effect, so this type often used to determine effect of treatment. Participants randomly assigned to either control group with no treatment, while the experimental group receives treatment.

validity: extent to which research findings can be said to be accurate and reliable; degree to which conclusions are justified. Internal validity is extent to which researchers can show that they have evidence for the statements they make; external validity refers to a study’s generalizability.

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Pocket Glossary for Commonly Used Research Terms

• Michael J. Holosko - University of Georgia, USA
• Bruce A. Thyer - Florida State University, USA, North-West University, Vaal Triangle Campus, Republic of South Africa
• Description

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"The text is quite comprehensive and I am happy to see that both quantitative and qualitative terms are included. The definitions are generally easy to understand and clear."

"It is a clear and easy to read description of terms and concepts with an alphabetic order so it’s easy to find what one is looking for. It is general so it applied to many disciplines."

"Comprehensive, organized and well-written."

"It brings key terminology together all in one place. It’s simple to read, not too long, and easy to grasp."

"It is simple and clear, covers a large variety of research methodology terms and the internet addresses are terrific."

"Extensive, easy to understand, easy to use…"

My students NEED this book!

A gem - fantastic resource for students and early career academics

But may use as an adjunct in the research methods course. Concise and accessible but a little too brief to use as a main text

So easy for students to follow!

• The Glossary of Research Terms chapter contains definitions and descriptions of over 1500 research terms. It is the heart of the glossary, features crisp and clear statements as to the meaning of each entry.
• Commonly Used Statistical Terms: A dedicated chapter offers a brief synopsis of commonly used statistical terms, ranging from the alpha coefficient to the Z-test. Questions related to the meaning of a statistical term will likely be found here.
• Commonly Used Acronyms, Symbols, Abbreviations and Terms Found in Research and Evaluation Studies are organized into categories so readers can easily find them: for example, research and evaluation studies, statistics, Internet, and U.S. federal government.
• Core Disciplinary Journals in Selected Social and Behavioral Science chapter lists the most highly ranked journals in over a dozen social and behavioral sciences and professional disciplines, as determined by their impact factors published by the Journal Citation Reports database. URLs are also provided to each journal so that the reader can locate each journal's individual webpage.

Sample Materials & Chapters

Chapter Two: Commonly Used Acronyms, Symbols, Abbreviations, and Terms Found in

Chapter Three: Commonly Used Statistical Terms

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This title is also available on SAGE Research Methods , the ultimate digital methods library. If your library doesn’t have access, ask your librarian to start a trial .

Child Care and Early Education Research Connections

Research glossary.

The research glossary defines terms used in conducting social science and policy research, for example those describing methods, measurements, statistical procedures, and other aspects of research; the child care glossary defines terms used to describe aspects of child care and early education practice and policy.

Your Guide to Understanding Common Research Terms

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                              Demystifying Clinical Trials -- Part 2

The clinical research world can sometimes seem confusing. Research teams have many people in different roles, and they may use words that are unfamiliar to people outside of research work.

The guide below defines some commonly used words and phrases. Let us know in the comments below or on our Facebook , Twitter , or Instagram pages if you’d like definitions of other words or parts of the research process!

Accrual – the number of subjects who have completed or are actively in the process of completing a study. The accrual goal is how many subjects are needed to finish the study (2).

Adverse event (AE) – a negative symptom or experience encountered by an subject during the course of a clinical trial. Adverse events can be expected or unexpected.

Assent – a minor child’s affirmative agreement to participate in a clinical trial. Failure to object may not be taken as assent.

Clinical research coordinator – a study team member who manages the day-to-day study tasks as directed by the principal investigator. (3)

Consent form – a document explaining all relevant study information to assist the study subject in understanding the expectations and requirements of participating in the trial. This document is presented to and signed by the study subject.

Control arm/group – a comparison group of study subjects who are not treated with the investigational agent. The subjects in this group have the same disease or condition under study, but receive either a different treatment, no treatment, or a placebo.

Data – the objective information gathered during a research study that is used to determine the results of the study.

De-identification – the process of removing identifiers (personal names, dates, social security numbers, etc.) that directly or indirectly point to a person, and removing those identifiers from the data. De-identification of protected health information is essential for protecting patient privacy (4).

Enroll/Enrollment – the process of an eligible participant signing a consent form and voluntarily agreeing to participate in a research study (2).

Ethics committee – an independent group of both medical and non-medical professionals who are responsible for verifying the integrity of a study and ensuring the safety, integrity, and human rights of the study participants.

Food and Drug Administration (FDA) – the agency within the Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) that enforces public health laws related to research conduct.

Greater than minimal risk – the research involves more than minimal risk to subjects (2).

Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA) – required the Department of Health & Human Services to develop regulations protecting the privacy and security of certain health information (5). The HIPAA Privacy Rule established the conditions under which health information may be used or disclosed by approved entities for research purposes (6).

Hypothesis – a specific, clear, and testable proposition or prediction about the possible outcome of a scientific research study (7).

Informed consent – the process of discussing a clinical trial that goes beyond signing the consent form. The discussion should provide sufficient information so that a subject can make an informed decision about whether or not to enroll in a study, or continue participation in a study. Informed consent is a voluntary agreement to participate in research, and should be an ongoing conversation throughout a subject’s entire time in the study (8).

Investigational New Drug Application (IND) – the process through which an investigator requests the FDA to allow human testing of a new drug.

Institutional Review Board (IRB) – an independent group of professionals designated to review and approve the clinical protocol, informed consent forms, study advertisements, and patient brochures to ensure that the study is safe for human participation. It is also the IRB’s responsibility to ensure that the study adheres to the FDA’s regulations.

Minimal risk – the probability that harm or discomfort anticipated in the research study are not greater than those encountered in daily life or during routine physical examinations (2).

National Institutes of Health (NIH) – agency within DHHS that provides funding for research, conducts studies, and funds multi-site national studies.

Protected Health Information (PHI) – individually identifiable health information. HIPAA provides federal protections for personal health information and gives patients more control over their health information. It also sets boundaries for how entities and institutions can use and release health records (9).

Placebo – an inactive substance designed to resemble the drug being tested. It is used as a control to rule out any psychological effects testing may present. Most advanced clinical trials include a control group that is unknowingly taking a placebo.

Principal Investigator – the primary individual responsible for conducting a clinical trial and adhering to federal regulations, institutional policies, and IRB regulations (2).

Protocol – a detailed plan that sets out the objectives, study design, and methodology for a clinical trial. A study protocol must be approved by an IRB before research may begin on human subjects.

Randomization – study participants are assigned to groups in such a way that each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to each treatment or control group. Since randomization ensures that no specific criteria are used to assign any patients to a particular group, all the groups will be equally comparable.

Research – systematic investigation designed to develop or contribute to generalizable knowledge.

Standard treatment/Standard of care – the currently accepted treatment or intervention considered to be effective in the treatment of a specific disease or condition.

Statistical significance – the probability that an event or difference was occurred by chance alone. In clinical trials, the level of statistical significance depends on the number or participants studied and the observations made, as well as the magnitude of differences observed.

Subject/Participant – a patient or healthy individual participating in a research study.

Treatment arm/group – a group of study subjects who are treated with the investigational agent.

Visit schedule/Test schedule – the number, frequency, and type of exams, tests, and procedures that research subjects will be expected to undergo during the study. Some visits may be the same as normal clinical care visits, while others may be required just for the purpose of collecting data for the research study.

Definitions taken from https://www.centerwatch.com/health-resources/glossary/ unless otherwise cited.

(2) https://www.mayo.edu/research/institutional-review-board/definition-terms

(3) https://acrpnet.org/2018/08/14/the-anatomy-of-a-great-clinical-research-coordinator/

(4) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5977668/

(5) https://www.hhs.gov/hipaa/for-professionals/privacy/index.html

(6) https://www.hhs.gov/hipaa/for-professionals/special-topics/research/index.html

(7) https://methods.sagepub.com/Reference//encyclopedia-of-survey-research-methods/n472.xml

(8) https://oprs.usc.edu/files/2017/04/Informed-Consent-Booklet-4.4.13.pdf

(9) https://www.hhs.gov/hipaa/for-individuals/faq/187/what-does-the-hipaa-privacy-rule-do/index.html

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5.1: Research Terminology

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• University of Victoria via BC Campus

You will undoubtedly be required to “conduct research” for a course assignment or “include research” to support your ideas. While this may seem a bit intimidating, remember that engaging in research is basically just using a systematic process to find out more information about your topic. Nicholas Walliman, in his handbook Research Methods: The Basics , defines research methods as “the tools and techniques for doing research.” [1] These techniques include collecting, sorting, and analyzing the information and data you find. The better the tools and more comprehensive the techniques you employ, the more effective your research will be. By extension, the more effective your research is, the more credible and persuasive your argument will be.

Here are some basic terms and definitions you should be familiar with:

Research : the systematic process of finding out more about something than you already know, ideally so that you can prove a hypothesis, produce new knowledge and understanding, and make evidence-based decisions.

Research Methods: techniques of collecting, sorting, and analyzing information/data.

Data: bits of information.

The typical kinds of research sources you will use can be grouped into three broad categories:

• Primary Sources: research you might conduct yourself in lab experiments and product testing, through surveys, observations, measurements, interviews, site visits, prototype testing, beta testing, etc . These can also include published raw statistical data, historical records, legal documents, firsthand historical accounts, and original creative works.
• Secondary Sources : written sources that discuss, analyze, and interpret primary data, such as published research and studies, reviews of these studies, meta-analyses, and formal critiques.
• Tertiary Sources : reference sources such as dictionaries, encyclopedias, and handbooks that provide a consolidation of primary and secondary information. They are useful to gain a general understanding of your topic and major concepts, lines of inquiry, or schools of thought in the field.

Data can be categorized in several ways:

Research methods are often categorized as quantitative, qualitative or “mixed method.” Some projects, like a science, require the use of the scientific method of inquiry, observation, quantitative data collection, analysis and conclusions to test a hypothesis. Other kinds of projects take a more deductive approach and gather both quantitative and qualitative evidence to support a thesis, position, or recommendation. The research methods you choose will be determined by the goals and scope of your project, and by your intended audience’s expectations. More specific methodologies, such as ways to structure the analysis of your data, include the following:

• Cost/benefit Analysis : determines how much something will cost vs what measurable benefits it will create, and may lead to a calculation of “return on investment” (ROI).
• Life-cycle Analysis : determines overall sustainability of a product or process, from manufacturing, through lifetime use, to disposal (you can also perform comparative life-cycle analyses, or specific life cycle stage analysis)
• Comparative Analysis : compares two or more options to determine which is the “best” solution (given specific problem criteria such as goals, objectives, and constraints)
• Process Analysis : studies each aspect of a process to determine if all parts and steps work efficiently together to create the desired outcome.
• Sustainability Analysis : uses concepts such as the “triple bottom line” or “ three pillars of sustainability ” to analyze whether a product or process is environmentally, economically, and socially sustainable.

In all cases, the way you collect, analyze, and use data must be ethical and consistent with professional standards of honesty and integrity. Lapses in integrity can not only lead to poor quality reports in an academic context (poor grades and academic dishonesty penalties), but in the workplace, these lapses can also lead to lawsuits, loss of job, and even criminal charges. Some examples of these lapses include

• Fabricating your own data (making it up to suit your purpose)
• Ignoring data that disproves or contradicts your ideas
• Misrepresenting someone else’s data or ideas
• Using data or ideas from another source without acknowledgment or citation of the source.

Failing to cite quoted, paraphrased, or summarized sources properly is one of the most common lapses in academic integrity, which is why your previous academic writing class spent considerable time and effort to give you a sophisticated understanding of how and why to avoid plagiarizing, as well as the consequences of doing so. If you would like to review this information, see Appendix C: Integrating Source Evidence into Your Writing , and consult the University of Victoria’s policy on Academic Integrity .

• N. Walliman, Research Methods: The Basics . New York: Routledge, 2011 ↵

Multidisciplinary Methods for Exploring Organizations

Bias :  a lack of balance and accuracy in the use of research methods. It can appear at any phase of research, from deciding on a sampling frame, sampling, to data collection and analysis.  Bias also arises in the identity of the researcher through assumptions and ideas related to his or her own culture that may influence data collection and analysis.  Bias interfere with the extent to which results are valid and accurate, whether or not the research is reliable, and the potential for results to be representative of, or generalizable to, a wider population.   Click here to access a brief article from the National Institutes of Health on research bias. 

Case Study :  the collection and presentation of in-depth information about a specific individual, group, or community.  Often these data represent the subjective experiences of an individual or group.   Click here to access more information on the case study approach to research.  

Causality :  the relation between cause and effect.  Causality is the agency that links one process or event (the cause) with another process, state, or event (the effect).  The first of these is normally understood to be at least partly responsible for the occurrence of the second, thus the second is dependent upon the first.  Causality is an abstraction based upon experience that is used to show and explain how change happens in the world.  Below is a very useful video explaining causality and how it relates to research.

Cultural Relativism : the idea that cultures are value-neutral.  This means that rather than various cultures being a better or worse ways of organizing behavior, they are simply different.  In anthropology, this idea has been used to make sense out of behaviors and values that seem alien or morally wrong to an outside observer; it has also been used to raise awareness of the potential for bias by an observer.  The concept has been debated in anthropology and has raised concern that it inherently leads to moral relativism.   Most modern anthropologists use the idea of cultural relativism as a way to bracket off one’s own cultural assumptions and biases to the extent possible.  Here is a brief article on cultural relativism by anthropologist Clifford Geertz.

Data :  factual information, collected through systematic methods, that is used as a basis for reasoning and analysis of a phenomenon.

Deductive Reasoning:   a type of reasoning in which conclusions are formulated about particulars from general or universal premises.  Here’s Monty Python’s take on deductive reasoning.

Dependent Variable:  a variable that varies due, at least in part, to the impact of the independent variable. In other words, its value “depends” on the value of the independent variable. For example, in the variables “gender” and “academic major,” academic major is the dependent variable, meaning that your major cannot determine whether you are male or female, but your gender might indirectly lead you to favor one major over another.  Check out the video under the entry for independent variables  for more information on the difference between dependent and independent variables.

Emic : an approach to the study or description of a language or culture that focuses on its internal elements and logic and their functioning rather than in terms of any existing external scheme.  The term can also refer to the native explanation for a behavior or cultural pattern.  The video below will help you to understand the differences between emic and etic perspectives as they are understood by cultural anthropologists.

Etic : an approach to the study or description of a language or culture that is general, nonstructural, and objective in its perspective.  It is typically explanations for behavior from the perspective of the scientist/researcher observing a culture or language.

Epistemology:   theory of knowledge that questions how we know things, how knowledge is constructed, and what constitutes valid knowledge.  Here is a very detailed definition/discussion of   epistemology from the Stanford online dictionary of philosophy.

Ethnography:  method for studying study groups and/or cultures over an extended period of time using a variety of qualitative (and sometimes quantitative) research techniques. Ethnography employs participant observation, which is intended to allow researchers to understand a group through immersion into its lifestyles.  This allows for a detailed, in-depth, understanding of human experience.  Check out the TEDx video below for a nice discussion of the use of ethnography in business.

Field Studies : research studies carried out in natural settings, rather than in laboratories, classrooms, or other structured environments.

Focus Groups :  small, roundtable discussion groups charged with examining or discussing topics or problems associated with a research project.  In some cases, these may also involve discussion of solutions to identified problems.   Focus groups usually consist of 4-12 participants and are guided by moderators to keep the discussion moving and collect data.  Here is more on focus group research from the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation.

Grounded Theory:  an approach to research in which theories emerge from observing a group rather than being brought to the context of observation. Theories are grounded in the group’s observable experiences and interpretations, but researchers add their own insight into why those experiences exist.  Click here to access the website Grounded Theory Online .

Hypothesis : a tentative explanation or educated guess based on theory or observation that is used to predict a causal relationship between variables.  Click here to review some examples of hypotheses .

Independent Variable:   the conditions or variables of an experiment that are systematically manipulated by the researcher or a variable that is not impacted by the dependent variable, but that itself impacts the dependent variable.  Check out the video below for more information on the difference between dependent and independent variables.

Inductive Reasoning:  a type of reasoning in which a generalized conclusion is formulated generated based on particular instances.  Below is a video on the difference between inductive and deductive approaches to reasoning.

Naturalistic Observation:   observation of behaviors and events in natural settings rather than in experimental contexts that involve manipulation of variables or other types of interference.

Ontology:   a discipline of philosophy that explores the science of what is, the kinds and structures of objects, properties, events, processes, and relations in every area of reality.  Click here for a detailed discussion of logic and ontology from the Stanford online dictionary of philosophy.

Organization :  For the purposes of MMEO, and organization is an institutionalized structure that is formed for a specific purpose.  Examples of organizations are businesses, academic institutions, religious institutions, or government institutions.

Participant observation :  a form of qualitative research that involves participating in the activities of the people being observed as a way of developing an experience-near understanding of their behaviors and ideas.

Phenomenology:  a qualitative research approach that focuses on meaning expressed by individuals through their lived experience of a particular idea, concept, or event.  This link will take you to more information on phenomenology .

Probability :  the likelihood that a phenomenon will occur randomly. As a statistical measure, it is represented as p.

Qualitative research:  a systematic approach to creating knowledge about how people interpret their surroundings, construct meaning, and interpret the meanings they construct. Qualitative research relies upon subtle and complex techniques of observation, recording data, and writing to develop an interpretive framework for analyzing and explaining why people do what they do and think what they think.

Quantitative research:  Quantitative research focuses on identifying objective measurements of phenomena such as human behavior.  In human subjects research it makes use of statistical, mathematical, and numerical analysis of empirical data collected using instruments such as questionnaires or through analyzing and manipulating pre-existing statistical data using computational techniques. Quantitative research uses numerical data to draw general conclusions across groups of people as a way of explaining particular behaviors or phenomena.  This link to a site as USC will give you more details on quantitative research .

Questionnaire :  structured groups of questions used to gather information, attitudes, or opinions.  Questionnaires can be either quantitative, including forced-choice questions, or qualitative, including open-ended questions.

Random Sampling : a process used in research to draw a sample of a population that does not reflect any pattern or order beyond chance.

Reliability : the extent to which a research method yields consistent results.  If the observational or measurement instrument is reliable, then administering it to similar groups should yield similar results. Reliability is a prerequisite for validity. If a data collection approach is unreliable, then cannot produce trustworthy results.

Rigor:   degree to which research methods are carefully designed and carried out.

Sample :  any population researched in a study. In many studies, researchers often try to select a “sample population” that is believed to be representative of the behaviors or other qualities (race, ethnicity, gender) of people for whom results will be generalized.  This video will help you understand different types of sampling and the goals in sampling.

Sampling Error : the degree to which the results from the sample deviate from those that would be obtained from the entire population.  This can be a result of random error in the selection of participants and any corresponding reduction in reliability that arises as a result of that error.

Standard Deviation : a measure  used to quantify how much variation or dispersion there is in a set of data values.  A low standard deviation means that the data points tend to be close to the mean; a high standard deviation means the data points are spread out over a wider range of values and further from the mean.

Statistical Analysis :  application of statistical methods and theory to the collection, presentation, and interpretation of numerical data.

Statistical Significance:  in any experiment or observation that involves using a sample from a population, statistical significance refers to the likelihood that a behavior or set of behaviors is due to chance.  The probability that the null hypothesis can be rejected at a predetermined significance level [0.05 or 0.01].

Theory:   a general explanation about a specific behavior or set of events that is based on known principles and serves to organize related events in a meaningful way. A theory is not as specific as a hypothesis.

Triangulation:   a multi-method or pluralistic approach to research that uses a variety of methods to collect data from different viewpoints.  This produces a complex and multi-faceted data set that helps in checking the validity of findings.

Unit of Analysis:   the thing being observed, analyzed, and for which data are collected in the form of variables.

Validity — the degree to which a study accurately represents and assesses the specific phenomenon a researcher wants to measure.  This brief video will help you to understand the difference between validity and reliability in research.

Variable:  any characteristic or trait that can vary from person to person.  Race, gender, education level, hair color, age, political beliefs, religion are all examples of variables.  This link will take you to a website that provides more detail on variables.

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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

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• Purpose of Guide
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• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Reading Research Effectively
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
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• Choosing a Title
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• Theoretical Framework
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• Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Insiderness
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Generative AI and Writing
• USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
• Bibliography

The introduction leads the reader from a general subject area to a particular topic of inquiry. It establishes the scope, context, and significance of the research being conducted by summarizing current understanding and background information about the topic, stating the purpose of the work in the form of the research problem supported by a hypothesis or a set of questions, explaining briefly the methodological approach used to examine the research problem, highlighting the potential outcomes your study can reveal, and outlining the remaining structure and organization of the paper.

Key Elements of the Research Proposal. Prepared under the direction of the Superintendent and by the 2010 Curriculum Design and Writing Team. Baltimore County Public Schools.

Importance of a Good Introduction

Think of the introduction as a mental road map that must answer for the reader these four questions:

• What was I studying?
• Why was this topic important to investigate?
• What did we know about this topic before I did this study?
• How will this study advance new knowledge or new ways of understanding?

According to Reyes, there are three overarching goals of a good introduction: 1) ensure that you summarize prior studies about the topic in a manner that lays a foundation for understanding the research problem; 2) explain how your study specifically addresses gaps in the literature, insufficient consideration of the topic, or other deficiency in the literature; and, 3) note the broader theoretical, empirical, and/or policy contributions and implications of your research.

A well-written introduction is important because, quite simply, you never get a second chance to make a good first impression. The opening paragraphs of your paper will provide your readers with their initial impressions about the logic of your argument, your writing style, the overall quality of your research, and, ultimately, the validity of your findings and conclusions. A vague, disorganized, or error-filled introduction will create a negative impression, whereas, a concise, engaging, and well-written introduction will lead your readers to think highly of your analytical skills, your writing style, and your research approach. All introductions should conclude with a brief paragraph that describes the organization of the rest of the paper.

Hirano, Eliana. “Research Article Introductions in English for Specific Purposes: A Comparison between Brazilian, Portuguese, and English.” English for Specific Purposes 28 (October 2009): 240-250; Samraj, B. “Introductions in Research Articles: Variations Across Disciplines.” English for Specific Purposes 21 (2002): 1–17; Introductions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; “Writing Introductions.” In Good Essay Writing: A Social Sciences Guide. Peter Redman. 4th edition. (London: Sage, 2011), pp. 63-70; Reyes, Victoria. Demystifying the Journal Article. Inside Higher Education.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  Structure and Approach

The introduction is the broad beginning of the paper that answers three important questions for the reader:

• What is this?
• Why should I read it?
• What do you want me to think about / consider doing / react to?

Think of the structure of the introduction as an inverted triangle of information that lays a foundation for understanding the research problem. Organize the information so as to present the more general aspects of the topic early in the introduction, then narrow your analysis to more specific topical information that provides context, finally arriving at your research problem and the rationale for studying it [often written as a series of key questions to be addressed or framed as a hypothesis or set of assumptions to be tested] and, whenever possible, a description of the potential outcomes your study can reveal.

These are general phases associated with writing an introduction: 1.  Establish an area to research by:

• Highlighting the importance of the topic, and/or
• Making general statements about the topic, and/or
• Presenting an overview on current research on the subject.

2.  Identify a research niche by:

• Opposing an existing assumption, and/or
• Revealing a gap in existing research, and/or
• Formulating a research question or problem, and/or
• Continuing a disciplinary tradition.

3.  Place your research within the research niche by:

• Stating the intent of your study,
• Outlining the key characteristics of your study,
• Describing important results, and
• Giving a brief overview of the structure of the paper.

NOTE:   It is often useful to review the introduction late in the writing process. This is appropriate because outcomes are unknown until you've completed the study. After you complete writing the body of the paper, go back and review introductory descriptions of the structure of the paper, the method of data gathering, the reporting and analysis of results, and the conclusion. Reviewing and, if necessary, rewriting the introduction ensures that it correctly matches the overall structure of your final paper.

II.  Delimitations of the Study

Delimitations refer to those characteristics that limit the scope and define the conceptual boundaries of your research . This is determined by the conscious exclusionary and inclusionary decisions you make about how to investigate the research problem. In other words, not only should you tell the reader what it is you are studying and why, but you must also acknowledge why you rejected alternative approaches that could have been used to examine the topic.

Obviously, the first limiting step was the choice of research problem itself. However, implicit are other, related problems that could have been chosen but were rejected. These should be noted in the conclusion of your introduction. For example, a delimitating statement could read, "Although many factors can be understood to impact the likelihood young people will vote, this study will focus on socioeconomic factors related to the need to work full-time while in school." The point is not to document every possible delimiting factor, but to highlight why previously researched issues related to the topic were not addressed.

Examples of delimitating choices would be:

• The key aims and objectives of your study,
• The research questions that you address,
• The variables of interest [i.e., the various factors and features of the phenomenon being studied],
• The method(s) of investigation,
• The time period your study covers, and
• Any relevant alternative theoretical frameworks that could have been adopted.

Review each of these decisions. Not only do you clearly establish what you intend to accomplish in your research, but you should also include a declaration of what the study does not intend to cover. In the latter case, your exclusionary decisions should be based upon criteria understood as, "not interesting"; "not directly relevant"; “too problematic because..."; "not feasible," and the like. Make this reasoning explicit!

NOTE:   Delimitations refer to the initial choices made about the broader, overall design of your study and should not be confused with documenting the limitations of your study discovered after the research has been completed.

ANOTHER NOTE : Do not view delimitating statements as admitting to an inherent failing or shortcoming in your research. They are an accepted element of academic writing intended to keep the reader focused on the research problem by explicitly defining the conceptual boundaries and scope of your study. It addresses any critical questions in the reader's mind of, "Why the hell didn't the author examine this?"

III.  The Narrative Flow

Issues to keep in mind that will help the narrative flow in your introduction :

• Your introduction should clearly identify the subject area of interest . A simple strategy to follow is to use key words from your title in the first few sentences of the introduction. This will help focus the introduction on the topic at the appropriate level and ensures that you get to the subject matter quickly without losing focus, or discussing information that is too general.
• Establish context by providing a brief and balanced review of the pertinent published literature that is available on the subject. The key is to summarize for the reader what is known about the specific research problem before you did your analysis. This part of your introduction should not represent a comprehensive literature review--that comes next. It consists of a general review of the important, foundational research literature [with citations] that establishes a foundation for understanding key elements of the research problem. See the drop-down menu under this tab for " Background Information " regarding types of contexts.
• Clearly state the hypothesis that you investigated . When you are first learning to write in this format it is okay, and actually preferable, to use a past statement like, "The purpose of this study was to...." or "We investigated three possible mechanisms to explain the...."
• Why did you choose this kind of research study or design? Provide a clear statement of the rationale for your approach to the problem studied. This will usually follow your statement of purpose in the last paragraph of the introduction.

IV.  Engaging the Reader

A research problem in the social sciences can come across as dry and uninteresting to anyone unfamiliar with the topic . Therefore, one of the goals of your introduction is to make readers want to read your paper. Here are several strategies you can use to grab the reader's attention:

• Open with a compelling story . Almost all research problems in the social sciences, no matter how obscure or esoteric , are really about the lives of people. Telling a story that humanizes an issue can help illuminate the significance of the problem and help the reader empathize with those affected by the condition being studied.
• Include a strong quotation or a vivid, perhaps unexpected, anecdote . During your review of the literature, make note of any quotes or anecdotes that grab your attention because they can used in your introduction to highlight the research problem in a captivating way.
• Pose a provocative or thought-provoking question . Your research problem should be framed by a set of questions to be addressed or hypotheses to be tested. However, a provocative question can be presented in the beginning of your introduction that challenges an existing assumption or compels the reader to consider an alternative viewpoint that helps establish the significance of your study. 
• Describe a puzzling scenario or incongruity . This involves highlighting an interesting quandary concerning the research problem or describing contradictory findings from prior studies about a topic. Posing what is essentially an unresolved intellectual riddle about the problem can engage the reader's interest in the study.
• Cite a stirring example or case study that illustrates why the research problem is important . Draw upon the findings of others to demonstrate the significance of the problem and to describe how your study builds upon or offers alternatives ways of investigating this prior research.

NOTE:   It is important that you choose only one of the suggested strategies for engaging your readers. This avoids giving an impression that your paper is more flash than substance and does not distract from the substance of your study.

Freedman, Leora  and Jerry Plotnick. Introductions and Conclusions. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Introduction. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Introductions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Introductions. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Introductions, Body Paragraphs, and Conclusions for an Argument Paper. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; “Writing Introductions.” In Good Essay Writing: A Social Sciences Guide . Peter Redman. 4th edition. (London: Sage, 2011), pp. 63-70; Resources for Writers: Introduction Strategies. Program in Writing and Humanistic Studies. Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Sharpling, Gerald. Writing an Introduction. Centre for Applied Linguistics, University of Warwick; Samraj, B. “Introductions in Research Articles: Variations Across Disciplines.” English for Specific Purposes 21 (2002): 1–17; Swales, John and Christine B. Feak. Academic Writing for Graduate Students: Essential Skills and Tasks . 2nd edition. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2004 ; Writing Your Introduction. Department of English Writing Guide. George Mason University.

Writing Tip

Avoid the "Dictionary" Introduction

Giving the dictionary definition of words related to the research problem may appear appropriate because it is important to define specific terminology that readers may be unfamiliar with. However, anyone can look a word up in the dictionary and a general dictionary is not a particularly authoritative source because it doesn't take into account the context of your topic and doesn't offer particularly detailed information. Also, placed in the context of a particular discipline, a term or concept may have a different meaning than what is found in a general dictionary. If you feel that you must seek out an authoritative definition, use a subject specific dictionary or encyclopedia [e.g., if you are a sociology student, search for dictionaries of sociology]. A good database for obtaining definitive definitions of concepts or terms is Credo Reference .

Saba, Robert. The College Research Paper. Florida International University; Introductions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina.

Another Writing Tip

When Do I Begin?

A common question asked at the start of any paper is, "Where should I begin?" An equally important question to ask yourself is, "When do I begin?" Research problems in the social sciences rarely rest in isolation from history. Therefore, it is important to lay a foundation for understanding the historical context underpinning the research problem. However, this information should be brief and succinct and begin at a point in time that illustrates the study's overall importance. For example, a study that investigates coffee cultivation and export in West Africa as a key stimulus for local economic growth needs to describe the beginning of exporting coffee in the region and establishing why economic growth is important. You do not need to give a long historical explanation about coffee exports in Africa. If a research problem requires a substantial exploration of the historical context, do this in the literature review section. In your introduction, make note of this as part of the "roadmap" [see below] that you use to describe the organization of your paper.

Introductions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; “Writing Introductions.” In Good Essay Writing: A Social Sciences Guide . Peter Redman. 4th edition. (London: Sage, 2011), pp. 63-70.

Yet Another Writing Tip

Always End with a Roadmap

The final paragraph or sentences of your introduction should forecast your main arguments and conclusions and provide a brief description of the rest of the paper [the "roadmap"] that let's the reader know where you are going and what to expect. A roadmap is important because it helps the reader place the research problem within the context of their own perspectives about the topic. In addition, concluding your introduction with an explicit roadmap tells the reader that you have a clear understanding of the structural purpose of your paper. In this way, the roadmap acts as a type of promise to yourself and to your readers that you will follow a consistent and coherent approach to addressing the topic of inquiry. Refer to it often to help keep your writing focused and organized.

Cassuto, Leonard. “On the Dissertation: How to Write the Introduction.” The Chronicle of Higher Education , May 28, 2018; Radich, Michael. A Student's Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies . (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Writing n. d.), pp. 35-37.

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Glossary in a Dissertation – A Comprehensive Guide

Published by Owen Ingram at August 26th, 2021 , Revised On September 20, 2023

A list of glossary contains all those terms used in your dissertation, but the meanings of which may not be evident to the readers. Here is all you need to know about the glossary in a dissertation.

Basically, any term you use in your dissertation that you know, without a doubt, is not going to be common knowledge to readers outside of your field, is included in a list called glossary. And since every field has its unique, technical jargon, a glossary list can contain many terms some readers might not have even heard of before.

A typical glossary in a dissertation may look something like this:

Do you Even Need Glossary in your Dissertation to Begin with?

You may or may not be required to have a separate list of glossaries in your  dissertation . The decision whether to have a list of glossaries in a dissertation depends on whether it will improve the readability of your paper.

For example , if you are  writing a dissertation  for an engineering degree and have used several technical terms that readers—especially laymen—may not be familiar with, \ it is advised to add a glossary in a dissertation.

Listing Terms in a Glossary

A recommended practice of adding a glossary in a dissertation is to sort the terms alphabetically and provide a definition or explanations for each of those terms. Having the terms listed in alphabetical order will help the readers to easily locate the information they are interested in.

Location of a Glossary List in a Dissertation

The glossary list is generally placed at the beginning of the dissertation paper, just after the  list of tables and figures or the list of abbreviations.  However, if your paper does not have a list of abbreviations or a list of tables and figures, you can place the glossary right after the  table of contents .

This gives readers the opportunity to understand the meanings of key terms they are not familiar with even before they start to read the main content of the paper.

However, if you haven’t used a lot of technical terms in your dissertation, you can choose to provide an explanation and meanings of the few terms that you have used in the form of footnotes .

Difference Between Abbreviations and Glossary

It is important not to confuse the glossary in the dissertation with the abbreviations, which are put in the list of abbreviations.

A list of abbreviations contains all the terms that have abbreviations. For instance, if you have used terms like NASA , UNICEF , UNESCO , UN , NIH , etc., such terms along with what they stand for will come under the list of abbreviations.

Note, however, that only their full forms, and not their meanings, are mentioned in that list. That is what’s mentioned in a glossary list, though: meanings. Definitions of terms, terms that were used in the dissertation. The terms themselves aren’t abbreviation.

For instance, in a linguistics’ dissertation, you might end up creating a glossary list containing terms like phenomenology, code-switching, diglossia, etc. Notice how these are complete terms , not abbreviations.

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Example of a Glossary in Dissertation

If you haven’t created a list of glossaries before then you will find the below example of a glossary in a dissertation particularly useful:

Other Lists you can have in your Dissertation

You might also want to have a list of tables and figures as well as a list of abbreviations in your dissertation particularly if you are writing a master’s or PhD dissertation. However, make sure to keep the following order:

• Table of contents
• Lists of figures and tables
• List of abbreviations

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FAQs About Glossary in a Dissertation

What is a glossary.

It’s a list of special terms—single words, phrases, etc.—that are not commonly known to the ‘average’ reader or to a reader who isn’t an expert in that field.

What is included in a glossary?

Ideally, words are included in a glossary. However, in some cases—depending on the topic— abbreviations , phrases etc. might also be mentioned within the list of glossary in a dissertation. Sometimes, it might also include a brief definition of how to pronounce a certain word/phrase.

What is the best way to create a glossary?

Keep in mind two things while creating a glossary list: keep the language of the definition simple so that every kind of reader can understand it. That’s why a glossary is given, to begin with, to simplify technical jargon and inform laymen. Secondly, arrange the terms inside it alphabetically.

How many times can I include the same term in a glossary list?

No matter how many times a word or a phrase appears in your dissertation , include it and define it only once in your glossary. There should be no duplicate entries in a glossary list.

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Table of contents is an essential part of dissertation paper. Here is all you need to know about how to create the best table of contents for dissertation.

This article is a step-by-step guide to how to write statement of a problem in research. The research problem will be half-solved by defining it correctly.

Here are the steps to make a theoretical framework for dissertation. You can define, discuss and evaluate theories relevant to the research problem.

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If you have chosen a topic, you may break the topic down into a few main concepts and then list and/or define key terms related to that concept. If you have performed some background searching, you can include some of the words that were used to describe your topic.

For example, if your topic deals with the relationship between teenage smoking and advertising in the United States, the following key terms may apply:

smoking -- tobacco -- nicotine -- cigarettes

teenage -- adolescents -- children -- teens -- youth

advertising -- marketing -- media -- commercials -- TV -- billboards

When listing the key terms or concepts of your topic, be sure to consider synonyms for these terms as well. Since research is an iterative process, you will also find additional key terms to utilize through the resources you encounter throughout your research process.

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