psychological report assignment

Psychological Report Writing

March 8, 2021 - paper 2 psychology in context | research methods.

• Back to Paper 2 - Research Methods

Writing up Psychological Investigations

Through using this website, you have learned about, referred to, and evaluated research studies. These research studies are generally presented to the scientific community as a journal article. Most journal articles follow a standard format. This is similar to the way you may have written up experiments in other sciences.

In research report there are usually six sub-sections:

(1)  Abstract:  This is always written last because it is a very brief summary:

• Include a one sentence summary, giving the topic to be studied. This may include the hypothesis and some brief theoretical background research, for example the name of the researchers whose work you have replicated.
• Describe the participants, number used and how they were selected.
• Describe the method and design used and any questionnaires etc. you employed.
• State your major findings, which should include a mention of the statistics used the observed and critical values and whether or not your results were found to be significant, including the level of significance
• Briefly summarise what your study shows, the conclusion of your findings and any implications it may have. State whether the experimental or null hypothesis has been accepted/rejected.
• This should be around 150 words.

(2) Introduction:

This tells everyone why the study is being carried out and the commentary should form a ‘funnel’ of information. First, there is broad coverage of all the background research with appropriate evaluative comments: “Asch (1951) found…but Crutchfield (1955) showed…” Once the general research has been covered, the focus becomes much narrower finishing with the main researcher/research area you are hoping to support/refute. This then leads to the aims and hypothesis/hypotheses (i.e. experimental and null hypotheses) being stated.

(3) Method:

Method – this section is split into sub-sections:

(1) Design:

• What is the experimental method that has been used?
• Experimental Design type independent groups, repeated measures, matched pairs? Justify?
• What is the IV, DV? These should be operationalised.
• Any potential EVs?
• How will these EVs be overcome?
• Ethical issues? Strategies to overcome these ethical issues

(2) Participants:

• Who is the target population? Age/socio-economic status, gender, etc.
• What sampling technique has been used? Why?
• Details of participants that have been used? Do they have certain characteristics
• How have participants been allocated to conditions

(3) Materials:

• Description of all equipment used and how to use it (essential for replication)
• Stimulus materials for participants should be in the appendix

(4) Procedure:

• This is a step-by-step guide of how the study was carried out when, where, how
• Instructions to participants must be standardised to allow replication
• Lengthy sets of instructions and instructions to participants should be in the appendix

(4) Results:

This section contains:

• A summary of the data. All raw data and calculations are put in the appendix.
• This generally starts with a section of descriptive statistics measures of central tendency and dispersion.
• Summary tables, which should be clearly labelled and referred to in the text, e.g., “Table One shows that…” Graphical representations of the data must also be clear and properly labelled and referred to in the text, e.g., “It can be seen from Figure 1 that…”
• Once the summary statistics have been explained, there should be an analysis of the results of any inferential tests, including observed values, how these relate to the critical table value, significance level and whether the test was one- or two-tailed.
• This section finishes with the rejection or acceptance of the null hypothesis.

(5) Discussion:

This sounds like a repeat of the results section, but here you need to state what you’ve found in terms of psychology rather than in statistical terms, in particular relate your findings to your hypotheses. Mention the strength of your findings, for example were they significant and at what level. If your hypothesis was one tailed and your results have gone in the opposite direction this needs to be indicated. If you have any additional findings to report, other than those relating to the hypotheses then they too can be included.

All studies have flaws, so anything that went wrong or the limitations of the study are discussed together with suggestions for how it could be improved if it were to be repeated. Suggestions for alternative studies and future research are also explored. The discussion ends with a paragraph summing up what was found and assessing the implications of the study and any conclusions that can be drawn from it.

(6) Referencing (Harvard Referencing):

References should contain details of all the research covered in a psychological report. It is not sufficient to simply list the books used.

What you should do:

Look through your report and include a reference every researcher mentioned. A reference should include; the name of the researcher, the date the research was published, the title of the book/journal, where the book was published (or what journal the article was published in), the edition number of the book/volume of the journal article, the page numbers used.

Example: Paivio, A., Madigan, S.A. (1970). Noun imagery and frequency in paired-associate and free learning recall. Canadian Journal of Psychology. 24, pp353-361.

Other Rules Make sure that the references are placed in alphabetical order.

Exam Tip:  In the exam, the types of questions you could expect relating to report writing include; defining what information you would find in each section of the report, in addition, on the old specification, questions linked to report writing have included; writing up a method section, results section and designing a piece of research.

In addition, in the exam, you may get asked to write; a  consent form ,  debriefing sheet  or a set of  standardised instructions.

Writing a Consent Form for a Psychological Report Remember the mnemonic TAPCHIPS

Your consent form should include the following;

(1)  T itle of the Project:

(2)  A im of the study?

(3)  P rocedure – What will I be asked to do if I take part?

You should give a brief description of what the participants will have to do if they decide to consent to take part in the study (i.e. complete a 15-minute memory test etc )

(4) Will your data be kept  C onfidential?

Explain how you will make sure that all personal details will be kept confidential.

(5) Do I  H ave to take part?

Explain to the participant that they don’t have to take part in the study, explain about their right to withdraw.

(6)  I nformation? Where can I obtained further information if I need it?

Provide the participant with the contact details of the key researchers carrying out the study.

(7)  P articipant responses to the following questions:

Have you received enough information about the study? YES/NO

Do you consent for your data to be used in this study and retained for use in other studies? YES/NO

Do you understand that you do not need to take part in the study and that you can; withdraw your participation at any time without reason or detriment? YES/NO

(8)  S ignature from the participant and the researcher: will need to be acquired at the bottom of the consent form.

Writing a set of Standardised Instructions for a Psychological Investigation

When writing a set of standardised instructions, it is essential that you include:

1. Enough information to allow for replication of the study

2. You must write the instructions so that they can simply be read out by the researcher to the participants.

3. You should welcome the participants to the study.

4. Thank the participants for giving their consent to take part.

5. Explain to the participants what will happen in the study, what they will be expected to do (step by step), how long the task/specific parts of the task will take to complete.

6. Remind participants that they have the right to withdraw throughout the study.

7. Ask that participants at the end if they have any questions

8. Check that the participants are still happy to proceed with the study.

Writing a Debriefing Form for a Psychological Report

This is the form that you should complete with your participants at the end of the study to ensure that they are happy with the way the study has been conducted, to explain to them the true nature of the study, to confirm consent and to give them the researcher’s contact details in case they want to ask any further questions.

• Thank  the participants for taking part in the study.
• Outline the true aims  of the research (what were the participants expected to do? What happened in each of the different conditions?)
• Explain what you were  looking to find.
• Explain  how the data will be used  now and in the future.
• Remind  the participants that they have the  right to withdraw  now and after the study.
• Thank  participants once  again  for taking part.
• Remind the participant of the  researcher(s) contact details.

Designing Research

One of the questions that you may get asked in the exam is to design a piece of research. The best way to go about this is to include similar information to what you would when writing up the  method section of a psychological report.

Things to Consider…

• What is the experimental method/non-experimental method will you use?  ( Lab, field, natural experiment? Questionnaire (open/closed questions?), Interviews (structured, unstructured, semi-structured?), Observation).
• Why?   ( does this method allow a great deal of control? Is it in a natural setting and would show behaviour reflective of real life? Would it allow participants to remain anonymous and therefore, they are more likely to tell the truth/act in a realistic way? Does the method avoid demand characteristics?) 
• Experimental Design type   ( independent groups, repeated measures, matched pairs? Justify you choice?)
• What is the IV, DV? These should be operationalised  ( how are you going to measure these variables?)
• Any potential EVs?  ( Participant variables, experimenter effects, demand characteristics, situational variables?)
• How will these EVs be overcome?  ( Are you going to out some control mechanisms in place? Are you going to use standardised instructions? Double or single blind? Will the experimental design that you are using help to overcome EVs?)
• Ethical issues?  ( What are the potential ethical issues and what strategies are you going to use to overcome these ethical issues?)
• Who is the target population?  Age/socio-economic status, gender, etc.
• How have participants been allocated to conditions  ( have you used random allocation? Why have you adopted this technique?
• This is a step-by-step guide of how the study was carried out – from beginning to end, how are you going to carry out the study.
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Psychological Assessment Report

Courtney Gardner, MSW

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A Therapist's Guide to Crafting Useful Psychological Assessment Reports

Are you tired of preparing assessment reports that gather dust on a shelf, providing little more than cobwebs? As therapists, we understand the importance of offering comprehensive and actionable information to our clients and their caregivers. This guide is designed to assist you in creating assessments that are not only informative but also engaging. It provides practical tips to help you master this essential skill set. We will delve into the art of creating useful psychological assessment reports, covering everything from understanding the basics of psychological assessment reports to delivering key findings effectively. By mastering the art of effective assessment reporting, we can make a genuine difference in therapeutic outcomes and indelibly impact those we serve. So, come with us as we navigate the maze of psychological assessments, unlocking the keys to meaningful transformation for those who seek our guidance. Get ready to take your reporting skills to new heights and help your clients achieve their goals .

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Understanding Psychological Assessment Reports?

Psychological assessment reports are an essential tool for mental health professionals. They comprehensively overview a client's psychological health evaluation, incorporating interviews, observations, and psychometric testing information. These tests include personality inventories, intelligence tests, and symptom checklists to give a complete understanding of a client's symptoms , strengths, limitations, and mental status.

A psychological assessment report summarizes the assessment process, findings, diagnosis, and treatment recommendations . It helps guide mental health professionals in providing suitable care for their clients. These reports can have a profound impact, so it is essential to be thorough and thoughtful and help clients sensitively and ethically.

Clients often request psychological evaluations when they need an official diagnosis to receive services or accommodations. Moreover, the reports serve clients and their families, schools, employers, insurance companies, government agencies, and the legal system. Therefore, a well-prepared report can have far-reaching effects in various areas of a client's life.

The Purpose and Importance of Psychological Assessment Reports for Mental Health Professionals

Psychological assessment reports are a crucial tool for mental health professionals. They assist in identifying mental health conditions and other issues affecting clients' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. This information is essential in guiding diagnosis and treatment and improving treatment outcomes. Assessment reports also help to identify strengths and weaknesses and provide evidence-based data to support clinical impressions. The primary goal of psychological assessment reports is to gain insight into a client's mental health and well-being to guide effective treatment. Moreover, they are critical for maintaining continuity of care if the client sees other providers.

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Additionally, psychological assessment reports can:

• Outline referral questions and the data gathered to answer them
• Integrate information from clinical interviews, observations, and psychometric testing
• Communicate findings and recommendations to guide treatment in a concise yet comprehensive way

Mental health professionals request psychometric testing and reports for several reasons, including:

• Assisting with diagnosis of psychiatric disorders or learning disabilities
• Understanding a client's mental health or learning needs
• Determining appropriate placement or services for a client
• Measuring treatment progress and outcomes over time

How to Conduct and Write Useful Psychological Assessment Reports

As a therapist, conducting psychological assessments and producing clear reports is crucial to your job. To ensure that the reports you generate are valuable, it is essential to have a comprehensive understanding of the referral's context. You should determine the necessary information, gather data from multiple sources, integrate the findings cohesively, and communicate the results sensitively and clearly. Your reports should include various elements such as background information, reason for referral, procedures used, clinical impressions, diagnosis, and recommendations. These reports can be invaluable tools for clients and clinicians when done well.

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To write and conduct psychological assessments thoroughly and communicate your findings accurately, follow these steps:

• Review the referral question and background information.  Understand why the evaluation was requested and what specific questions you must answer.
• Determine what data needs to be collected . Select appropriate tests, interviews, and observations to gather information relevant to the referral questions. Make sure you have enough data to support your conclusions.
• Administer assessments, conduct clinical interviews, and observe the patient.  Score and interpret the results to identify patterns and themes.
• Analyze and integrate the data.  Look for consistencies and inconsistencies across sources. Determine interpretations that can comprehensively answer the referral questions.
• Write your report in a clear, concise, and objective manner.  Summarize background information, assessment procedures, results, interpretations, and recommendations. Provide specific examples to support your conclusions.
• Review and proofread your report before distributing it.  This ensures your report is logically organized, typo-free, and professionally written. Make sure your interpretations and recommendations follow from the data presented.

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The benefits and limitations of psychological assessment reports.

Psychological assessment reports can be incredibly beneficial for both clients and clinicians. However, it is essential to remember that these reports have limitations and should only be used when their benefits outweigh the drawbacks for a particular situation. When used correctly, these reports can be invaluable in maximizing a client's well-being. It is important to note that psychological assessment reports only provide a snapshot in time and may not consider contextual factors. Therefore, we recommend using psychological assessment reports with other assessment tools and interpreting the results cautiously.

Gain a deeper understanding

Psychometric tests and clinical interviews allow psychologists to critically evaluate a client's cognitive abilities, personality, behavior, and mental health. This results in a fuller picture of the client's condition, struggles, strengths, and weaknesses.

Improve diagnosis and treatment

With a more complete view of the client, psychologists can determine appropriate diagnoses and craft tailored treatment plans. This leads to better outcomes and a higher chance of success.

Address non-medical issues

Psychological assessments uncover issues beyond just diagnosable mental health conditions. They can reveal learning disabilities, giftedness, poor coping strategies, trauma, relationship difficulties, and more. Identifying these areas allows for targeted support and intervention.

Limitations

Time-consuming

Conducting interviews, administering tests, scoring, interpreting results, and writing reports requires a significant time commitment from psychologists. This can reduce the availability of actual treatment.

Psychological assessments, especially full batteries of tests, can be costly for clients to obtain. Insurance coverage varies significantly, and many people pay large portions out-of-pocket.

Imperfect tools

While psychometric tests aim to be objective, they still have flaws and biases. Cultural differences, language barriers, and other factors can influence scores and interpretations.

Limited usefulness.

Psychological assessments may provide little additional information or benefit for some referral questions or diagnoses. Clinicians must determine if evaluations are essential and helpful for each client.

Best Practices for Writing Useful Psychological Assessment Reports

Creating comprehensive and concise psychological assessment reports is one of your most critical tasks as a therapist. To achieve this, you should follow best practices that maintain objectivity while empathizing with the individual's situation. By doing so, you can develop a detailed and thorough report that helps you create a customized treatment plan for each client based on their specific needs. This personalized approach can be instrumental in helping clients achieve their goals and improving their overall well-being.

Here are some best practices to keep in mind:

• Determine the purpose and goals of the assessment
• Choose reliable, valid, and appropriate assessments for the client's age, background, and needs
• Explain the evaluation process to the client and obtain proper consent before testing
• Follow standardized procedures for the tests to ensure accurate results
• Score and interpret the test results objectively according to the manuals
• Look for patterns across measures that point to diagnoses, traits, abilities, or disabilities
• Consider the client's unique circumstances and how that may impact the results
• Write a report that addresses the initial questions and provides background, test details, results, diagnoses, and recommendations
• Use precise language and avoid excessive jargon
• Present limitations and alternative hypotheses
• Maintain confidentiality and obtain client consent before releasing the report to others
• Be available to answer questions about your methods and findings or recommendations
• Regularly review and update your assessment tools and procedures to provide the best service to your clients

Template and Example of a Comprehensive Psychological Assessment Report

The following is an overview of a comprehensive psychological assessment report. The level of detail and content will vary depending on the client and the specific questions being addressed. Generally, a psychological assessment report includes the following sections:

Referral Information

This includes details about who referred the client, the reason for the referral, and the questions to be addressed. For example:

• Referred by Dr. Jane Doe, Licensed Clinical Social Worker, for assessment of attention and concentration difficulties.

Background Information

This area provides relevant details about the client's background, medical and mental health history, family history, education, work experience, relationships, substance use, legal issues, etc. For example:

• 32-year-old male, married with two children. Graduated college with a Bachelor's degree. Currently employed as an accountant. No significant medical or mental health issues were reported. Denies substance use.

Assessment Procedures and Results

This section outlines the specific assessments administered, including cognitive, personality, behavioral, and symptom-focused measures. Provide scores, interpretations, and implications. For example:

• The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-IV) was administered to assess intellectual functioning. Scores were in the Average range overall. Processing speed was a relative weakness.

Diagnostic Impressions

This section provides the evaluator's clinical impressions, diagnoses (if applicable), and level of functioning. For example:

• Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, predominantly inattentive presentation. The client exhibits difficulty sustaining attention and concentration, forgetfulness, and restlessness. Symptoms result in mild impairment in occupational functioning.

Treatment Recommendations

This section provides recommendations to address the client's symptoms and improve functioning. For example:

• Recommend a trial of stimulant medication to improve attention and concentration. Also, recommend weekly psychotherapy to help develop coping strategies and routines.

Crafting accurate and sensitive psychological assessment reports is a challenge, but with dedication, practice, and attention to detail, you can become skilled at creating valuable insights for your clients. Remember that it's a process that requires patience, and always prioritize ethical standards and client confidentiality. Following the tips and guidelines outlined in this article ensures that your reports are efficient, informative, and beneficial for the client's overall mental health journey. Take the next step and boost your practice with Mentalyc. With this tool, you can automatically generate thorough, sensitive progress notes within minutes and streamline your workflow to focus your valuable time on helping your clients thrive. Start your  free trial today!

As a therapist, you likely get many questions about psychological assessment reports from colleagues, clients, and others. Here are some of the most common FAQs and your answers:

What exactly is a psychological assessment report?

A psychological assessment report summarizes testing and evaluation results to assess a client's cognitive, emotional, and behavioral functioning. It provides a professional opinion and recommendations to help guide diagnosis and treatment.

What is psychological assessment report writing?

Psychological assessment report writing is a process of gathering, interpreting, and synthesizing psychological test data to provide insights into an individual's cognitive, emotional, and behavioral functioning.

Why do people request psychometric testing and assessment reports?

People request psychometric testing and reports for many reasons, including:

• Diagnosing a mental health condition like depression, anxiety, ADHD, etc.
• Determining eligibility for special education services or workplace accommodations
• Gaining insight into strengths, weaknesses, and personality to aid career or relationship counseling
• Assessing risk factors for conditions like substance abuse or recidivism in the criminal justice system

Who are psychological assessment reports for?

Assessment reports are written for the referral source, a physician, school, employer, or court. They aim to provide recommendations to assist these parties in determining diagnosis, treatment, eligibility for services, risk, etc. Clients and families may also benefit from understanding the results and recommendations.

What psychological tests are commonly used in assessments?

• Intelligence tests like WAIS and WISC
• Achievement tests like WIAT and WRAT
• Projective tests like Rorschach and TAT
• Neuropsychological tests for memory, processing speed, executive function, and more
• Personality tests like MMPI, 16PF, and NEO-PI

What are the benefits and limitations of psychological assessment reports?

Benefits include gaining objective data to support diagnosis and recommendations. However, test results can be misinterpreted or misused. Cultural and diversity factors may also limit generalizability. No assessment is 100% accurate, so clinical judgment is also needed.

How long does a psychological assessment typically take?

Psychological assessments generally require several hours for test administration, scoring, interpretation, and report writing. The entire assessment process usually takes between 4 and 12 hours, depending on the number of tests administered and the complexity of the referral question.

How accurate are psychological assessments?

While psychological assessments provide objective data, they have limitations. Test scores approximate a person's abilities, personality, and condition. The accuracy depends on several factors, including the tests' quality, the client's effort and willingness to share honestly, and the interpreter's skill and experience. Overall accuracy rates range from about 70% to 95% for most psychological assessments.

How is psychological testing used in assessment report writing?

Psychological testing is utilized to evaluate an individual's cognitive abilities, personality traits, emotional well-being, and behavioral characteristics, which are then documented in the assessment report.

What should be included in a psychological report?

A psychological report typically includes an overview of the individual's background, test results, interpretation of scores, diagnostic impressions, and recommendations for treatment or intervention.

What are the key components of a cognitive assessment report?

The key components of a cognitive assessment report include an analysis of cognitive skills such as attention, memory, problem-solving, and reasoning abilities, along with interpretations of standardized test scores in these areas.

How can psychological consultation enhance the report-writing process?

Psychological consultation can provide valuable insights and perspectives to ensure that the assessment report is well-rounded, comprehensive, and effectively communicates the psychological findings and implications for the individual.

What is the importance of understanding psychological reports?

Understanding psychological reports is crucial for clinicians, educators, and other professionals to appropriately interpret and utilize the information for decision-making, intervention planning, and providing support to individuals based on their psychological needs.

What is the role of a neuropsychologist in psychological assessment report writing?

A neuropsychologist plays a key role in conducting formal psychological and neuropsychological assessments, interpreting test results related to cognitive functioning, and providing valuable insights into an individual's cognitive and emotional strengths and vulnerabilities.

How are standardized tests utilized in psychological assessment reports?

Standardized tests are used to measure an individual's performance in various domains such as cognitive abilities, emotional functioning, adaptive skills, and interpersonal relationships, providing quantitative data for inclusion in the psychological report.

What is the process of editing a psychological assessment report?

The process of editing a psychological assessment report involves reviewing and refining the content to ensure clarity, accuracy, and appropriateness of language, as well as adherence to professional guidelines and ethical standards.

How can cultural context be considered in the interpretation of psychological assessment reports?

Cultural context should be taken into account when interpreting psychological assessment reports to ensure that the assessment process and the report accurately reflect the individual's cultural background, values, and experiences.

References:

• American Psychological Association. (2013, November 10).  Understanding Psychological Testing and Assessment .  https://www.apa.org/topics/testing-assessment-measurement/understanding
• Black, A. (2021, August 11).   Common questions about psychological assessments . PsychMed.  https://psychmed.com.au/common-questions-about-psychological-assessments/
• Bright Pine Behavioral Health. (2023, May 4).   Psychological Testing Report Example .  https://www.brightpinepsychology.com/example/
• Farley, J. L. (2023, October 9).  Psychological Assessment: What is it and Why is it Important?  Lindner Center of HOPE.  https://lindnercenterofhope.org/blog/psychological-assessment-what-is-it-and-how-can-it-help/
• Fernández-Ballesteros, R. (n.d.).   Psychological Assessment . Science Direct.  https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/psychological-assessment
• Ferraro, K. (2022, March 16).  5 Pros of Psychological Tests, Plus 2 Cons . LiveStrong.  https://www.livestrong.com/article/78802-advantages-psychological-tests/
• Huff, C. (2020, March 1).  How to Write More Useful Assessment Reports . https://www.apa.org.  https://www.apa.org/monitor/2020/03/career-write-reports
• New Vision Psychology. (2023, June 8).  Understanding Psychological Reports and Assessments .  https://newvisionpsychology.com.au/psychological-assessments-and-reporting/things-you-should-know/

All examples of mental health documentation are fictional and for informational purposes only.

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How to demonstrate critical evaluation in your psychology assignments

Thinking critically about psychology research

Critical thinking is often taught in undergraduate psychology degrees, and is a key marking criteria for higher marks in many assignments. But getting your head around how to write critically can sometimes be difficult. It can take practice. The aim of this short blog is to provide an introduction to critical evaluation, and how to start including evidence of critical evaluation in your psychology assignments.

So what does “critical evaluation” really mean?

Broadly speaking, critical evaluation is the process of thinking and writing critically about the quality of the sources of evidence used to support or refute an argument. By “ evidence “, I mean the literature you cite (e.g., a journal article or book chapter). By “ quality   of the evidence “, I mean thinking about whether this topic has been tested is in a robust way. If the quality of the sources is poor, then this could suggest poor support for your argument, and vice versa. Even if the quality is poor, this is important to discuss in your assignments as evidence of critical thinking in this way!

In the rest of this blog, I outline a few different ways you can start to implement critical thinking into your work and reading of psychology. I talk about the quality of the evidence, a few pointers for critiquing the methods, theoretical and practical critical evaluation too. This is not an exhaustive list, but hopefully it’ll help you to start getting those higher-level marks in psychology. I also include an example write-up at the end to illustrate how to write all of this up!

The quality of the evidence

There are different types of study designs in psychology research, but some are of higher quality than others. The higher the quality of the evidence, the stronger the support for your argument the research offers, because the idea has been tested more rigorously. The pyramid image below can really help to explain what we mean by “quality of evidence”, by showing different study designs in the order of their quality. 

Not every area of psychology is going to be full of high quality studies, and even the strongest sources of evidence (i.e., systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses) can have limitations! Because no study is perfect, it can be a good habit to tell the reader, in your report, (i) what the  design  of the study is that you’re citing, AND, (ii)  how  this affects your argument. Doing so would be evidence of critical thought. (See an example write-up below for implementing this, but do not copy and paste it!) 

But first, what do I mean by “design”? The design of the study refers to  how  the study was carried out. There are sometimes broad categories of design that you’ll have heard of, like a ‘survey design’, ‘a review paper’, or an ‘experimental design’. Within these categories, though, there can be more specific types of design (e.g. a  cross-sectional  survey design, or a  longitudinal  survey design; a  randomised controlled  experiment or a  simple pre-post  experiment). Knowing these specific types of design is a good place to start when thinking about how to critique the evidence when citing your sources, and the image below can help with that. 

Image source: https://thelogicofscience.com/2016/01/12/the-hierarchy-of-evidence-is-the-studys-design-robust/

In summary, there are various types of designs in psychology research. To name a few from the image above, we have: a meta-analysis or a systematic review (a review paper that summarises the research that explores the same research question); a cross-sectional survey study (a questionnaire that people complete once – these are really common in psychology!). If you’re not familiar with these, I would  highly suggest  doing a bit of reading around these methods and some of their general limitations – you can then use these limitation points in your assignments! To help with this, you could do a Google Scholar search for ‘limitations of a cross-sectional study’, or ‘why are randomised control trials gold standard?’. You can use any published papers as further support as a limitation.

Methodological critical evaluation

• Internal validity: Are the findings or the measures used in the study reliable (e.g., have they been replicated by another study, and is the reliability high)? 
• External validity: Are there any biases in the study that might affect generalisability(e.g., gender bias, where one gender may be overrepresented for the population in the sample recruited)?  Lack of generalisability is a common limitation that undergraduates tend to use by default as a limitation in their reports. It’s a perfectly valid limitation, but it can usually be made much more impactful by explaining exactly  how  it’s a problem for the topic of study. In some cases, this limitation may not be all that warranted; for example, a female bias may be expected in a sample of psychology students, because undergraduate courses tend to be filled mostly with females! 
• What is the design of the study, and how it a good or bad quality design (randomised control trial, cross-sectional study)? 

Theoretical critical evaluation

• Do the findings in the literature support the relevant psychological theories?
• Have the findings been replicated in another study? (If so, say so and add a reference!)

Practical critical evaluation

• In the real world, how easy would it be to implement these findings?
• Have these findings been implemented? (If so, you could find out if this has been done well!)

Summary points

In summary, there are various types of designs in psychology research. To name a few from the image above, we have: a meta-analysis or a systematic review (a review paper that summarises the research that explores the same research question); a cross-sectional survey study (a questionnaire that people complete once – these are really common in psychology!). If you’re not familiar with these, I would highly suggest doing a bit of reading around these methods and some of their general limitations – you can then use these limitation points in your assignments! To help with this, I would do a Google Scholar search for ‘limitations of a cross-sectional study’, or ‘why are randomised control trials gold standard?’. You can use these papers as further support as a limitation.

You don’t have to use all of these points in your writing, these are just examples of how you can demonstrate critical thinking in your work. Try to use at least a couple in any assignment. Here is an example of how to write these up:

An example write-up

“Depression and anxiety are generally associated with each other (see the meta-analysis by [reference here]). For example, one of these studies was a cross-sectional study [reference here] with 500 undergraduate psychology students. The researchers found that depression and anxiety (measured using the DASS-21 measure) were correlated at  r  = .76, indicating a strong effect. However, this one study is limited in that it used a cross-sectional design, which do not tell us whether depression causes anxiety or whether anxiety causes depression; it just tells us that they are correlated. It’s also limited in that the participants are not a clinical sample, which does not tell us about whether these are clinically co-morbid constructs. Finally, a strength of this study is that it used the DASS-21 which is generally found to be a reliable measure. Future studies would therefore benefit from using a longitudinal design to gain an idea as to how these variables are causally related to one another, and use more clinical samples to understand the implications for clinical practice. Overall, however, the research generally suggests that depression and anxiety are associated. That there is a meta-analysis on this topic [reference here], showing that there is lots of evidence, suggests that this finding is generally well-accepted.”

• Notice how I first found a review paper on the topic to broadly tell the reader how much evidence there is in the first place. I set the scene of the paragraph with the first sentence, and then the last sentence I brought it back, rounding the paragraph off. 
• Notice how I then described one study from this paper in more detail. Specifically, I mentioned the participants, the design of the study and the measure the researchers used to assess these variables. Critically, I then described  how  each of these pieces of the method are disadvantages/strengths of the study. Sometimes, it’s enough to just say “the study was limited in that it was a cross-sectional study”, but it can really show that you are thinking critically, if you also add “… because it does not tell us….”. 
• Notice how I added a statistic there to further illustrate my point (in this case, it was the correlation coefficient), showing that I didn’t just read the abstract of the paper. Doing this for the effect sizes in a study can also help demonstrate to a reader that you understand statistics (a higher-level marking criteria). 

Are these points you can include in your own work?

Thanks for reading,

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