research behind project based learning

SYSTEMATIC REVIEW article

A study of the impact of project-based learning on student learning effects: a meta-analysis study.

• 1 Institute of Computer and Information Science, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing, China
• 2 Institute of Smart Education, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing, China

Introduction: With the educational reform for skills in the 21st century, a large number of scholars have explored project-based learning. However, whether project-based learning can effectively improve the learning effect of students has not yet reached a unified conclusion.

Method: This study uses a meta-analysis method to transform 66 experimental or quasi-experimental research papers based on project-based learning over the past 20 years into 190 effect values from the sample size, mean, and standard deviation of experimental data during their experiments, and to conduct in-depth quantitative analysis.

Results: The results of the study showed that compared with the traditional teaching model, project-based learning significantly improved students’ learning outcomes and positively contributed to academic achievement, affective attitudes, and thinking skills, especially academic achievement.

Discussion: The results of the moderating effects test indicated that the effectiveness of project-based learning and teaching was influenced by different moderating variables, including country region, subject area, type of course, academic period, group size, class size, and experimental period : (1) from the perspective of country geography, the effects of project-based learning in Asia, especially in Southeast Asia, were significantly better than those in Western Europe and North America; (2) in terms of curriculum, project-based learning promotes student learning effects more significantly in engineering and technology subjects, and is better applied in laboratory classes than in theory classes; (3) from a pedagogical point of view, project-based learning is more suitable for small group teaching, in which the group size is 4-5 people teaching the best results; (4) in view of the experimental period, 9-18 weeks is more appropriate and has more obvious advantages for application at the high school level.

1. Introduction

Project-based learning (PBL) is a new model of inquiry-based learning that is centered on the concepts and principles of a subject, with the help of multiple resources and continuous inquiry-based learning activities in the real world, with the aim of producing a complete project work and solving multiple interrelated problems within a certain period of time ( Jingfu and Zhixian, 2002 ). s a new student-centered teaching approach, project-based learning directly points to the goal of cultivating 21st-century skills, especially higher-order thinking skills, and higher-order thinking occurs based on problem-solving, a challenging problem that emphasizes real-world situations and open environments, and project-based learning motivates students to continuously explore in the process of problem-solving, thus promoting the development of higher-order thinking.

In the era of digital transformation of education, the new generation of information technologies such as artificial intelligence, big data, and metaverse are bringing great changes to education at an unimaginable speed, and at the same time posing unprecedented challenges to talent training. Cultivating students with higher-order thinking skills that can adapt to the future development of society and reasonably cope with the complex real world has become an important mission in the current education reform and development around the world ( Ma and Yang, 2021 ). Different types of problems produce different teaching methods and also guide the development of students’ different thinking skills. Project-based learning, as a new type of teaching and learning method in the context of curriculum and teaching reform, takes real life as the background, is driven by practical problems, breaks the disciplinary boundaries, integrates multiple disciplines into one project, and develops students’ future-oriented abilities——creative thinking, problem raising, problem solving, critical thinking, communication and collaboration, etc. The advantages of this approach over traditional teaching and learning models are being recognized and explored. A large number of studies on the effects of project-based learning have been done, but there is not complete agreement on the effects on the development of students’ thinking skills, academic performance, and affective attitudes.

Over the past few decades, project-based learning has received a lot of attention in the field of education. Many studies have shown that project-based learning can improve students’ learning motivation, problem-solving skills, teamwork, and communication skills. However, due to the complexity and diversity of project-based learning, as well as differences in research methods, research findings on its effectiveness and influencing factors vary. A key research question in project-based learning meta-analytic studies is to assess the impact of project-based learning on student learning outcomes, including student performance in the areas of academic achievement, thinking skills, and affective attitudes. By combining the results of multiple independent studies, more accurate and reliable conclusions can be obtained to further understand the effects of project-based learning. In addition, project-based learning meta-analysis studies can help reveal the factors and mechanisms influencing project-based learning. By comparing the learning effects under different project-based learning conditions, researchers can analyze the impact of factors such as project characteristics, instructional design, and learning environment on student learning. This can help guide the design and implementation of project-based learning and promote effective student learning. Based on this, this study compensates for the limitations of individual studies by integrating and synthesizing multiple independent studies in order to systematically assess the effects of project-based learning, provide more accurate and reliable evidence, and reduce the chance of research findings. At the same time, project-based learning meta-analysis can provide a broader perspective to help researchers and educational policy makers gain a comprehensive understanding of the effects and influencing factors of project-based learning, so that they can develop more effective teaching strategies and policies to promote the improvement and development of project-based learning.

2. Literature review and theoretical framework

One view is that project-based learning can significantly improve student learning outcomes, including academic achievement, motivation, and higher-order thinking skills. Karpudewan et al. (2016) explored the feasibility of improving energy literacy among secondary school students using a project-based instructional approach. The quantitative results of the study showed that students exposed to a PBL curriculum had better performance on energy-related knowledge, attitudes, behaviors, and beliefs. The quantitative results of the study showed that students exposed to the PBL curriculum outperformed students taught using the traditional curriculum. The quantitative results of the study showed that students exposed to the PBL course outperformed students taught with traditional courses in terms of energy-related knowledge, attitudes, behaviors, and beliefs. The results of Zhang Ying’s intrinsic motivation scale, which was administered to 21 private university students before and after they received project-based learning, showed that there were significant differences in students’ interest, autonomy, and competence before and after, which positively influenced students’ intrinsic motivation to learn ( Zhang, 2022 ). Yun (2022) used the fifth-grade project “Searching for Roots. Xu Hui Yuan” project-based learning as an example to discuss that project-based in-depth ritual education can develop students’ core literacy. Biazus and Mahtari (2022) conducted a quasi-experiment using project-based learning and direct instructional learning models and found that the PBL model had a significant impact on the enhancement of creative thinking skills of secondary school students. Parrado-Martínez and Sánchez-Andújar (2020) explored the effects of project-based learning on ninth-grade students’ writing skills and found that cooperative work in project-based learning potentially promoted students’ critical thinking, communication, and collaboration skills, significantly improving middle school students’ English writing skills. Hernández-Ramos and De La Paz (2009) found that students in project-based learning conditions showed significant improvements in content knowledge measures and growth in their historical thinking skills compared to students in control schools. Most researchers agree that STEM as a form of project-based learning and STEM integration will have a positive impact on education, with the advantages outweighing the disadvantages ( Hamad et al., 2022 ; Wardat et al., 2022 ).

Another view is that project-based learning has the same effect or even some negative effects compared to traditional instruction. García-Rodríguez et al. (2021) conducted an intervention experiment in undergraduate education to test the effectiveness of a student-centered project-based learning approach in promoting student skill acquisition. The study found that students’ problem-solving and information management skills, two instrumental general competencies were not improved. The results of ÇAKICI’s project-based learning activities on fifth-grade children’s science achievement showed that although project-based activities significantly improved children’s science achievement, attitudes toward science did not change. Gratchev and Jeng (2018) explored whether the combination of traditional teaching methods and project-based learning activities improved students’ learning experiences, and data collected over 3 years showed that the two groups’ achievements were very similar, and the findings indicated that students were less motivated to accept new learning methods such as PBL. Parrado-Martínez and Sánchez-Andújar (2020) found that the implementation of PBL did not significantly change students’ perceived utility of teamwork, communication, and creativity. Kızkapan and Bektaş (2017) examined the effects of project-based learning and traditional learning methods on the academic performance of seventh graders, and the results showed no significant differences between the experimental and control groups on post-test “achievement test” scores. Sivia et al. (2019) used a mixed triangulation-convergence approach to examine the difference in student engagement between project-based and non-project-based learning units and found that project-based learning did not significantly increase student engagement. Karaçalli and Korur (2014) used a quasi-experimental design to teach the experimental group using a project-based learning approach, and the results showed no statistically significant effect on students’ attitudes toward learning across groups.

In summary, a review of the literature reveals that the research findings and teaching effectiveness of project-based learning have not yet been uniformly determined, and few studies have systematically analyzed and evaluated the optimal group size, class size, curriculum type, and subject area of project-based learning. Therefore, based on 66 empirical research papers that conducted experimental or quasi-experimental studies on project-based learning and traditional teaching, this study quantifies the true magnitude of the impact of the project-based learning approach on students’ learning outcomes and seeks to summarize the experience of applying project-based learning in schools in order to provide a reference for developing project-based teaching. And an attempt is made to answer the following research questions:

1. Does project-based learning significantly improve students’ thinking skills, academic performance, and affective attitudes compared to traditional teaching methods?

2. How do different moderating variables (type of course, learning section, group size, class size, subject category, experiment period, country region.) affect students’ learning effects?

Since the purpose of this study was to explore the effect of project-based learning on learning effectiveness and to explore other factors that may moderate this effect. Therefore, based on relevant research findings on the effect of project-based integrated learning on learning effectiveness and the results of literature coding, the meta-analytic theoretical framework for this study, as shown in Figure 1 .

Figure 1 . Research framework diagram.

3. Study design

3.1. methods.

Meta-Analysis is a quantitative analysis method that extracts and organizes multiple results of experimental or quasi-experimental studies on the same research question and then produces an average effect value by weighting the sample size, standard mean deviation, and other data from the existing research results and analyzes the effect value to obtain the results. The meta-analysis method has been widely used in education. This study compares and combines literature on the same research topic but with different research results by extracting data such as pre and post-test means, sample sizes, and standardized mean differences from relevant literature, while using the standard deviation (SMD), which can correct for small sample bias, as the effective value to indicate the degree of influence of project-based instruction on student learning outcomes. The study entered the relevant data into CMA meta-analysis software (Comprehensive Meta Analysis 3.0) for data analysis.

3.2. Research process

To ensure the quality of the study, this study strictly followed the meta-analysis criteria proposed by Glass (1976) , which was mainly divided into four assessment procedures: literature collection, literature coding, effect size calculation, and moderating variable analysis, and finally a comprehensive effect size exploration and study results.

3.2.1. Literature search

To ensure the timeliness of the study, this study mainly searched the relevant research on the topic of project-based learning since 2003 to 2023, mainly in CNKI, Springer Link, Web of Science, Semantic Scholar and other databases, and searched the literature by “AND” or “OR” logical word collocation of project-based learning and learning effectiveness keywords. The keywords of project-based learning include: project-based learning, PBL, project teaching; the keywords of learning effect include: learning effect, learning performance, learning achievement, learning*, learning outcome, learning result, etc. And the selected articles are all from SSCI or SCI authoritative journals, Chinese core journals of article literature type and part of the master’s degree thesis. To avoid omissions, this study also supplemented the search with the references of relevant articles.

3.2.2. Literature selection and inclusion criteria

To find articles that meet the subject matter requirements, this study used the ( Page, 2021 ) process for literature processing ( Vrabel, 2009 ), the literature search, screening, and inclusion process is shown in Figure 2 . Combining the needs of the meta-analysis method itself and ensuring the accuracy and rigor of the research results, the following selection and inclusion criteria were used: (1) duplicate literature had to be removed; (2) it had to be a study of the effects of project-based learning versus traditional teaching models on learning effectiveness; (3) it had to be an empirical research type article; (4) complete data that could calculate the effect values had to be available. A total of 91 articles were screened by two researchers in the inclusion phase, and those with inconsistent screening were discussed, and the final decision was made to include 66 articles in the meta-analysis, which met the inclusion criteria for the number of articles in the meta-analysis method.

Figure 2 . Flow chart of literature screening.

3.2.3. Literature code

The concept of project-based learning was first introduced by American educator William Heard Kilpatrick proposed ( Kilpatrick, 1918 ). In the 1920s and 1930s, project-based learning was widely used in the lower grades of elementary and secondary schools in the United States; in 1969, McMaster University in Canada officially launched the PBL teaching model within the school. To compare the variability of the effects of project-based learning in countries around the world, the regions of the countries where the study was conducted were coded and divided into North America, Oceania, Southeast Asia, and other regions. As project-based learning is used more frequently in the classroom, whether there is an ideal group size to facilitate student learning outcomes ( Wei et al., 2020 ), and the impact of group size on academic achievement ( Al Mulhim and Eldokhny, 2020 ), which academic section, subject, and course type is better taught, are questions that should be addressed. Therefore, the coding of this study included the following seven main items: subject category, course type, country region, academic section, class size, group size, and experimental period, and categorized learning outcomes into three main categories: academic achievement, thinking skills, and emotional attitudes. Because this study included 66 documents with 190 effect sizes, only part of the feature coding content is displayed, as shown in Table 1 ( Kelly and Mayer, 2004 ; Mioduser and Betzer, 2007 ; Hernández-Ramos and De La Paz, 2009 ; Domínguez and Elizondo, 2010 ; Keleşoğlu, 2011 ; Çakici and Türkmen, 2013 ; Karaçalli and Korur, 2014 ; Bilgin et al., 2015 ; Astawa et al., 2017 ; Kızkapan and Bektaş, 2017 ; ShiXuan, 2017 ; Yuan, 2017 ; Praba et al., 2018 ; Yexin, 2019 ; Faqing, 2020 ; Gao, 2020 ; Lei, 2020 ; Ling, 2020 ; Linxiao, 2020 ; Lu, 2020 ; Luo, 2020 ; Mingquan, 2020 ; Rui, 2020 ; Yanan, 2020 ; Yang, 2020 ; Akharraz, 2021 ; Cong, 2021 ; Migdad et al., 2021 ; Xiaolei, 2021 ; Wang, 2021a , b , 2022 ; Jina, 2022 ; Ma, 2022 ; Xu, 2022 ; Xuezhi, 2022 ; Yating, 2022 ; Ying, 2022 ; Yuting, 2022 ; Zhang, 2022 ). To ensure the objectivity of the coding process, this study was completed independently by two researchers for the 66 empirical research articles included in the meta-analysis, and the coding results were tested for consistency using SPSS 24.0, and the Kappa value was 0.864, which was greater than 0.7, indicating that the coding effect was valid and the results were credible.

Table 1 . Code list (due to space limitation, only part of the coding content is shown).

3.2.4. Data analysis

Based on the completion of the literature coding, the calculation of the effect size (Standardized difference in means), including sample size, standard deviation, and mean value, was performed by finding the relevant experimental data in the literature. The effect size values were calculated as follows:

Starting with Mean, SD, N in each group.

Raw difference in means.

RawDiff = Mean1-Mean2.

SDP = Sqr (((N1–1) * SD1^2 + (N2-1) * SD2^2)/(N1 + N2–2))).

Standardized difference in means.

StdDiff = RawDiff/SDP.

The next stage was data analysis by (1) publication bias test. A funnel plot was used for qualitative analysis, while a combination of Begg’s rank test and loss of safety coefficient was used for quantitative analysis; (2) Heterogeneity test. The aim was to determine whether there was heterogeneity among the samples in this study; (3) Calculation of effect size values. To quantify the degree of influence of project chemistry learning on learning outcomes; (4) the moderating variables were tested. All data analyses in this study were conducted using Comprehensive Meta Analysis 3.0.

4.1. General effect size results

4.1.1. publication bias test.

In this study, the std. diff in means (SMD) value was selected as the unbiased effect value, and also to ensure the possibility that the results reported in the literature do not deviate from the true results, the publication bias was analyzed qualitatively using funnel plots, and the publication bias was analyzed qualitatively using Begg’s rank test, Trim and Fill and Fail-safe N to quantitatively analyze publication bias. Publication bias is critical to the results of meta-analysis, and if the research literature is not systematically representative of all existing research in the field in general, it indicates that publication bias may exist ( Higgins and Thompson, 2002 ). As shown in Figure 3 , the majority of study effect values were clustered within the funnel plot, and a small number of effect values were relative to the right, with Begg’s rank test Z  = 5.082 > 1.960 ( p  < 0.05), indicating a possible publication bias. Therefore, the severity of publication bias was further identified using the loss of safety factor, which showed N  = 2,546, much larger than “5K + 10” ( K  = 190), suggesting that an additional 2,546 unpublished studies would be required to reverse the results ( Rothstein et al., 2006 ), and it can be concluded that there is no significant publication bias in this study.

Figure 3 . Publication bias funnel plot.

4.1.2. Heterogeneity test

To ensure that the effect values of the independent samples in this study are combinable, Q and I2 values were used to define heterogeneity. Higgins et al. classified heterogeneity as low, medium, or high, as measured by the magnitude of the I2 statistic, which was 25, 50, and 75%, respectively. In addition, if the Q statistic is significant then the hypothesis that there is no heterogeneity among the sample data should be rejected. Based on the forest plot of I2 = 87.4% > 50% and Q  = 1496.2 ( p  < 0.001), the results indicate that there is a high degree of heterogeneity between the samples, therefore, this study used a random effects model for correlation analysis to eliminate some of the effects of heterogeneity, and also further indicates that it is necessary to conduct a moderated effects test to examine the effect of project-based learning on learning effects.

4.2. Results about problem of studies’ fields

4.2.1. the overall impact of project-based learning on student learning outcomes.

Cohen (1988) proposed the effect value analysis theory in 1988, he believed that the effect standard measure effect is determined by the effect value (ES), when the ES is less than 0.2, it means that there is a small effect impact, when the ES is between 0.2–0.8 means that there is a moderate effect, when the ES > 0.8 means that there is a significant effect impact. This study included 190 experimental data from 66 empirical research papers, and as shown in Table 2 , the combined effect value of the impact of project-based learning on student learning outcomes was 0.441, close to 0.5 and p  < 0.001, indicating that project-based learning has a large degree of impact on learning outcomes and is an effective teaching approach.

Table 2 . Main effects test.

In this study, the literature included in the meta-analysis was divided into three subcategories of academic achievement, thinking skills, and emotional attitudes according to the “three-dimensional goals” for analysis. Moderately positive impact (SMD = 0.650), and the total effect values for affective attitudes and thinking skills were 0.389 and 0.386, respectively.

Based on the deeper connotation of “three-dimensional goals,” this study classifies affective attitudes into learning motivation, learning attitude, learning interest, and self-efficacy; thinking skills into creative thinking ability, computational thinking ability, decision-making ability, critical thinking ability, problem-solving ability, problem raising ability, collaboration ability, and comprehensive application ability. As shown in Table 3 . In terms of affective attitudes, project-based learning influenced more on students’ interest in learning (SMD = 0.713), and also had moderate positive effects on learning motivation (SMD = 0.401) and learning attitudes (SMD = 0.536), with lower effects on self-efficacy; in terms of thinking skills, project-based learning had the most significant effects on students’ creative thinking skills (SMD = 0.626) and computational thinking skills (SMD = 0.719) had the most significant effect, followed by problem solving, collaboration, and general application skills, but the effects on decision making, critical thinking, and problem raising skills did not reach a statistically significant level.

Table 3 . Effects of project-based learning on different learning outcomes.

4.2.2. Examining the effects of different moderating variables on student learning

First, in terms of country region as a moderating variable, the overall effect value of its moderating effect on learning effectiveness was 0.358 and p  < 0.001, indicating a moderate effect and the effects varied across countries. In terms of effect values between groups, although project-based learning originated in the United States and was first applied in American countries such as Canada, its effect on student learning outcomes was not significant (SMD = 0.061, p  = 0.429 > 0.05), and there was no significant difference in whether or not project-based learning was used; instead, the application of project-based learning produced better learning outcomes in Asian countries, especially in Southeast Asian countries (SMD = 0.684), followed by West Asia (SMD = 0.594).

Second, looking at the school level as the moderating variable, the overall effect value SMD = 0.355, in order of effect value from smallest to largest, is university (SMD = 0.116) < junior high school (SMD = 0.520) < primary school (SMD = 0.527) < high school (SMD = 0.720), which indicates that there are differences in the effects of project-based learning on the learning outcomes of students in different school levels, with the effects on high school, primary school, and junior high school, while the effect on college was relatively small.

Third, using group size as the moderating variable, the combined effect value of group size on learning effectiveness is 0.592 ( p  < 0.001), which is close to 0.6, indicating that the effect of group size on students’ learning effectiveness is more significant and has a moderate to a high degree of facilitating effect. In terms of the effect values of different sizes, the effect values are all positive, indicating that the group learning style is effective and has different degrees of facilitating effects on learning effects, with the most significant facilitating effect of a group size of 4–5 students on learning effects (SMD = 0.909).

Fourth, to test the applicability of project-based learning on different class sizes, the class sizes were divided into three sizes according to the sample size: small (1 ~ 100 students), medium (100 ~ 200 students), and large (200 ~ 300 students), and the data in Table 4 show that the overall effect value of the moderating effect of class size on the learning effect is 0.378, p  < 0.001, indicating that project-based learning on different class size. Looking specifically at each size, the degree of impact was higher for small class sizes (SMD = 0.483), followed by medium size (SMD = 0.466), but lower and not significant for large class sizes (SMD = 0.106, p  = 0.101 < 0.05).

Table 4 . Results of moderating effects of different moderating variables.

Fifth, when subject categories were viewed as moderating variables, all subject effect values were larger than 0, with a combined effect value of SMD = 0.443 ( p  < 0.001), suggesting that project-based learning had a positive degree of enhancement on learning effectiveness across subjects, reaching a statistically significant difference. Due to the relatively small amount of literature in other categories and life sciences, this study focuses on the effects of project-based learning on learning outcomes in engineering and technology, humanities and social, and natural sciences. In each of the subjects, Engineering and Technology (SMD = 0.619) > Natural Sciences (SMD = 0.484) > Humanities and Society (SMD = 0.284), the results indicate that project-based learning has the most significant impact on learning effectiveness in Engineering and Technology and relatively less in Humanities and Society.

Sixth, the overall effect value SMD = 0.441 when looking at the type of course as a moderating variable, while the between-group effect test between experimental and theoretical classes reached a statistically significant level ( p  < 0.001). The effect of project-based learning on student learning outcomes was more pronounced in experimental classes (SMD = 0.498), which was greater than the overall combined effect value, consistent with the finding that project-based learning is more suitable and effective teaching strategy for engineering and technology disciplines, while the use of project-based teaching in theory classes (SMD = 0.393) was below the average effect value.

Seventh, in terms of the experimental period as a moderating variable, there were significant differences in project-based learning across experimental periods ( p  < 0.001), with a moderating overall effect value of SMD = 0.424. The best effect of instructional facilitation was observed for the duration of 9–18 weeks (SMD = 0.673), which was better than single experiments (SMD = 0.359) and 1–8 weeks (SMD = 0.498), with a relatively weak effect on learning outcomes beyond 18 weeks (SMD = 0.3000).

5. Discussion

This study used meta-analysis to systematically review and quantitatively analyze 66 experimental or quasi-experimental research papers published between 2003 and 2023 on the effects of project-based instruction on student learning, and to dissect the differences brought about by different moderating variables. The results show that: ① project-based learning can significantly improve students’ learning outcomes compared with traditional teaching models; ② the effects of project-based teaching and learning are influenced by different moderating variables, including subject area, course type, academic period, group size, class size, and experiment period. The results derived from the meta-analysis are further discussed and analyzed below.

5.1. Project-based learning has a positive effect on student learning outcomes

First, the combined effect value of SMD = 0.441 ( p  < 0.001) for the effect of project-based learning on learning outcomes indicates that compared to the traditional teaching model, project-based teaching has a moderately positive contribution to students’ academic achievement, thinking skills, and affective attitudes, which is consistent with the results of previous studies ( Wenlan and Jiao, 2019 ). This is consistent with previous studies. Compared with the traditional “teacher teach-student receive-evaluate and feedback” model, project-based learning is closer to a “complete learning process” ( Changming, 2020 ). It is a student-centered learning activity in which students show richer affective attitudes such as interest in learning and attitudes toward learning, which can positively guide students’ motivation to learn and influence their academic performance, and is naturally more effective in developing students’ emotional attitudes and values, and thinking skills.

Second, project-based learning has a significant positive effect on students’ thinking skills (SMD = 0.387, p  < 0.001) and affective attitudes (SMD = 0.379, p  < 0.001), indicating that the effect of project-based learning on students’ learning outcomes is not only the effect of academic performance, but also the effect of self-emotional attitudes and values, creative thinking skills, computational thinking skills, and other higher-order The impact of project-based learning on students’ learning is not only on their academic performance, but also on their self-emotional attitudes and values, creative thinking skills, computational thinking skills and other higher-order thinking skills. Project-based learning is a classroom activity that effectively develops students’ core literacies ( Hongxing, 2017 ) and promotes the development of higher-order thinking ( Weihong and Yinglong, 2019 ). The real value of project-based learning lies in its ability to enhance students’ higher-order thinking skills, such as creative thinking skills, problem-solving skills, and integrated application skills, by exploring real problems in small groups as a way to acquire the core concepts and principles of subject knowledge, and by posing driving questions around a topic based on real situations and students’ deep involvement in the investigation. Education for the future requires project-based learning to develop students’ 21st century skills and core literacies for their future careers and lives.

5.2. Moderating effects of different variables on student learning outcomes

To better analyze the impact brought by different moderating variables, this study categorized the moderating variables into four major categories: first, country region; second, curriculum, including subject categories and course types; third, teaching, including experimental period and learning periods; and fourth, experimental scale, including class size and group size. The results of the meta-analysis show as follows: (1) the application effect of project-based learning in Asia is better than that in countries in Oceania and Western Europe; (2) project-based learning has different degrees of influence on different disciplines and is better applied in the type of laboratory course; (3) in terms of the experimental period, the experimental period of 9–18 weeks is more appropriate and the application advantage of project-based learning at the high school level is more obvious; (4) project-based learning is more suitable for small-class teaching, in which the best effect is achieved when the group size is 4–5 students.

In terms of country region, the combined effect value of project-based learning is 0.358, and the application effect varies in different countries. In the Asian region, especially Southeast Asia, the effect of project-based learning is significantly better than that of Western Europe and North America. This study suggests the following reasons: First, Southeast Asian countries are relatively lagging in economic development, and industrialization and modernization are slower, so students and teachers pay more attention to practical learning methods, and project-based learning is a practice-based, problem-solving-oriented learning method that can better help them adapt and master skills and knowledge in actual work. Secondly, because the level of basic education in some Southeast Asian countries is relatively low due to various factors such as history, culture, and society, the project-based learning method can help students understand practical problems more deeply, comprehend knowledge, and enhance their hands-on and problem-solving abilities. Third, in Western European countries, students and teachers focus more on theoretical knowledge and logical thinking, individual student performance, and competition, and in countries such as Oceania, students and teachers focus more on practicality and teamwork. In Asia, however, the educational culture emphasizes a focus on discipline, order, and respect for teachers, making project-based learning more acceptable to students and parents. Students’ attitudes toward learning are also generally more serious, hard-working, and diligent, focusing on academic performance and opportunities for advancement, so students are more willing to engage in project-based learning in the hope of achieving better learning outcomes. Fourthly, in Asia, especially in East Asia, there is a strong demand for high-quality human resources, and project-based learning can cultivate students’ practical skills and innovative spirit, making them more competitive and capable of adapting to the future society.

In terms of curriculum, the combined effects of project-based learning on different subject areas and different course types were approximately equal, at 0.443 and 0.441, respectively, and the effect on student learning in engineering and technology disciplines was more significant (SMD = 0.619) and larger than the average effect, which is consistent with previous research findings that PBL is more appropriate for teaching in engineering ( Kolmos and De Graaff, 2014 ). Facing the rapidly developing society, the traditional teaching methods seem to be unable to better develop students’ skills to meet the market demand, and the research results also show that the application effect of PBL in experimental classes (SMD = 0.498) is better than that in theoretical classes (SMD = 0.393), because PBL can give students a complete understanding of the process of a project from problem raising to problem-solving, which provides them with valuable practical experience.

From the instructional aspect, the experimental period of 9–18 weeks (SMD = 0.673) had the greatest impact on student learning effects, and the impact of project-based learning for more than 18 weeks (SMD = 0.359) was relatively low, while the results of the study showed that project-based learning had a greater impact at the high school level (SMD = 0.720), followed by elementary school, middle school, and university, a finding that supports the results of Mehmet’s study ( Ayaz and Soeylemez, 2015 ). The moderating effect of the experimental period showed that the longer the experiment, the better the effect of about half a semester, and the project-based learning did not have a lasting and stable effect on students’ learning outcomes. Currently project-based learning is carried out more often at the primary and secondary school levels, and the teaching effect is more significant, but the application effect in universities is relatively low (SMD = 0.116), and the results of the study also indicate that the application promotion effect is most obvious in engineering and technology disciplines, so in the follow-up study, the application of project-based learning at the higher education level should be actively explored.

In terms of experimental scale, the effect of project-based learning on small class teaching (SMD = 0.483) is greater than that of medium class (SMD = 0.466) and large class (SMD = 0.106), and the teaching effect is better for group size of 4–5 people (SMD = 0.909), 8 people and above (SMD = 0.514), and 6–7 people (SMD = 0.436) in decreasing order. Therefore, project-based learning is more suitable for small-class teaching, and the number of people in the group collaborative learning is more conducive to the learning effect of around 4–5 people, which is almost consistent with the results of Wei et al. (2020) study on the effect of cooperative learning on learning effect. The relationship between class size and educational output has been discussed by a number of economists from the perspective of the economics of education, and is referred to as the “class size effect.” In small classes, teachers can spend more time on teaching and learning, each student can receive more attention from the teacher, and teachers and students can have more time to interact, thus having more opportunities to demonstrate and participate in collaborative group learning. In terms of group size, although there is no uniform standard, in general, too few or too many group members are not conducive to a higher degree of impact on the learning effect. From the research results, the best learning effect is produced by 4–5 students, with more reasonable task distribution among group members, all with a clear division of labor and sufficient interaction, which is more conducive to the formation of the group effect, thus better promoting the learning effect.

5.3. How does the impact of project-based learning on learning outcomes occur?

The results of the study show that project-based learning has a moderate positive contribution to learning effectiveness under different measurement measures dimensions, and how its effect occurs. The theoretical framework of the impact of project-based learning on learning effectiveness is drawn in conjunction with the specific processes and key features of project-based learning, as shown in Figure 4 , and will be analyzed in the following in conjunction with the theoretical framework.

Figure 4 . Theoretical framework for the impact of project-based learning on learning effects.

In terms of the specific process of project-based learning, it includes five steps: identifying project goals and scope, developing a project plan, implementing the project, monitoring project progress and solving problems, completing the project and presenting and evaluating it, and these steps include key activities that affect learning outcomes such as problem orientation, cooperative learning, and authenticity, which together affect students’ learning outcomes.

Specifically, project-based learning is usually oriented to real-life problems, requiring students to apply their knowledge and skills to solve problems, and the driving questions stimulate students’ interest in learning; it integrates the knowledge and skills of multiple disciplines, blending theoretical knowledge with practice and cultivating students’ creative thinking skills and comprehensive application skills; in the process of implementing projects, group members divide the work and cooperate to identify problems and After the project is completed and presented, the teacher gives timely feedback and evaluation to influence students’ attitude in project-based learning and improve the learning effect. In conclusion, the specific process and characteristics of project-based learning are the key factors to enhance students’ learning effect. Reasonable design of project characteristics and the application of different variables in project-based learning can effectively enhance students’ learning effect.

5.4. When is it more effective to use project-based learning?

The findings suggest that learning effects are influenced by different moderating variables, and this study suggests combining the effects of different variables for project-based learning in order to achieve the optimal effect size. For high school students in the field of engineering and technology subject areas of laboratory courses to 9–18 weeks as the experimental period, based on small class teaching, and group size of 4–5 people using the PBL method of teaching, to promote the improvement of student learning outcomes more effective. In experimental courses, the use of project-based learning can enable students to gain a deeper understanding of the principles and practical operations of experiments, increase their interest and motivation, and promote the development of their active learning and innovative thinking skills, thus improving learning outcomes. Small class teaching and group work can better meet students’ individual needs, enhance their sense of participation and belonging, and increase their interest and motivation in learning. Finally, the 9–18 weeks experimental cycle allows students to make the most of their time and explore the subject matter in depth, enabling them to gain deeper understanding and experience in their learning. It is hoped that the results of this study will provide a reference for front-line educators to carry out project-based teaching and explore more effective ways to promote learning outcomes.

6. Conclusion

This study conducted a meta-analysis of 66 empirical research papers on the use of project-based learning interventions for learning, and the findings provide evidence for the use of project-based learning in education to develop students’ core literacy and higher-order thinking skills, and 21st-century skills. The results show that: (1) project-based learning can significantly improve students’ learning outcomes compared with traditional teaching models; (2) the effects of project-based teaching are influenced by different moderating variables, including subject area, course type, academic period, group size, class size, and experiment period. From the perspective of countries and regions, the effect of project-based learning in Asia, especially in Southeast Asia, is significantly better than that in Western Europe and North America; from the perspective of courses, project-based learning has a more obvious effect on promoting students’ learning in engineering and technology disciplines, and the application effect in experimental classes is better than that in theory classes; from the perspective of teaching, project-based learning is more suitable for small-class teaching, in which the best effect is achieved with a group size of 4–5 students From the perspective of teaching, project-based learning is more suitable for small class teaching, and the best effect is achieved in group size of 4–5 students.

7. Limitation

Although our findings have important implications for educators, they still have some limitations. For example, some studies using project-based learning for teaching and learning lacked sufficient statistical information for inclusion in the analysis, and most of the studies did not provide a specific classification of learning effectiveness, limiting our ability to analyze learning effectiveness enhancement in more detail. Subsequent research can be carried out in depth in two aspects: (1) the current empirical studies on project-based learning focus on primary and secondary schools, with less research on the impact on universities and young children; with the popularity of higher education, future research can be conducted on the above research subjects; (2) taking the digital transformation of education as an opportunity to explore the integration of technology and project-based learning to better develop students’ core literacy and 21st century skills.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Author contributions

YM: critically review the work, provide commentary, supervise and direct the writing of the draft. LZ: conceptualization, methodology, validation, quantitative data analysis, writing, review and editing. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

This work was supported by the Chongqing graduate education teaching reform research project (No. yjg201009), the Postgraduate Research Innovation Project of Chongqing in 2023 (No. CYS23419, No. CYS23416), and the Special Project of Chongqing Normal University Institute of Smart Education in 2023 (No. YZH23013).

Acknowledgments

We would like to sincerely thank all the teachers and students of Computer and Information Science, Chongqing Normal University, for their support and contributions to us, especially for the support from the Smart Education Research Institute.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Keywords: project-based learning, learning effects, 21st century skills, higher-order thinking, meta-analysis

Citation: Zhang L and Ma Y (2023) A study of the impact of project-based learning on student learning effects: a meta-analysis study. Front. Psychol . 14:1202728. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1202728

Received: 09 April 2023; Accepted: 13 June 2023; Published: 17 July 2023.

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• Published: 08 December 2020

Project-based learning: an analysis of cooperation and evaluation as the axes of its dynamic

• Berta de la Torre-Neches   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7305-362X 1 ,
• Mariano Rubia-Avi 1 ,
• Jose Luis Aparicio-Herguedas 2 &
• Jairo Rodríguez-Medina   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6466-5525 3  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  7 , Article number:  167 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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• Development studies

Project-based learning is an active method that develops the maximum involvement and participation of students in the learning process. It requires the teacher to energize the learning scenario by promoting the cooperation of students to investigate, make decisions and respond to the challenges of the project. It also requires activating an evaluation system that promotes awareness, reflexivity and a critical spirit, facilitating deeper learning. This case study aims to understand the functioning of cooperative work established during the application of the method, as well as to know how the evaluation process progresses in the perspective of a group of teachers of secondary education that set up this methodology in their classes. The data obtained from interviews with the teachers involved in the study, teachers’ notebooks, and open-question questionnaire applied to high-school students are analyzed. Although the students were organized in small groups in order to develop their collaborative skills, intragroup frictions and conflicts were not sufficiently addressed or supervised in time by the teachers, thus resulting in an incomplete development of the synergies and collaboration necessaries to the project. From the point of view of the evaluation, the importance of the implementation of training and shared evaluation systems is well recognized, although a more traditional evaluation model, which does not sufficiently address the project development process prevails, and the value of the qualification on the final product achieved still weights.

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Introduction

As a result of the crisis scenario that began in Spain in 2007, the need to incorporate to the Secondary Education stage some subjects with economic contents, was posed in order to introduce and make students understand the socio-economic circumstances in the world. Simultaneously, teaching methods have been incorporating some learning methodologies that aim to make students able to solve, with involvement, the problems presented to them (Martín and Rodríguez, 2015 ). Some of these methods orient learning towards a competitive character such as cooperative methodologies, gamification or project-based learning (PBL) (Hernández March, 2006 ).

The PBL method is a methodological alternative that involves direct contact with the object of study and ends with the realization of a work project by the students initially proposed by the teacher (Bell, 2010 ), applying knowledge and skills and developing an attitude of commitment (Sánchez, 2018 ). In order to do this, students analyze the topic raised, think about it, organize themselves, search for information, work as a team and make decisions. It is, therefore, intended to promote knowledge of the contents as well as the management of skills and attitudes, learning to mobilize those resources said in situation and to solve problems (Perrenoud, 2008 ).

The experience carried out requires students to face real-life problem statements through activities that suit their interests (Krajcik and Blumenfeld, 2006 ), find and use tools to address them and act collaboratively to propose solutions through an action plan (Barret, 2005 ; Bender, 2012 ; Blumenfeld et al., 1991 ). Traditional training models are based in the premise that students have to know the content in order to apply it in solving a problem. The PBL reverses this order and considers that students obtain the knowledge while solving a problem (Jonassen, 2011 ), an aspect that results in a higher quality of the information they handle to solve it, since it is shared, discussed and applied in a concrete situation (Thomas, 2000 ).

Thus, through PBL, students plan, discuss, and implement projects that have real-world impact and are significant to them (Blank, 1997 ; Dickinson et al., 1998 ). They implement skills for the management of interpersonal and team relationships, the teacher acting as a guide and counselor during the learning process (Kolmos, 2012 ; Thomas, 2000 ). This allows students to think about their proposals, develop them and become aware of the process itself and everything that it implies beyond the results achieved (Brundiers and Wiek, 2013 ; García et al., 2010 ).

In this way, the acquisition of social skills, empathetic behavior, dialog and listening (Belland et al., 2006 ), the development of critical and reflective thinking (Mergendoller et al., 2006 ) is favored by activating competencies such as collaboration, decision-making, organization and group responsibility (Blank, 1997 ; Dickinson et al., 1998 ), contributing to the development of a more motivating and participatory learning climate (Lima et al., 2007 ).

This methodological aspect requires, in parallel, the review of the evaluation systems; it appears as necessary to leave behind the traditional cumulative models to introduce a new model of more formative, shared and authentic evaluation that is able to guarantee a greater involvement of the students in the development of their and their peer’s learning process (Brown and Race, 2013 ). An authentic evaluation offers the students opportunities to learn through the evaluation process planned and directed by the teacher. When the evaluation system is carefully designed to articulate with the learning results that are expected to be achieved, it is possible to obtain benefits in terms of greater participation and helps students to advance in the development of their knowledge, skills and attitudes (Brown, 2015 ).

Cooperation as the basis of project-based learning

One of the essential aspects of developing the PBL is the management of cooperation between the group participants, an aspect that must be guaranteed and supervised by offering sufficient feedback (Thomas, 2000 ). For Orlick ( 1986 ) cooperation is directly related to communication, cohesion, trust and skills development for positive social interaction.

However, Díaz-Barriga and Hernández ( 2002 ) consider that group work, which teachers frequently launch in project initiatives, does not necessarily implies true cooperation and there are many interpersonal problems that students face (Prince and Felder, 2006 ). This aspect prevents a real learning of collaboration and its application in action to address the shared phase of project management.

Burdett ( 2007 ) considers that, sometimes within the group, interpersonal relationships are strained since participation in group work involves much more than each member’s knowledge on a given subject: It involves listening, negotiating, giving in; ultimately, skills that favor the dynamics of group work. Such situations of tension and intragroup crises jeopardize the assignment to be developed and the effectiveness of group synergy, as established by Del Canto et al. ( 2009 ), Jhen and Mannix ( 2001 ), Kerr and Bruun ( 1983 ), Putnam ( 1997 ), and Velázquez ( 2013 ) and those are grouped around five critical dimensions: Differences in individual capacities to complete assignments, resulting in the stowaway effect ; imbalance in the functions to be performed; early abandonment in completing assignments due to unresolved discrepancies; struggle to make one’s own ideas prevail and lack of communicative skills.

Also for Kerr and Bruun ( 1983 ) and Slavin ( 2014 ) tensions arise from the lack of a follow-up by the teacher in the group work process entrusted to their students, not monitoring the performance and contribution of each member by thriving the aforementioned stowaway effect, imbalances in workloads borne by each member and unresolved crises in interpersonal relationships, not benefiting the task management, the project development and its fair evaluation.

Intragroup conflicts often cause widespread student complaints, lack of motivation, frustration, and occasionally, a preference for individual work that does seem to guarantee the fair evaluation of the assignment (Gámez and Torres, 2012 ; McConnell, 2005 ).

That is why establishing initial cooperative learning dynamics to learn how to collaborate, assume new responsibilities, communicate and assertively express ideas (Velázquez, 2013 ), is essential to get started in the PBL methodology. Johnson et al. ( 1999a ) define cooperative learning as a work-based methodology in small, usually heterogeneous groups in which students work together to improve their own and other member’s learning.

Several authors understand cooperative learning as an active methodology that favors the reflection of students while completing the assignment; not only des it allow to achieve academic goals, but also social objectives, it stimulates interaction through the proposal of small groups and guides the realization of a type of group work, structured and monitored, to favor the learning of all the members of the group without exception (Dyson, 2002 ; Johnson et al., 1999b ; Kagan, 2000 ; Pujolàs, 2009 ).

According to Johnson and Johnson ( 1999 ) the management of cooperative learning by teachers requires, for its effectiveness, guarantees in the management of positive interdependence, making the students understand that work benefits colleagues by prioritizing “us” over “I”, proactive interaction, individual responsibility, interpersonal skills, and group processing at the end of the work sessions performed.

The teacher establishes a structured process of true cooperation easing the development of academic objectives, but also other competitive objectives: cooperation, communication, social skills (Walberg and Paik, 2002 ).

It is important to note in this regard the role of the evaluation on the projects implemented, developed and presented. Pérez-Pueyo and López-Pastor ( 2017 ) propose a model of formative evaluation through the use of cooperative projects, in which a further step is taken in the autonomy of the students by fully involving them in the teaching process through shared tutoring, especially when the realization of projects that require a lot of involvement or levels of complexity in their realization is encouraged. In addition, the use of tools such as auto evaluations and group co-evaluations (Hamodi et al., 2015 ), allow the teacher to give more effective feedback during the process, based on the information provided by the students.

Based on the contributions of the various authors cited above, who understand cooperative learning as an active methodology that allows students to achieve not only academic goals but also social objectives, thus promoting the learning for all the students without exceptions, the present study aims to achieve the following objectives: Understanding the functioning of cooperative work present in the development of the operational dynamics of the PBL launched.

Knowing how the formative evaluation process develops in the operational dynamics of the PBL.

Participants and context

The study included 16 students on their fourth year of Secondary Education (with an average of 15 years old, 8 females and 8 males) attending Cristo Rey Polytechnic Institute in the city of Valladolid, and taking the elective subject of Economics. Also three male teachers and two female teachers (ages [35–57]) who teach at the same center and stage, in which they apply PBL as an active methodology. All procedures were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

During the development of the research, the ability of students to work through PBL was tested, applying the academic project entitled My Business Plan , throughout the subject of Economics in the compulsory secondary education stage. The students were arranged in groups of 4 to 5 members with different capacities and potentialities.

These heterogeneous groups allowed the development of various skills by the students, with the intention of improving them together with intragroup interpersonal relationships.

Data collection and information analysis tools

An in-depth interview was designed for teachers who were to some extent incorporating PBL as an active methodology in the development of their subjects. They thus form a representation of the faculty imparting subjects such as Economics, Geography and History, Biology and Geology, Physics and Chemistry and Philosophy. At the same time, an open-question questionnaire was designed for students. Finally, a reflexive diary was drafted in which observations were recorded from the experiences carried out in class.

In relation to the analysis of the information obtained, the ATLAS.ti software has been used, confectioning a work of textual analysis of the transcripts of teachers’ interviews, the answers on the open questions of the questionnaire answered by the students, alongside with the teacher’s own reflexive diary.

On the three primary documents, a coding process is carried out inductively and deductively through two cycles (Miles et al., 2014 ). Thus, during the process, a constant circular relationship between the codes already obtained and the new ones I created, refining the concepts, grouping them, to infer in higher-level constructs as groups of explanatory codes (Kalpokaite and Radivojevic, 2019 ).

The codes obtained during the first coding cycle were analyzed critically and independently by the four researchers participating in the study establishing a thoughtful debate. Continuous feedback between researchers and their ongoing participation in the regeneration and refinement of codes and groups of codes supported the credibility, reliability and transparency of the research (Neal et al., 2015 ).

It was considered that saturation had been reached at the time where comparisons between the data ceased to show new relationships and properties between them, depleting that representative wealth of a circular analytical process (Flick, 2007 ).

In order to address the credibility aspects of the research in relation to the interpretative difficulties of the phenomenon studied (Lincoln and Guba, 1985 ), a structure of prolonged over time experimentation was developed, with the presence of the researcher at the location, maintaining the same methodological order, establishing her figure as an observer teacher during the time of research; in the analysis of the data, a process of triangulation was developed from the three aforementioned sources of documentary data, this allowing the contrast of the discoveries.

Forty-one explanatory codes of the phenomenon under investigation were established and grouped around four categories: Learning, interaction-collaboration, motivation, organization.

The use of the ATLAS.ti software as a code co-coordinate tool was convenient, allowing to observe how four codes of the categories Learning and Interaction-Collaboration related to each other: cooperation, conflicts, evaluation and project. Their relational study allows to reflect critically on the several handicaps found and whose consideration is essential for the applicability of the practice.

Thus, to address the first objective of the study—knowing the functioning of cooperative work in the development of the operational dynamics of the PBL launched—taking as a starting point the perceptions of the teachers interviewed and the relationships they establish between PBL and cooperation, they show a formula of practical application using cooperative structures in the form of small groups, which they consider makes it easier for students to encourage communication, to develop skills for interpersonal relationships, as well as individual and group responsibility in the fulfillment of the assignments proposed.

(…) I mix it at first with cooperative work, with small groups, with cooperative structures because being such dense subjects (…) and at the end of the school year, the last quarter, we already work on the project (Male Teaching Interview. 4:69).

In the groups, the smaller the better they work, (I would recommend) four tops, like last year (…) this allows everyone to work, if they are too many, the tasks get diluted and if there are very few, and it also happens sometimes, if one is sick or misses class for some reason for too many days, the groups gets resented… then it rally allows to work on relationships and influences the quality of learning very clearly by what I say… one is good at one thing, the other is good at some other thing, and they end up learning from each other (Male Teaching Interview. 4:358).

The same teacher considers, in the application of the methodology, the creation of small working groups, defending this formula as very valuable to develop the communicative and negotiation abilities to reach agreements and coordinate with others, the students winning from an experiential point of view, in socialization and interaction resources.

I divided the class into 4 groups of 4 students each (…), they had ten minutes to explain in front of the rest of the classmates what their business model was by answering various questions. (…) the idea of the project is that they are the ones who work on this concept throughout the course and thus gradually become familiar with that environment and its vocabulary (Reflexive Diary. 3:394).

Through the PBL they work together, they talk more, they must agree on different aspects, and it requires coordination, that is, an effort of all of them, not depending so much on their individual abilities; this approach is very different from the master class, and I do believe that, from a social point of view, socialization develops more and better this way (Reflexive Diary. 4:412).

However, the same teachers interviewed acknowledge that, during the development of the methodology, applying group work strategies for cooperation, numerous frictions and interpersonal conflicts are often triggered within the working groups. A closer attention is put on those students who does not follow the intended pattern of behavior and unleash conflict because they do not assume or carry out their workload.

The most negative aspect are those students who do not want to participate, or find it difficult to participate, or do not get involved and seriously harm the group, and sometimes problems such as friction and conflicts can appear among them for this reason; working individually, logically, there is no such problem (Female Teacher Interview. 4:150).

That student who is a little lazier, they can take advantage of the group work situation so that others work a little for them (Male teacher interview. 4:343).

This aspect is also observed and recorded by the teacher in her reflexive diary, acknowledging incidents that are likely to occur in the groups, generating some interpersonal conflict and influence on group performance to carry out the tasks of the project.

There is a group of four boys who you have to tell off and who I do not intend to bring together in the future for the groups of the project (Reflexive Diary. 3:296).

Z (…) during group work he plays with the table, gets distracted by what other teammates do (…). I think he’s a boy who is too easily distracted and annoys his peers (Reflexive Diary. 3:160).

The students themselves consider that the project suffers when situations in which not all members of the group work in tune occur, creating imbalances in the effort made and in the management of the workloads and involvement assumed, which have an impact not only on the realization of the tasks and assignments and their final evaluation, but also on the intragroup climate.

I don’t like it when there’s someone in my group who doesn’t work and gets the same grade as me or we fail the project all because of him, because we don’t all work equally; sometimes I felt that if I didn’t tell them to do something, they wouldn’t do it (Student Questionnaire. 5:242)

There are groups where only one or two people work and it’s not fair. The rest of them get too comfortable and their work is minimal. I would try watching those who do not work, or not giving them the same grade (Student Questionnaire. 5:123)

When the members of the group do not work, the project can be a disaster; and if a person does not want to do their job then discussions arise; for me the experience is negative because I did work and I did it all by myself (Student Questionnaire. 6:134)

With regard to the second objective of the study, knowing how the formative evaluation process develops in the operational dynamics of the PBL, taking into account the teachers involved in the inclusion of PBL in their teaching practice, it seems to show a difficult development, recognizing the constant presence of tests and evaluations as a generalized tool of measurement of the acquired knowledge. However, it recognizes the value of other competence aspects that must necessarily be considered by applying tools that make it easier for students to raise awareness of the developed learnings, as well as the value of the teacher as a guide who oversees the learning process and controls and leads it.

Evaluation is a complex topic because if you base your work on projects and in the end you give them an exam you are giving more value to the contents and not so much to everything else; that is why for the final evaluation we are already working on taking into consideration the valuable opinions of each one, that of the classmates, the ones shared among students and teachers through auto evaluation practices, co-evaluation and heteroevaluation. In this way they develop their critical ability, their capability to value themselves and others (Male Teacher Interview. 4:323).

I like as a teacher to supervise how they perform the practice of PBL, if everyone works and contributes; then I believe that this work is done in front of them (Male teacher interview. 4:442).

When one works in a group within the classroom the relationship between the students and the teacher is reinforced because they are no longer seen as a figure of authority or a superior, but as a guide who knows, who helps, who collaborates with them and listens to them (Female Teacher Interview. 4:388).

The same teacher in her reflexive diary mentions the use of evaluation practices such as co-evaluation allowing the students to express themselves in order to participate and getting them involved through paper presentations and consequent evaluation between classmates; she also references the heteroevaluation allowing the time for student-teacher dialog based on the assignments and a proposal to solve the project addressed.

What I want is for them to work a little bit and, to make sure of that, as they develop the eight sections on their project, they must make a presentation in front of the rest of their classmates that will be evaluated by themselves and commented by the rest of us (Reflexive Diary. 3:701).

Once the presentations were completed, I gave each group a questionnaire to conduct a co-evaluation on the project addressed; for this evaluation, each group would evaluate the work presented by the other groups, grading representatively each of the sections of the project, so that we could have several grades to be used for the final evaluation of the project (Reflexive Diary. 3:335).

To conclude, the students recognize certain limitations in the evaluation of their work, mainly in a key of a non-follow-up of the process established in the classroom to address the project and the assignments required. They propose solutions to develop a greater control on those people in the group who do not contribute in the realization of the aforementioned assignments, as well as a better management of the final grade that, being the same for the whole group, is detrimental, in their perception, to the formation of a fair value in relation to the unequal effort made. Sometimes the proposed solutions are oriented in an opposite direction to the cooperative spirit that the PBL promotes.

The way I would solve the problem of those colleagues who take advantage of the work of others when working as a group is to set them alone to work; to do their own project; that way, at least they would control those who do not work (Student Questionnaire. 5:168).

As a positive experience, I find working with projects more enjoyable and entertaining; the most negative thing is that it is almost never worked equally, and approximately the same grade is received. It is better to grade individually instead of having a final group grade (Student Questionnaire. 3:356).

The problem with those classmates who take advantage of other’s work when working in a group I would solve by telling the teacher, and giving an individual grade on each assignment done by each group member, specifying who did what (Student Questionnaire. 5:206).

When teaching methods such as PBL are used, in which the teacher poses a question, a challenge or a specific problem connected with the reality that students have to solve (Bell, 2010 ), the degree of involvement of these students seems to increase. In the teaching-learning process, they become the protagonists when they are invited to seek, assess, interpret and share information with the rest of the group members, and they apply a more critical way of thinking, since they are constantly and mutually questioned about why and what are they studying for.

In this sense, the students participate collaboratively in all the proposed assignments: understanding and interpretation of data, collection of information, preparation of partial deliveries, writing of the final report, and oral presentation before others, assessing the problem or challenge proposed with the intention of being able to draw their own conclusions.

In the implementation of these formative dynamics as an alternative to more traditional methodological models, a new way of generating and developing learning is consequently activated, applying a cooperative work model, being the management of group activity to face the project a vital aspect.

In relation to the cooperative dynamics of operation of the PBL experiences developed, the implementation of a methodological model is observed; this model is based, as a starting point, on cooperative structures by which the students are intended to address the project. Such structures materialize in the form of small and heterogeneous groups that seek to guarantee communication between their members (Johnson et al., 1999a ), unleashing a strongly competency learning model (Perrenoud, 2008 ) in which students have to combine the knowledge, skills and attitudes that they learn, in a shared way with their classmates, to face the assignments and carry out the project proposed and presented by the teacher (Bell, 2010 ; Thomas, 2000 ).

In the same way, intentionally, the dynamics proposed by teachers through this methodology intend to trigger learning situations in which negotiation, compromise, listening, agreement-reaching and coordination to make decisions and solve problems are aspects of interaction and socialization necessarily to be encouraged, as established by Belland et al. ( 2006 ) and Bender ( 2012 ).

However, there is a general concern about the management in the classroom of the cooperative structures placed in order to develop the project. Friction, conflicts inherent in group life and the consequence of the cooperation dynamics applied to establish in a shared way the action plan to address the entrusted project are recognized. They identify in certain students a lack of willingness for cooperation and commitment, aspects that generate intragroup tension that for Slavin ( 2014 ) is necessary to keep track of by the teacher during the learning process, for example, paying special attention to those situations in which the stowaway effect occurs (Kerr and Bruun, 1983 ; Slavin, 2014 ).

In this matter, the students themselves describe occasional imbalances in the efforts made to carry out the assignments, the weight of the workloads assumed and, ultimately, a certain lack of harmony when relating to each other when it comes to getting involved in the project. For Del Canto et al. ( 2009 ), Jhen and Mannix ( 2001 ), Putnam ( 1997 ), and Velázquez ( 2013 ) cooperation requires attention on these critical aspects during its development, benefiting the group climate itself and thus, the performance on the assignments. For Gámez and Torres ( 2012 ) and McConnell ( 2005 ), intragroup conflict provokes generalized complaints, loss of enthusiasm and motivation for group members, a source of arguments and frustration, an aspect present in the study in the voice of the students involved.

At the same time, the teaching staff, in relation to the evaluation of the formative dynamics based on the PBL put in place, recognize the importance of paying attention to various competency aspects inherent to the cooperative learning process obtained.

This aspect, in line with what is suggested by Blank ( 1997 ), Dickinson et al. ( 1998 ), Mergendoller et al. ( 2006 ) and Belland et al. ( 2006 ), materializes in the attention to capacities such as empathy, listening, critical thinking, collaboration, decision-making, group responsibility, the teacher assuming a role of leader and guide of all these during the process of learning, as considered by Thomas ( 2000 ), Walberg and Paik ( 2002 ) and Kokotsaki et al. ( 2016 ), supporting the maintenance of a more motivating, participatory and facilitating group work climate (Lima et al., 2007 ).

Despite the use of traditional evaluation dynamics presenting a more finalist nature, such as the test or exam, the teaching staff recognize the value of formative and shared evaluation tools, such as self-evaluation, co-evaluation and heteroevaluation. In this sense, it is observed in the group, not without difficulties (Ertmer and Simons, 2005 ) a certain appreciation for the involvement of the students in the evaluation process, giving them a voice to express their own perception through dynamics such as the presentation of resulting works and shared evaluation in this regard. Paradoxically, the students involved consider a certain lack of follow-up by the teachers on the assignments they carry out and that are a part of the project, in correlation with a conflictive management of the grade in this regard. For Pérez-Pueyo and López-Pastor ( 2017 ) it is necessary to take further steps in the autonomy and personal initiative of the students and their involvement in the evaluation process, the teacher being able to apply techniques such as auto-evaluation, peer evaluation, shared evaluation, self-grading and dialogued grading. The same authors, for example, advocate for intervening in a Secondary Education classroom by applying cooperative projects and final presentations of group papers or events preparation, tutoring in a shared way with their students and involving them in their—and other’s—learning process; The teacher can also complete the methodological initiative by developing group auto-evaluations and co-evaluations, the students evaluating the process of effecting the group assignments or the actual completion of the final presentations. Some recommended instruments to lead the aforementioned evaluation techniques are the group class diary, the auto-evaluation reports and the evaluation scales (Hamodi et al., 2015 ; Hernando et al., 2017 ).

In short, the PBL experience carried out contains all the technical elements to facilitate a learning model of the competence type, which addresses both knowledge and skills to carry out the assignments and to offer solutions to the problems inherent to the given project, as well as the abilities to do so jointly and cooperatively. However, it shows that the methodological practice proposed still suffers from a real follow-up on the group process set, establishing feedback means in the action itself, neglecting the potential conflicts that arise and the smooth completion of the assignments.

In relation to evaluation, the importance of a more formative evaluation model is recognized among the teachers involved, appreciating practices that activate the participation and involvement of students, although the weight of the final products continues to be relevant to the process itself.

Data availability

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.

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A new research base for rigorous project-based learning

By Kristin De Vivo | Jan 24, 2022 | Feature Article

A series of rigorous studies show that authentic, student-driven approaches to project-based learning improve student outcomes.

Deborah Peek-Brown has always believed in weaving project-based learning into her instruction. But when she looks back on the projects she integrated into her lessons early in her 30-year career as an elementary science teacher, she says that a lot was missing. “We did cookbook experiments that were usually just validating what we did in class,” she recalls. Today, Peek-Brown helps support other teachers in moving to a project-based approach in which projects drive the lesson, as opposed to being tacked on at the end. Students learn through asking authentic questions about real problems and creating projects that tackle those problems. “That power of ‘I can figure things out for myself,’ is such an important skill for kids to develop and one that they will use for the rest of their lives,” Peek-Brown says.

Project-based learning (PBL) is an educational approach in which students explore real-world problems through individual and group projects. When done well, it allows students to make sense of why content is useful and how it might be applied. The approach that Peek-Brown, an education specialist at Michigan State University, uses today to support elementary science teachers is one of four PBL programs studied in a new body of research that has generated strong evidence — based on “gold-standard” studies, using randomized control methods — showing that rigorous PBL improves student learning. (Research briefs for the studies are available at www.lucasedresearch.org/research/research-briefs .)

Funded by Lucas Education Research (which I lead) — a division of the George Lucas Educational Foundation — the research findings are the culmination of seven years of effort to develop and study rigorous PBL curricula and aligned supports used across grades and subjects. The studies were not meant to evaluate progressive education writ large, or even to evaluate all forms of PBL, but they did take a careful look at the effects of pairing high-quality project-based curriculum with the implementation of complementary instructional practices. Specifically, the findings, released in 2021, show that:

• Embedding project-based learning in Advanced Placement courses increased the probability of students earning a passing score on AP tests by about 8 percentage points in the first year and 10 percentage points after teachers had two years of experience with the project-based curriculum (Saavedra, Liu, et al., 2021).
• Middle school students in California who learned science with a project-based curriculum outperformed their peers by 11 percentage points on a science assessment and also did better on the state’s end-of-year math and English language arts assessments (Deutscher et al., 2021).
• Third-grade students in Michigan who used an interdisciplinary project-based science curriculum performed 8 percentage points better than peers in traditional classes on a key science assessment (Krajcik et al., 2021).
• Second-grade students in Michigan who used a project-based social studies and literacy curriculum demonstrated five to six more months of learning in social studies and two to three more months in informational reading than a comparison group (Duke et al., 2020).

Taken together, these studies provide clear evidence that rigorous project-based learning has a strong effect on student achievement. The research also found that these PBL programs improved certain aspects of social and emotional learning, and these effects were consistent across racial and socio-economic groups.

Questions and challenges about PBL

The definitional challenge.

It has taken many years, even decades, to develop an evidence base that focuses on the building blocks of effective PBL, largely because PBL itself has been difficult to define with precision, and it has meant different things to different people. Historically, for instance, many schools have assigned students to complete projects at the end of a unit — perhaps by doing an experiment or making a simple poster or shoebox diorama — rather than letting projects themselves drive student learning throughout the unit. Should that be called PBL, or is it something else entirely (i.e., the assignment of projects as a means of consolidating previous learning)?

It has taken many years, even decades, to develop an evidence base that focuses on the building blocks of effective PBL, largely because PBL itself has been difficult to define with precision.

In my own work, I’ve often heard educators say of good PBL instruction, “It’s hard to describe, but you know it when you see it.” I’ve also been in plenty of classrooms in which the instruction was called project-based learning but didn’t actually reflect the core practices that many of us associate with PBL — that is, the instruction didn’t allow for student inquiry or self-discovery, didn’t address authentic problems that young people care about, and wasn’t tied to key teaching and learning standards. Similarly, advocates have often disagreed with one another over the extent to which PBL requires students to drive their own learning or whether PBL ought to be treated as synonymous with student-centered learning or active learning. (As I see it, PBL does entail greater student agency than traditional instruction, but students don’t have to drive their learning all the time. There are times when traditional, direct instruction by a teacher is appropriate and necessary.) In short, it has been tricky to come up with an operational definition of PBL that is concrete enough to allow for rigorous research into its effects.

Through the Lucas Education Research (LER) research projects, we sought to create some clarity and consensus, based on evidence, around what effective PBL looks like. More specifically, we wanted to determine the extent to which well-designed project-based curriculum units and aligned professional development for teachers could support the implementation of consistent, effective instructional practices. Our hypothesis was that if we could define specific indicators of high-quality PBL, we could then conduct research to evaluate its effectiveness. In this way, we could begin to understand for whom PBL works and under what conditions.

Our research partners identified and described a powerful approach to learning that is consistent with the latest science on how people learn. They defined specific characteristics of rigorous project-based curricula, identified core teaching practices, and described the kind of professional development that would be needed to teach in these ways. Importantly, the research teams implemented and studied the curriculum and practices across various learning environments to ensure replication and reliability.

Across the board, the curricular programs highlighted in the LER studies feature project-based units that foster inquiry, engagement, and a need to learn more. The programs studied allow — to varying degrees — for a balance between student-led discovery followed by lecture or text-based instruction.

The question of who benefits

A definitional challenge isn’t the only obstacle to widespread adoption of PBL in schools. Another key challenge has been the deficit-based view that PBL works for some kids and not others. Too many adults have been led to believe that struggling learners and disadvantaged students need basic content and traditional approaches more than they need complex forms of instruction like PBL. As a result, students from low-income backgrounds, students of color, and English learners are less likely than others to experience approaches that are deeply engaging, ask enough of them, and develop student ownership of their learning (TNTP, 2018).

Too many adults have been led to believe that struggling learners and disadvantaged students need basic content and traditional approaches more than they need complex forms of instruction like PBL.

The new studies should dispel the view that PBL is only effective for some students. For example, in the study showing that students in PBL versions of AP courses outperformed those learning in more traditional ways, a majority of the students in four of the five districts studied were Black and Latinx (Saavedra, Liu, et al., 2021). In addition, a significantly higher proportion of the students in the study were from low-income households than is typical for AP test-takers. Students in the PBL middle school science program also attended high-poverty, diverse schools, and, notably, English learners in the PBL course outperformed peers on a state-developed language proficiency test (Deutscher et al., 2021). Additionally, 3rd-grade students in a PBL science course performed at superior levels on a state assessment, and this held true across racial and ethnic groups and socio-economic levels; it also held true regardless of reading ability level, meaning that struggling readers in the PBL class outperformed struggling readers in the traditional class on the science measure (Krajcik et al., 2021). Finally, the 2nd-grade students who outperformed their peers in reading and social studies attended low-performing schools serving low-income families (Duke et al., 2020).

The problem of implementation

Another criticism of PBL is that it’s labor intensive and hard to implement quickly. And it’s true that, as with most worthwhile educational programs, teacher practice improves over time with project-based learning. However, the new research found that teachers benefited rather quickly from having strong PBL curricula aligned with high-quality professional development opportunities. In the AP study, for example, the PBL curriculum had robust effects on student performance after just one year of implementation, though the gains were larger when teachers had two years of experience with the curriculum (Saavedra, Rapaport, et al., 2021).

Each of the programs highlighted in the new research studies included both strong curricular resources and high-quality professional development. Those professional development programs included sustained professional learning opportunities for teachers, active and collaborative learning experiences, and strong ties between the professional development offering and teachers’ classroom contexts.

Identifying key traits of high-quality PBL

The new studies come four years after MDRC, a social-policy research organization based in New York City and Oakland, CA, published a broad review of the research landscape and highlighted numerous studies that found positive associations between PBL and students’ development of knowledge and cognitive skills (Condliffe et al., 2017). However, the MDRC review also found that the field hadn’t come together to define clear PBL design principles and noted that the lack of a shared vision complicated efforts to determine whether PBL programs were effective and being implemented well. The new research helps greatly in this regard. Across the four new studies, researchers found common and important characteristics of successful project-based learning programs.

The new research found that teachers benefited rather quickly from having strong PBL curricula aligned with high-quality professional development opportunities.

For starters, PBL lessons should be rooted in purposeful and authentic experiences generated by students asking relevant questions. Driving questions that are feasible to explore and meaningful to students should anchor a unit of study, enabling students to explore and address issues beyond the four walls of their classroom — both in their community and the broader world. For example, in a unit within the 3rd-grade science curriculum, Multiple Literacies in Project-Based Learning, students observe squirrels and develop and revise a model of how a squirrel meets its needs and survives in the environment. A driving question and a series of related questions guide what students do in the unit.

In addition, well-designed project-based learning units are built from content standards, and the projects themselves should deepen student knowledge of core subjects and disciplinary practices. So, for example, teachers should use scientific methods to explore key questions specific to a scientific discipline. Or, in a history class, they should ask students to consider the reliability of primary sources and compare them to other sources, just as historians do when studying a topic. PBL generally lends itself to interdisciplinary learning, and the new studies confirmed that students engaged in PBL can simultaneously build knowledge and develop skills related to a range of content areas.

Schools with a culture of collaboration and innovation appear to be the best candidates for project-based learning. Trusting relationships and a healthy school climate contribute to student and teacher success with PBL. This finding from the new research aligns with an earlier American Institutes for Research study that found educators in schools successfully implementing PBL emphasized interpersonal skills (Huberman et al., 2014).

Finally, it is essential that educators are supported with high-quality professional learning opportunities so they can ground project-based lessons in evidence-based teaching and learning practices. These practices include providing feedback to students in a strategic and timely manner, creating opportunities for students to reflect on and revise their own work, and empowering students to share their learning with others through the presentation of products they create and public performances. (For more details about teaching practices, see Grossman et al., 2021.)

Calls for a deeper focus on developing students’ critical thinking and analytical skills, fostering agency, and teaching young people to work collaboratively in schools — just as they’ll likely have to do in college and careers — have resulted in an increased interest in PBL. Parents, educators, and policy makers are growing in their understanding that strong PBL improves student engagement (an area that has received particular attention amid disrupted learning due to the pandemic) and connects academic content to the broader world beyond school. In recent years, school networks centering project-based approaches to instruction (such as the New Tech Network, The Deeper Learning Network, and the High Tech High Network) have helped elevate the role of rigorous PBL in advancing teaching and learning goals. Some traditional districts have made strong gains in this area, too. For example, San Francisco Unified School District is expanding its use of project-based learning and now has a strong, well-regarded PBL science program in its middle schools.

I’ve been fortunate to have a close-up view of the PBL programs highlighted in the new studies and to hear from educators, administrators, and students who have used these approaches. Their insights give me confidence that we need to share their experiences, help tell their stories, and work to further scale rigorous PBL. For example, it’s inspiring to hear the perspective of retired Michigan principal Lynn Bigelman, who observed teachers at her school using the 2nd-grade social studies and literacy curriculum, Project PLACE. She was wowed when she saw 7- and 8-year-olds engaged in a civics and government unit in which they came up with a proposal for improvements to a local park and presented it to a city councilman:

The children had a voice, and they were able to speak with the local city council member and get improvements done to their playground. Problem solving, critical thinking, and civic learning were all happening . . . . They did PowerPoints and presentations on how to improve their local park. They used a lot of reading and writing skills, and students used 21st-century skills such as inquiry, critical thinking, agency, and problem solving.

Amber Graeber, a curriculum coordinator at Des Moines Public Schools, who has taught the AP U.S. Government and Politics course using project-based learning,  said the approach transformed her teaching:

Now, my students have a reason to learn and a need to know. The question in the beginning of each unit sparks my students’ curiosity. And they feel like they matter, which makes them much more engaged. They really remember what they learn because they experience it — they don’t just read it.

Students who have taken the PBL courses have strong opinions, too. Gil Leal, who participated in the project-based version of the AP Environmental Science program during high school, said that the course inspired him to major in environmental science in college:

In other classes, it was lecture, readings, test. But in AP Environmental Science we worked on projects with other students, discussed our ideas, considered different perspectives, and I learned so much more this way.

What comes next

As we look ahead, I hope the researcher and practitioner communities continue to work together to examine and share insights into how we can more successfully scale and sustain high-quality project-based learning. Researchers from schools of education and K-12 teachers around the country forged close working relationships as part of this effort to study rigorous PBL and develop curricular resources. Together, they contributed significantly to the research landscape. This model could continue to yield new information about what works best for whom and under what conditions.

In addition, as schools look for innovative, evidence-based ways to improve learning — particularly following the massive education disruption students and teachers faced in the pandemic — school and system leaders should strongly consider the role project-based learning can play in fostering engagement and improving other positive student outcomes. The new studies provide clear evidence that this approach to teaching and learning works across student populations, grade bands, and subjects. Furthermore, the research offers guidelines for characteristics to look for in the selection, development, and implementation of high-quality PBL curriculum, and it helps debunk long-standing concerns and myths that have prevented greater uptake of PBL.

Educators and school leaders should feel confident that if they pursue rigorous project-based learning, they will likely see student achievement and student engagement increase, and they also will see young people experience other lasting benefits. Deborah Peek-Brown, the veteran Michigan researcher and educator, summed it up well, saying:

PBL builds up students’ sense of being able to accomplish things and allows them to develop ownership of their work. If we can develop that in kids, we’re going to see them become amazing citizens and do amazing things as they go on in the rest of their lives.

Condliffe, B., Quint, J., Visher, M., Bangser, M., Drohojowska, S., Saco, L., & Nelson, E. (2017). Project-based learning: A literature review . MDRC.

Deutscher, R.R., Holthuis, N.C., Maldonado, S.I., Pecheone, R.L., Schultz, S.E., Wei, R.C., & Lucas Education Research. (2021). Project-based learning leads to gains in science and other subjects in middle school and benefits all learners . Lucas Education Research.

Duke, N.K., Halvorsen, A-L., Strachan, S.L., Kim, J., & Konstantopoulos, S. (2020, June). Putting PjBL to the test: The impact of project-based learning on second graders’ social studies and literacy learning and motivation in low-SES school settings. American Educational Research Journal .

Grossman, P., Hermann, Z., Schneider Kavanagh, S., & Pupik Dean, C.G., (2021). Core practices for project-based learning: A guide for teachers and leaders . Harvard Education Press.

Huberman, M., Bitter, C., Anthony, J., & O’Day, J. (2014). The shape of deeper learning: Strategies, structures, and cultures in deeper learning network high schools . American Institutes for Research.

Krajcik, J., Schneider, B., Miller, E., Chen, I.C., Bradford, L., Bartz, K.,  . . . & Lucas Education Research. (2021). Project-based learning increases science achievement in elementary schools and improves social and emotional learning . Lucas Education Research.

Saavedra, A.R., Liu Y., Haderlein, S.K., Rapaport, A., Garland, M., Hoepfner, D., . . . & Lucas Education Research. (2021). Project-based Learning Boosts Student Achievement in AP Courses . Lucas Education Research.

Saavedra, A.R., Rapaport, A., Lock Morgan, K., Garland, M., Liu, Y., Hu, A., . . . & Haderlein, S.K. (2021). Knowledge in action efficacy study over two years . Center for Economic and Social Research.

TNTP. (2018, September 25). The opportunity myth: What students can show us about how school is letting them down — and how to fix it . Author.

This article appears in the February 2022 issue of  Kappan,  Vol. 103, No. 5, pp. 36-41.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Kristin De Vivo

KRISTIN DE VIVO is the executive director of Lucas Education Research, a division of the George Lucas Educational Foundation, San Rafael, CA.

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Because Project Based Learning engages students in learning that is deep and long-lasting, and inspires for them a love of learning and personal connection to their academic experience.

Impact on students

PBL blends content mastery, meaningful work, and personal connection to create powerful learning experiences, in terms of both academic achievement and students’ personal growth.

PBL can be transformative for students, especially those furthest from educational opportunity. Now more than ever, we need young people who are ready, willing, and able to tackle the challenges of their lives and the world they will inherit - and nothing prepares them better than Project Based Learning.

Here are just some of the ways that PBL transforms students' educational experiences:

– Engaged hearts and minds

Students actively engage with PBL projects that provide real-world relevance for learning. Students can solve problems that are important to them and their communities.

– Deeper learning

PBL leads to deeper understanding and greater retention of content knowledge. Students are better able to apply what they know to new situations.

– Exposure to adults and careers

Students interact with adults, businesses and organizations, and their community, and can develop career interests.

– A sense of purpose

A great project can be transformative for students. Seeing a real-world impact gives them a sense of agency and purpose.

– Success skills

Students gain skills valuable in today’s workplace and in life, such as how to take initiative, work responsibly, solve problems, collaborate in teams, and communicate ideas.

– Rewarding teacher relationships

Teachers work closely with active, engaged students doing meaningful work, and share in the rediscovered joy of learning.

– Creativity and technology

Students enjoy using a spectrum of technology tools from research and collaboration through product creation and presentation.

See Stories of PBL Success

Research Studies

Research confirms that PBL can help students be successful in today’s rapidly changing and complex world, by developing a broader set of knowledge and skills as well as improving academic achievement.

Impact of PBL on Student Achievement

Researchers in Michigan show effectiveness of Project Based Learning in high-poverty communities.

See the study (Edutopia)

PBL Helps Students Become Better Decision Makers

Rigorous study demonstrates PBL's power to develop students' reasoning and decision-making about unfamiliar issues.

Read the brief

PBL and 21st Century Success Skills

PBL helps students gain competence in critical thinking, problem solving, and collaboration.

Download the summary (pdf)

Stories of PBL Success

Project Based Learning in Hawaii

PBL Engaging the Disengaged

Superintendent supporting PBL across 80,000-student district

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May 18, 2023 | Inquiry , PBL

by Drew Perkins , Director of ThoughtStretchers Education

Education is a dynamic field, constantly evolving with new insights and innovative approaches but sometimes those practices aren’t rooted in research and evidence. Incorporating evidence-based teaching methods allows educators to provide their students with more effective learning experiences, resulting in improved outcomes. Aside from the challenge of limited time many teachers face, it can also be difficult to evaluate research findings that may be so narrow in their findings that they don’t seem applicable to the complexity of actual teaching.

As an advocate and PD provider for project based learning, I’m occasionally asked for research and evidence that PBL is effective. We do share links to significant supporting research embedded on our PBL Workshop Tools and Resources page but this only tells part of the story. Oftentimes evidence and research point to things that work but not necessarily what works best and for narrow sets of outcomes instead of the more full view of what students will need in preparation for the modern world.

As with many issues in education and elsewhere, there are competing ‘camps’. There are those who strongly advocate for direct instruction, often noting the ineffectiveness (or worse) of project based learning and they cite important and valid research findings. I’ve been fortunate to engage with several of them informally and formally on podcasts where we’ve discussed PBL Or Direct/Explicit Instruction, What Works?

It can be comfortable to look through some research and jump to a simple conclusion like, “That makes sense to me” or “That’s what I’ve been doing, see it works!” but harder to look at a wide array of research, including that which challenges prior assumptions, and synthesize to the next steps. For example, one can easily find evidence that direct instruction works and choose to focus on that.

Others might search for PBL research and conclude that they should shift their whole school or district to project based learning. Neither of those necessarily mean best practices will be pursued and one critique I think is valid is that PBL implementation can and often is done poorly.

This is where a synthesis of educational research can really help and here are three important takeaways.

1. PBL is Effective at Delivering Specific Learning Outcomes

In John Hattie’s latest book, Visible Learning: The Sequel , he notes:

Students taught using problem-based learning had less knowledge but had better recall of their knowledge. That is probably because, in problem-based learning, knowedge is more often elaborated…The application of knowledge, not the development of knowledge, is the heart of the success of problem-based learning.

Most teachers want learning to go beyond the basic ‘knowing that’ to deeper conceptual understandings. PBL is a great tool for doing this and in our workshops we often frame it by flipping Bloom’s taxonomy for deeper learning . Design and implementation are key.

It isn’t enough to create a project that seems exciting and engaging for students. It should aim for designing and teaching with intent as Hattie and I discussed in this podcast, Ep. 335 John Hattie | Visible Learning: The Sequel. As a side note, there are many different ways to define “PBL”, and we certainly have ours, but I’m taking Hattie’s use of problem-based learning as being in close enough proximity to be useful here.

2. PBL Should Include Direct Instruction

Many advocates for more ‘progressive’ teaching and learning recoil at the idea of direct or explicit instruction. No doubt, it can be boring and demotivating but it doesn’t have to be and while it may not be the most exciting part of a PBL experience, it is essential to scaffold and ‘teach’ certain things.

Research shows direct instruction is especially effective at surface-level knowledge and students must have that in order to be successful at the deeper levels PBL aims for. This doesn’t mean we need to ‘front-load’ the required knowledge before engaging in PBL. Instead, we help teachers design for ‘pulling’ that surface knowledge as part of the project based learning process .

Perhaps the most cited research on direct instruction is that of Rosenshine’s Ten Principles of Instruction . This and related research is discussed in Chapter 12, Burning the Strawman, of How Teaching Happens by Paul Kirschner and Carl Hendrick, and Jim Heal . Paul Kirschner and I also addressed this and more in our podcast episode 315 How Teaching And Learning Happens .

3. PBL Implementation Needs to be Supported With Professional Development

It certainly won’t come as much of a surprise that any relatively major shift in teacher practice will not be effective without effective professional development support. Students in this study of PBL with second graders showed improvement, like a 63% gain in social studies as compared to the comparison group, over the control group that did not learn through PBL but they most certainly would not have been successful without the PD supports to help them.

This study focused their support on curricular materials and coaching conversations and noted:

A related implication of this research is that policymakers and administrators should consider how to provide appropriate PD support around PjBL.

Perhaps some of those teachers have been able to take the initial learning and grow their practice to more sophisticated and impactful PBL implementation but even those will benefit from sustained professional learning to help refine their practice. Conversely, hoping for teachers to implement project based learning (or any major shift in practice) without significant professional learning is a recipe for disaster.

Combining Strategies For Best Outcomes

The complexity of teaching goes beyond mere teaching strategies but if we’re looking to help students grow their surface, deep, and transfer learning we will need to use a variety of strategies. In this May 2023 review, Let’s talk evidence – The case for combining inquiry-based and direct instruction , which will surely spur further discussion notes, the combination of strategies, employed effectively, is more impactful than focusing on only one or a few.

Our project based learning workshops help teachers combine strategies like inquiry and scaffolded teaching intentionally aligned with the cognitive complexity and prior academic achievement of expected learning outcomes.

Above and beyond subject-matter characteristics, teachers and curriculum designers should align their instructional and assessment methods with the kind of learning outcomes they expect from students. Early instructional design theories (see, for an overview,  Reigeluth, 1983 ) readily acknowledged the importance of aligning learning strategies with learning outcomes. These theories recommended using the expository strategies inherent in direct instruction if the goal of the lesson is to remember a piece of conceptual knowledge or a particular procedure. Inquiry-based strategies, on the other hand, were seen as more appropriate for promoting deep understanding and transfer of the subject matter, which students who followed traditional instruction often lacked (see e.g.,  Ortiz, Heron, & Shaffer, 2005 ).  Frey et al. (2017) showed that these recommendations still hold today. 

In a world characterized by constant change, teachers play a pivotal role in equipping students with the necessary skills and knowledge to thrive. By actively engaging with research, educators can enhance their teaching practices, meet diverse student needs, and stay at the forefront of educational innovation.

Embracing evidence-based teaching methodologies not only improves student outcomes but also cultivates a culture of lifelong learning, preparing students for a future full of possibilities. As we move forward, let us encourage and support teachers in their pursuit of research, recognizing its indispensable role in shaping education for the better.

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• Our Mission

PBL for Pre-K Through Second Grade

Very young students can benefit from project-based learning, as these detailed steps for a project conducted by preschool students demonstrate.

Observation, exploration, and discovery are three main skills that young children (kindergarten to second grade) generally develop when they interact with their surroundings. Some children prefer to take time to observe the environment before moving around to explore, while others choose to immediately start actively discovering the wonders within the environment. Nurturing an environment that ignites curiosity and facilitates exploration, therefore, is paramount.

Early-years educators who work with children 2 to 7 years old play a pivotal role in laying the foundation for lifelong learning by creating spaces where children can freely explore their diverse interests and learn how to expand explorations and inquiries into meaningful in-depth projects. 

In this post, I share a project I developed for a pre-K class with 3-year-olds that offers clear examples of each step and process feature. The project began when a boy became fascinated by the sound that came out of a bottle when he blew into it. He shared his findings with his peers, and the Sounds Exploration project began.  

Creating an Environment for Exploration

The environments where young children interact become learning spaces and serve as educators, generating dialogue between children and/or between each child and the environment, developing processes of inquiry, reflection, observation, and active listening. What should these spaces be like? 

Versatility: Design flexible learning environments that allow spontaneous exploration and discovery in different areas and disciplines. Incorporate adaptable learning materials to accommodate diverse interests and activities. Equip your classroom with a rich variety of resources, including books, art supplies, natural materials, and sensory experiences. Allow children to access natural open spaces that offer enough room for free exploration.  

In the example of the Sounds Exploration project, the teacher offered different materials and contexts for the learners to make and identify sounds, both outside and indoors. In the open air, the teacher helped learners focus on sounds by inviting them to close their eyes and name the sounds they could hear. This takes some time and guidance to help learners to listen beyond the sounds in the foreground and pay attention to those in the background. The learners were then made aware of the sounds they made by walking on different surfaces—like pebbles, grass, and mud—and the sounds they made with sticks or by hitting the water. Outdoors contexts are full of discovery possibilities. 

Indoors, the children used materials such as plastic tops, foil, plastic, cellophane, construction paper, and cardboard to make sounds. Wood blocks, musical instruments, and toys (cars, trucks, dolls, balls, construction blocks) are also an option, as are the different surfaces (floor, carpets, tables) in the classroom. 

In both environments, the children had guidance to help them discover more about the sounds they produced. This connects with the next point.

Curiosity: Encourage a culture of inquiry by posing open-ended questions, stimulating wonder, and inviting children to explore topics of interest. Offer provocations and invitations to learning that spark curiosity and prompt further investigation. 

Collaboration: Facilitate opportunities for children to explore together, interact, learn from one another, and question their findings. 

Interacting with children during exploration periods

The most successful interactions a teacher can carry out in the period of inquiry are those that don’t have a single answer but allow for different responses. The children’s answers will likely be the result of the connections they make with themselves, their previous knowledge, their interaction with their peers, and the context in which they’re interacting.

As a consequence, the teacher has an opportunity to develop and model an attitude of listening and of inquiry into the children’s responses and the construction of their learning. 

For example, related to the Sounds project, the teacher might ask the following questions: 

• “How do you do it? Can you teach me?”
• “This sound... what does it remind you of?” 
• ”What other sounds can we make?”
•  ”What causes sound to be produced?”
•  ”What can we use this sound for?”

Engage in active observation: Observe children closely as they play: as they interact with each other, the decisions they make, and how they choose to communicate their feelings, emotions, thoughts. Pay attention to their interests, preferences, and inquiries.

Listen actively: Listen to the children’s conversations when you ask open-ended questions to stimulate their thinking and foster reflection and critical thinking. Encourage them to communicate their ideas and their thoughts, share observations, and voice their desire to know. 

Let the children express freely: Let them show you their willingness to deepen their knowledge. Follow their interests and curiosity, allowing them to guide the direction of their exploration. Facilitate support and resources based on their inquiries, empowering them to build knowledge and take ownership of their learning journey.

Provide research tools: Offer the children access to age-appropriate tools and materials, including books, digital resources, and hands-on experiences. Support them in navigating these resources independently, fostering self-directed learning skills.

Facilitate tools to document their findings: Provide materials and resources for learners to document their discoveries in various ways: different art forms, notes, oral dialogues, audio/video recordings. 

Transferring exploration into research projects

Children’s active exploration, properly documented, will generate a lot of information and, in turn, will create the possibility of continuing work on a specific project.

In the example of the Sounds Exploration project, the learners were invited to use the sounds they had collected, identified, and documented to make a Sound Story from a well-known story they usually read in class and enjoyed. The guiding question was this: How can the learners in this class turn [the name of the story] into a sound story?

Assist project planning: Guide children in planning and organizing their research project, and deconstruct the process into manageable steps. Help them create research questions, collect information, and develop a short-term plan of action. 

Analyze the data collected: Facilitate understanding of the findings and guide the children to become aware of which subject area they’re willing to learn more about. 

Ignite Intrinsic motivation: Provide steps for the learners to become aware of  what they already know about the specific topic in that subject area and what more they want to know, and guide them in finding where they can collect the information they’re looking for. 

Foster reflection: Promote reflection throughout the research process. Provide opportunities for children to share their findings with peers and reflect on their learning experiences and strategies.

Research projects enable teachers to empower children to make choices and decisions about their learning journey when they have a range of options and opportunities to explore their interests authentically. In addition, research projects foster collaboration and peer learning by encouraging children to work together and share what they’ve learned. 

It’s important to recognize and celebrate children’s achievements and contributions throughout the research process. Create opportunities for them to showcase their work, share their findings with others, and receive feedback and praise .

In essence, by creating an environment that nurtures exploration, supporting children during their inquiries, and empowering them to take on leadership roles in their learning, early years educators can lay the groundwork for a lifetime of curiosity, discovery, and success.