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Mary Carmichael

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Learning and Development Case Study: Heinz - A training scheme full of beans

After identifying the need to shift its training from external suppliers to an internal programme, Heinz set up Learning Bitez, covering skills from Outlook to can-making.

The challenge

As an employer of around 3,000 people in the UK alone, Heinz has always made a significant investment in external training. However, time pressures mean that releasing staff to undertake courses is a constant challenge.

At the same time, the company has been seeking ways to make the most of the wealth of knowledge, expertise and skills from within its workforce.

The programme

Last year's graduate intake helped to identify the need for shorter-term internal training , according to Pat Rees, Heinz's talent manager. "The graduates were assigned to different sites and had short training sessions called 'Lunch and Learn' with various heads of departments," she says.

"They reported how other managers were extremely interested in what they'd learned from these. We'd already realised a dynamic workplace needs regular updates. Processes change but we knew we could be drawing more on our internal talent pool."

Diving into big business:

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These lunchtime training concepts have evolved and, since January 2009, been rebranded Learning Bitez - workshops lasting between one and four hours, not necessarily at lunchtime, run internally and led by Heinz staff. Already, 600 people have sampled one or more of the 'bitez'.

Topics range from how to get the best out of Outlook to an introduction to can-making. They are prompted by the identification of a general need or by a department volunteering.

"The finance team discovered the financial parts of the monthly reports often went over people's heads, so proposed a learning bite to explain this in more detail," says Rees. "It started at our Hayes Park site, but has since spread out to other sites."

There are 61 bitez on offer at the moment but this list is growing and some are so popular they are regularly repeated. Some are relevant to a wide range of employees, while others are more specific.

"An introduction to can-filling can be tailored to the departments that provide services to this operation," says Rees. "This can help iron out potential problems."

Staff find out about the workshops available via internal communications and then book, with the approval of their line manager, through an online system. The HR department manages the booking process and deals with preparation and post-course evaluation, leaving the course leaders to focus on content.

The results

The best measurement of short bursts of training is immediate feedback and ongoing popularity, and Rees says both demonstrate staff enthusiasm. The concept has been embraced more fully at larger sites that are better equipped and have a greater spread of expertise, but Heinz is working on wider take-up, and when the content lends itself to remote participation , the company uses technology to enable employees to join in.

The HR view

Pat Rees is Heinz's talent manager. "Learning Bitez have been around for a year but they have made such an impact it is as if they've always been there," says Rees. "There's an agility about the way the courses start and I'd like to keep this so the training is always done by someone with a passion. Internal staff know their audiences, they already know where the problems are and how they can tailor their information.

"Some courses are extremely popular - how to get the best out of Outlook, for example. We just assume people know this but our head of IT took it upon himself to develop training," Rees adds.

"He trained 35 people last month and there are 30 more signed up for the January session. The short courses allow people to sample a subject - such as coaching - before embarking on a longer course. They make our resources go further and encourage greater cross-functional engagement and interaction, while providing real business benefits."

The employee view

Val Lowe is HR administrator at Heinz. "I did the personal effectiveness learning bite in November. The course leader took us through the ways in which Outlook had been dominating our days and how we could organise our time better ," says Lowe.

"We looked at to-do lists and tasks, how to arrange diaries and get emails under control. I used to keep about 300 emails on my system and now I've got that down to about 10," Lowe adds.

"I've also learned to turn off my email alert and to take a more disciplined approach by only looking at them at set times in the day. That way, I'm able to concentrate on the task I'm doing and not get distracted. I sift through and copy them into task lists.

"I have definitely found the course really useful and would highly recommend it to anyone. I finished the course, went back to my desk and was able to use the learning almost straight away. I am now thinking of leading a session myself."

Further reading

Learning and development case study: First Group

Learning and Development Case Study: Cable & Wireless - Keeping pace with fast change

What's new in learning and development technology for 2023

How does the business partner model work for learning and development professionals?

Heinz's new training programme is proving its worth in increased staff engagement

Case study: Creating a learning culture at Airbus

International Case Study: GfK SE revamps learning platform

L&D case study: Co-operative Financial Services

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Case Study-Based Learning

Enhancing learning through immediate application.

By the Mind Tools Content Team

If you've ever tried to learn a new concept, you probably appreciate that "knowing" is different from "doing." When you have an opportunity to apply your knowledge, the lesson typically becomes much more real.

Adults often learn differently from children, and we have different motivations for learning. Typically, we learn new skills because we want to. We recognize the need to learn and grow, and we usually need – or want – to apply our newfound knowledge soon after we've learned it.

A popular theory of adult learning is andragogy (the art and science of leading man, or adults), as opposed to the better-known pedagogy (the art and science of leading children). Malcolm Knowles , a professor of adult education, was considered the father of andragogy, which is based on four key observations of adult learners:

• Adults learn best if they know why they're learning something.
• Adults often learn best through experience.
• Adults tend to view learning as an opportunity to solve problems.
• Adults learn best when the topic is relevant to them and immediately applicable.

This means that you'll get the best results with adults when they're fully involved in the learning experience. Give an adult an opportunity to practice and work with a new skill, and you have a solid foundation for high-quality learning that the person will likely retain over time.

So, how can you best use these adult learning principles in your training and development efforts? Case studies provide an excellent way of practicing and applying new concepts. As such, they're very useful tools in adult learning, and it's important to understand how to get the maximum value from them.

What Is a Case Study?

Case studies are a form of problem-based learning, where you present a situation that needs a resolution. A typical business case study is a detailed account, or story, of what happened in a particular company, industry, or project over a set period of time.

The learner is given details about the situation, often in a historical context. The key players are introduced. Objectives and challenges are outlined. This is followed by specific examples and data, which the learner then uses to analyze the situation, determine what happened, and make recommendations.

The depth of a case depends on the lesson being taught. A case study can be two pages, 20 pages, or more. A good case study makes the reader think critically about the information presented, and then develop a thorough assessment of the situation, leading to a well-thought-out solution or recommendation.

Why Use a Case Study?

Case studies are a great way to improve a learning experience, because they get the learner involved, and encourage immediate use of newly acquired skills.

They differ from lectures or assigned readings because they require participation and deliberate application of a broad range of skills. For example, if you study financial analysis through straightforward learning methods, you may have to calculate and understand a long list of financial ratios (don't worry if you don't know what these are). Likewise, you may be given a set of financial statements to complete a ratio analysis. But until you put the exercise into context, you may not really know why you're doing the analysis.

With a case study, however, you might explore whether a bank should provide financing to a borrower, or whether a company is about to make a good acquisition. Suddenly, the act of calculating ratios becomes secondary – it's more important to understand what the ratios tell you. This is how case studies can make the difference between knowing what to do, and knowing how, when, and why to do it.

Then, what really separates case studies from other practical forms of learning – like scenarios and simulations – is the ability to compare the learner's recommendations with what actually happened. When you know what really happened, it's much easier to evaluate the "correctness" of the answers given.

When to Use a Case Study

As you can see, case studies are powerful and effective training tools. They also work best with practical, applied training, so make sure you use them appropriately.

Remember these tips:

• Case studies tend to focus on why and how to apply a skill or concept, not on remembering facts and details. Use case studies when understanding the concept is more important than memorizing correct responses.
• Case studies are great team-building opportunities. When a team gets together to solve a case, they'll have to work through different opinions, methods, and perspectives.
• Use case studies to build problem-solving skills, particularly those that are valuable when applied, but are likely to be used infrequently. This helps people get practice with these skills that they might not otherwise get.
• Case studies can be used to evaluate past problem solving. People can be asked what they'd do in that situation, and think about what could have been done differently.

Ensuring Maximum Value From Case Studies

The first thing to remember is that you already need to have enough theoretical knowledge to handle the questions and challenges in the case study. Otherwise, it can be like trying to solve a puzzle with some of the pieces missing.

Here are some additional tips for how to approach a case study. Depending on the exact nature of the case, some tips will be more relevant than others.

• Read the case at least three times before you start any analysis. Case studies usually have lots of details, and it's easy to miss something in your first, or even second, reading.
• Once you're thoroughly familiar with the case, note the facts. Identify which are relevant to the tasks you've been assigned. In a good case study, there are often many more facts than you need for your analysis.
• If the case contains large amounts of data, analyze this data for relevant trends. For example, have sales dropped steadily, or was there an unexpected high or low point?
• If the case involves a description of a company's history, find the key events, and consider how they may have impacted the current situation.
• Consider using techniques like SWOT analysis and Porter's Five Forces Analysis to understand the organization's strategic position.
• Stay with the facts when you draw conclusions. These include facts given in the case as well as established facts about the environmental context. Don't rely on personal opinions when you put together your answers.

Writing a Case Study

You may have to write a case study yourself. These are complex documents that take a while to research and compile. The quality of the case study influences the quality of the analysis. Here are some tips if you want to write your own:

• Write your case study as a structured story. The goal is to capture an interesting situation or challenge and then bring it to life with words and information. You want the reader to feel a part of what's happening.
• Present information so that a "right" answer isn't obvious. The goal is to develop the learner's ability to analyze and assess, not necessarily to make the same decision as the people in the actual case.
• Do background research to fully understand what happened and why. You may need to talk to key stakeholders to get their perspectives as well.
• Determine the key challenge. What needs to be resolved? The case study should focus on one main question or issue.
• Define the context. Talk about significant events leading up to the situation. What organizational factors are important for understanding the problem and assessing what should be done? Include cultural factors where possible.
• Identify key decision makers and stakeholders. Describe their roles and perspectives, as well as their motivations and interests.
• Make sure that you provide the right data to allow people to reach appropriate conclusions.
• Make sure that you have permission to use any information you include.

A typical case study structure includes these elements:

• Executive summary. Define the objective, and state the key challenge.
• Opening paragraph. Capture the reader's interest.
• Scope. Describe the background, context, approach, and issues involved.
• Presentation of facts. Develop an objective picture of what's happening.
• Description of key issues. Present viewpoints, decisions, and interests of key parties.

Because case studies have proved to be such effective teaching tools, many are already written. Some excellent sources of free cases are The Times 100 , CasePlace.org , and Schroeder & Schroeder Inc . You can often search for cases by topic or industry. These cases are expertly prepared, based mostly on real situations, and used extensively in business schools to teach management concepts.

Case studies are a great way to improve learning and training. They provide learners with an opportunity to solve a problem by applying what they know.

There are no unpleasant consequences for getting it "wrong," and cases give learners a much better understanding of what they really know and what they need to practice.

Case studies can be used in many ways, as team-building tools, and for skill development. You can write your own case study, but a large number are already prepared. Given the enormous benefits of practical learning applications like this, case studies are definitely something to consider adding to your next training session.

Knowles, M. (1973). 'The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species [online].' Available here .

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The essential components of a successful L&D strategy

Over the past decade, the global workforce has been continually evolving because of a number of factors. An increasingly competitive business landscape, rising complexity, and the digital revolution are reshaping the mix of employees. Meanwhile, persistent uncertainty, a multigenerational workforce, and a shorter shelf life for knowledge have placed a premium on reskilling and upskilling. The shift to a digital, knowledge-based economy means that a vibrant workforce is more important than ever: research suggests that a very significant percentage of market capitalization in public companies is based on intangible assets—skilled employees, exceptional leaders, and knowledge. 1 Intangible Asset Market Value Study, Ocean Tomo.

Learning and development—From evolution to revolution

We began in 2014 by surveying 1,500 executives about capability building. In 2016, we added 120 L&D leaders at 91 organizations to our database, gathering information on their traditional training strategies and aspirations for future programs. We also interviewed 15 chief learning officers or L&D heads at major companies.

Historically, the L&D function has been relatively successful in helping employees build skills and perform well in their existing roles. The main focus of L&D has been on upskilling. However, the pace of change continues to accelerate; McKinsey research estimates that as many as 800 million jobs could be displaced by automation by 2030.

Employee roles are expected to continue evolving, and a large number of people will need to learn new skills to remain employable. Unsurprisingly, our research confirmed our initial hypothesis: corporate learning must undergo revolutionary changes over the next few years to keep pace with constant technological advances. In addition to updating training content, companies must increase their focus on blended-learning solutions, which combine digital learning, fieldwork, and highly immersive classroom sessions. With the growth of user-friendly digital-learning platforms, employees will take more ownership of their professional development, logging in to take courses when the need arises rather than waiting for a scheduled classroom session.

Such innovations will require companies to devote more resources to training: our survey revealed that 60 percent of respondents plan to increase L&D spending over the next few years, and 66 percent want to boost the number of employee-training hours. As they commit more time and money, companies must ensure that the transformation of the L&D function proceeds smoothly.

All of these trends have elevated the importance of the learning-and-development (L&D) function. We undertook several phases of research to understand trends and current priorities in L&D (see sidebar, “Learning and development—From evolution to revolution”). Our efforts highlighted how the L&D function is adapting to meet the changing needs of organizations, as well as the growing levels of investment in professional development.

To get the most out of investments in training programs and curriculum development, L&D leaders must embrace a broader role within the organization and formulate an ambitious vision for the function. An essential component of this effort is a comprehensive, coordinated strategy that engages the organization and encourages collaboration. The ACADEMIES© framework, which consists of nine dimensions of L&D, can help to strengthen the function and position it to serve the organization more effectively.

The strategic role of L&D

One of L&D’s primary responsibilities is to manage the development of people—and to do so in a way that supports other key business priorities. L&D’s strategic role spans five areas (Exhibit 1). 2 Nick van Dam, 25 Best Practices in Learning & Talent Development , second edition, Raleigh, NC: Lulu Publishing, 2008.

• Attract and retain talent. Traditionally, learning focused solely on improving productivity. Today, learning also contributes to employability. Over the past several decades, employment has shifted from staying with the same company for a lifetime to a model where workers are being retained only as long as they can add value to an enterprise. Workers are now in charge of their personal and professional growth and development—one reason that people list “opportunities for learning and development” among the top criteria for joining an organization. Conversely, a lack of L&D is one of the key reasons people cite for leaving a company.
• Develop people capabilities. Human capital requires ongoing investments in L&D to retain its value. When knowledge becomes outdated or forgotten—a more rapid occurrence today—the value of human capital declines and needs to be supplemented by new learning and relevant work experiences. 3 Gary S. Becker, “Investment in human capital: A theoretical analysis,” Journal of Political Economy , 1962, Volume 70, Number 5, Part 2, pp. 9–49, jstor.org. Companies that make investments in the next generation of leaders are seeing an impressive return. Research indicates that companies in the top quartile of leadership outperform other organizations by nearly two times on earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation, and amortization (EBITDA). Moreover, companies that invest in developing leaders during significant transformations are 2.4 times more likely to hit their performance targets . 4 “ Economic Conditions Snapshot, June 2009: McKinsey Global Survey results ,” June 2009.
• Create a values-based culture. As the workforce in many companies becomes increasingly virtual and globally dispersed, L&D can help to build a values-based culture and a sense of community. In particular, millennials are particularly interested in working for values-based, sustainable enterprises that contribute to the welfare of society.
• Build an employer brand. An organization’s brand is one of its most important assets and conveys a great deal about the company’s success in the market, financial strengths, position in the industry, and products and services. Investments in L&D can help to enhance company’s brand and boost its reputation as an “employer of choice.” As large segments of the workforce prepare to retire, employers must work harder to compete for a shrinking talent pool. To do so, they must communicate their brand strength explicitly through an employer value proposition.
• Motivate and engage employees. The most important way to engage employees is to provide them with opportunities to learn and develop new competencies. Research suggests that lifelong learning contributes to happiness. 5 John Coleman, “Lifelong learning is good for your health, your wallet, and your social life,” Harvard Business Review , February 7, 2017, hbr.org. When highly engaged employees are challenged and given the skills to grow and develop within their chosen career path, they are more likely to be energized by new opportunities at work and satisfied with their current organization.

The L&D function in transition

Over the years, we have identified and field-tested nine dimensions that contribute to a strong L&D function. We combined these dimensions to create the ACADEMIES framework, which covers all aspects of L&D functions, from setting aspirations to measuring impact (Exhibit 2). Although many companies regularly execute on several dimensions of this framework, our recent research found that only a few companies are fully mature in all dimensions.

1. Alignment with business strategy

One of an L&D executive’s primary tasks is to develop and shape a learning strategy based on the company’s business and talent strategies. The learning strategy seeks to support professional development and build capabilities across the company, on time, and in a cost-effective manner. In addition, the learning strategy can enhance the company culture and encourage employees to live the company’s values.

For many organizations, the L&D function supports the implementation of the business strategy. For example, if one of the business strategies is a digital transformation, L&D will focus on building the necessary people capabilities to make that possible.

Every business leader would agree that L&D must align with a company’s overall priorities. Yet research has found that many L&D functions fall short on this dimension. Only 40 percent of companies say that their learning strategy is aligned with business goals. 6 Human Capital Management Excellence Conference 2018, Brandon Hall Group. For 60 percent, then, learning has no explicit connection to the company’s strategic objectives. L&D functions may be out of sync with the business because of outdated approaches or because budgets have been based on priorities from previous years rather than today’s imperatives, such as a digital transformation.

Would you like to learn more about the McKinsey Academy ?

To be effective, L&D must take a hard look at employee capabilities and determine which are most essential to support the execution of the company’s business strategy. L&D leaders should reevaluate this alignment on a yearly basis to ensure they are creating a people-capability agenda that truly reflects business priorities and strategic objectives.

2. Co-ownership between business units and HR

With new tools and technologies constantly emerging, companies must become more agile, ready to adapt their business processes and practices. L&D functions must likewise be prepared to rapidly launch capability-building programs—for example, if new business needs suddenly arise or staff members require immediate training on new technologies such as cloud-based collaboration tools.

L&D functions can enhance their partnership with business leaders by establishing a governance structure in which leadership from both groups share responsibility for defining, prioritizing, designing, and securing funds for capability-building programs. Under this governance model, a company’s chief experience officer (CXO), senior executives, and business-unit heads will develop the people-capability agenda for segments of the enterprise and ensure that it aligns with the company’s overall strategic goals. Top business executives will also help firmly embed the learning function and all L&D initiatives in the organizational culture. The involvement of senior leadership enables full commitment to the L&D function’s longer-term vision.

3. Assessment of capability gaps and estimated value

After companies identify their business priorities, they must verify that their employees can deliver on them—a task that may be more difficult than it sounds. Some companies make no effort to assess employee capabilities, while others do so only at a high level. Conversations with L&D, HR, and senior executives suggest that many companies are ineffective or indifferent at assessing capability gaps, especially when it comes to senior leaders and midlevel managers.

The most effective companies take a deliberate, systematic approach to capability assessment. At the heart of this process is a comprehensive competency or capability model based on the organization’s strategic direction. For example, a key competency for a segment of an e-commerce company’s workforce could be “deep expertise in big data and predictive analytics.”

After identifying the most essential capabilities for various functions or job descriptions, companies should then assess how employees rate in each of these areas. L&D interventions should seek to close these capability gaps.

4. Design of learning journeys

Most corporate learning is delivered through a combination of digital-learning formats and in-person sessions. While our research indicates that immersive L&D experiences in the classroom still have immense value, leaders have told us that they are incredibly busy “from eight to late,” which does not give them a lot of time to sit in a classroom. Furthermore, many said that they prefer to develop and practice new skills and behaviors in a “safe environment,” where they don’t have to worry about public failures that might affect their career paths.

Traditional L&D programs consisted of several days of classroom learning with no follow-up sessions, even though people tend to forget what they have learned without regular reinforcement. As a result, many L&D functions are moving away from stand-alone programs by designing learning journeys—continuous learning opportunities that take place over a period of time and include L&D interventions such as fieldwork, pre- and post-classroom digital learning, social learning, on-the-job coaching and mentoring, and short workshops. The main objectives of a learning journey are to help people develop the required new competencies in the most effective and efficient way and to support the transfer of learning to the job.

5. Execution and scale-up

An established L&D agenda consists of a number of strategic initiatives that support capability building and are aligned with business goals, such as helping leaders develop high-performing teams or roll out safety training. The successful execution of L&D initiatives on time and on budget is critical to build and sustain support from business leaders.

L&D functions often face an overload of initiatives and insufficient funding. L&D leadership needs to maintain an ongoing discussion with business leaders about initiatives and priorities to ensure the requisite resources and support.

Many new L&D initiatives are initially targeted to a limited audience. A successful execution of a small pilot, such as an online orientation program for a specific audience, can lead to an even bigger impact once the program is rolled out to the entire enterprise. The program’s cost per person declines as companies benefit from economies of scale.

6. Measurement of impact on business performance

A learning strategy’s execution and impact should be measured using key performance indicators (KPIs). The first indicator looks at business excellence: how closely aligned all L&D initiatives and investments are with business priorities. The second KPI looks at learning excellence: whether learning interventions change people’s behavior and performance. Last, an operational-excellence KPI measures how well investments and resources in the corporate academy are used.

Accurate measurement is not simple, and many organizations still rely on traditional impact metrics such as learning-program satisfaction and completion scores. But high-performing organizations focus on outcomes-based metrics such as impact on individual performance, employee engagement, team effectiveness, and business-process improvement.

We have identified several lenses for articulating and measuring learning impact:

• Strategic alignment: How effectively does the learning strategy support the organization’s priorities?
• Capabilities: How well does the L&D function help colleagues build the mind-sets, skills, and expertise they need most? This impact can be measured by assessing people’s capability gaps against a comprehensive competency framework.
• Organizational health: To what extent does learning strengthen the overall health and DNA of the organization? Relevant dimensions of the McKinsey Organizational Health Index can provide a baseline.
• Individual peak performance: Beyond raw capabilities, how well does the L&D function help colleagues achieve maximum impact in their role while maintaining a healthy work-life balance?

Access to big data provides L&D functions with more opportunities to assess and predict the business impact of their interventions.

7. Integration of L&D interventions into HR processes

Just as L&D corporate-learning activities need to be aligned with the business, they should also be an integral part of the HR agenda. L&D has an important role to play in recruitment, onboarding, performance management, promotion, workforce, and succession planning. Our research shows that at best, many L&D functions have only loose connections to annual performance reviews and lack a structured approach and follow-up to performance-management practices.

L&D leadership must understand major HR management practices and processes and collaborate closely with HR leaders. The best L&D functions use consolidated development feedback from performance reviews as input for their capability-building agenda. A growing number of companies are replacing annual performance appraisals with frequent, in-the-moment feedback. 7 HCM outlook 2018 , Brandon Hall Group. This is another area in which the L&D function can help managers build skills to provide development feedback effectively.

Elevating Learning & Development: Insights and Practical Guidance from the Field

Another example is onboarding. Companies that have developed high-impact onboarding processes score better on employee engagement and satisfaction and lose fewer new hires. 8 HCM outlook 2018 , Brandon Hall Group. The L&D function can play a critical role in onboarding—for example, by helping people build the skills to be successful in their role, providing new hires with access to digital-learning technologies, and connecting them with other new hires and mentors.

8. Enabling of the 70:20:10 learning framework

Many L&D functions embrace a framework known as “70:20:10,” in which 70 percent of learning takes place on the job, 20 percent through interaction and collaboration, and 10 percent through formal-learning interventions such as classroom training and digital curricula. These percentages are general guidelines and vary by industry and organization. L&D functions have traditionally focused on the formal-learning component.

Today, L&D leaders must design and implement interventions that support informal learning, including coaching and mentoring, on-the-job instruction, apprenticeships, leadership shadowing, action-based learning, on-demand access to digital learning, and lunch-and-learn sessions. Social technologies play a growing role in connecting experts and creating and sharing knowledge.

9. Systems and learning technology applications

The most significant enablers for just-in-time learning are technology platforms and applications. Examples include next-generation learning-management systems, virtual classrooms, mobile-learning apps, embedded performance-support systems, polling software, learning-video platforms, learning-assessment and -measurement platforms, massive open online courses (MOOCs), and small private online courses (SPOCs), to name just a few.

The learning-technology industry has moved entirely to cloud-based platforms, which provide L&D functions with unlimited opportunities to plug and unplug systems and access the latest functionality without having to go through lengthy and expensive implementations of an on-premises system. L&D leaders must make sure that learning technologies fit into an overall system architecture that includes functionality to support the entire talent cycle, including recruitment, onboarding, performance management, L&D, real-time feedback tools, career management, succession planning, and rewards and recognition.

L&D leaders are increasingly aware of the challenges created by the fourth industrial revolution (technologies that are connecting the physical and digital worlds), but few have implemented large-scale transformation programs. Instead, most are slowly adapting their strategy and curricula as needed. However, with technology advancing at an ever-accelerating pace, L&D leaders can delay no longer: human capital is more important than ever and will be the primary factor in sustaining competitive advantage over the next few years.

The leaders of L&D functions need to revolutionize their approach by creating a learning strategy that aligns with business strategy and by identifying and enabling the capabilities needed to achieve success. This approach will result in robust curricula that employ every relevant and available learning method and technology. The most effective companies will invest in innovative L&D programs, remain flexible and agile, and build the human talent needed to master the digital age.

These changes entail some risk, and perhaps some trial and error, but the rewards are great.

A version of this chapter was published in TvOO Magazine in September 2016. It is also included in Elevating Learning & Development: Insights and Practical Guidance from the Field , August 2018.

Stay current on your favorite topics

Jacqueline Brassey is director of Enduring Priorities Learning in McKinsey’s Amsterdam office, where Nick van Dam is an alumnus and senior adviser to the firm as well as professor and chief of the IE University (Madrid) Center for Learning Innovation; Lisa Christensen is a senior learning expert in the San Francisco office.

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Student resources, case study: learning and development at choc co..

Online Case Study: Learning and Development at Choc Co.

Choc Co. is one of the world's largest confectionery businesses with significant market share in many of the world's biggest confectionery markets, including many emerging markets. It has a long and proud tradition, stretching back more than 150 years, including a long history of developing its employees, which has remained part of its ethos during its progress to becoming a global company.

Despite very positive sales figures over the last 12months, Choc Co. has prioritised streamlining the business to make it more competitive and has placed a strong emphasis on reducing cost over the next 18 months. Despite being keen to preserve its longstanding reputation as a firm that is committed to developing all its employees, in respect of learning and development, this ‘streamlining’ activity has focused on:

• ensuring a clear return on investment in training activities
• changing the way that learning programmes are delivered and being more creative in developing approaches to learning
• connecting training activities to the strategic needs of the firm.

The most important driver of the assessment of its training provision at Choc Co. is change. Whilst performing well in the marketplace, senior management continue to express discontent with levels of productivity and employee performance. Moreover, senior management has determined that the company needs to become more flexible and adaptable to respond to change in its market context, for example by an ability to adapt organisational structures to meet new business needs or through the introduction of technological innovation. However, as a traditionally minded employer, and with low levels of employee turnover at shopfloor level, Choc co. appears to have instilled in its workers a mindset of stability and steady progress, which is at odds with competition in a rapidly changing global economy. Therefore, Choc Co. wants to move towards a system of continuous improvement by creating a culture whereby workers are empowered to implement small incremental changes, rather than have substantial change imposed on them from time to time.

Identifying training needs

Traditionally, training needs analysis at Choc Co. has been ‘gap-led’. In other words, training tends to be focused where Choc Co. identifies a gap in capability – for example, where the introduction of new technology requires worker skill to be updated, company policy is changed or a key worker leaves the firm, requiring training to be provided to their replacement. Typically this gap-led identification of need is conducted at a local level, with little reference made to the wider national or international workforce.

Whilst workers can put themselves forward for training courses, including those provided by local education providers, there is no formal channel for doing this and access to such training often comes down to personal relationships and the constraints imposed by departmental budgets. The culture at Choc Co. is very much one in which training needs are typically identified  for  workers rather than  by  workers.

Delivery of training

Currently, the company runs a number of large training events each year designed to update manufacturing staff on everything from health and safety changes, business strategy and company performance to the adoption of new production technology. This is sometimes coupled with skills training for these workers as and when appropriate. This has traditionally been done at the specialist training centre at their largest production facility, which doubles as the company’s headquarters. This practice partly stems from a time when the company only operated two production facilities in the country. It now operates across six geographically dispersed locations. Workers tend to view these training events as a bit of a waste of time, particularly when they are delivered by consultants with little real understanding of working processes at Choc Co. It is not unknown for workers to claim that the training they receive is outdated and tells them nothing that they don’t already know.

The head of training and development, responding to a call to cut costs from the HR director, is now of the opinion, however, that such long training programmes, often of up to three or four days, are no longer the most cost-effective and efficient means by which to develop the staff. Such training has the dual problem of requiring regular investment and repeat sessions to cover workers on different shifts or at different plants, as well as leading to undesirable downtime of certain aspects of production. In particular, the head of L&D is keen to reduce a reliance on external training providers to design and deliver interventions to different workforce groups, from senior management to shopfloor workers.

Moreover, the company has historically not evaluated the impact of these events. In the new era of cost-cutting and added value, however, the company is keen to ensure that the impact of all training interventions, however big or small, is measured.

Employee development programmes

A major investment in L&D at Choc Co. is in its manufacturing apprenticeship scheme and graduate development programme, both of which are widely viewed as models of good practice in the industry and beyond. These programmes are, however, under significant scrutiny by senior management to better understand the extent to which this investment provides value to the firm. One particular area under review is the turnover of employees who complete these programmes and then leave to work at other firms.

Ray Barbie, the head of learning and development at Choc Co. recently attended a seminar at a local university on ‘the changing nature of workplace HRD’. He was slightly alarmed to find out that much of the company’s practice was seen as outdated. In particular, he was interested in examining how some more contemporary approaches and techniques in HRD could help the company both reduce costs and better performance through continuous improvement.

• What changes would you recommend that Choc Co. make to their current learning and development provision in order to reduce costs and improve performance?
• Discuss how e-learning, competency frameworks and improved knowledge-sharing at Choc Co. might help to cut costs and make the HRD activity at Choc Co. more strategic.
• How might the firm seek to ensure a return on investment for its learning and development activity?

Learning and development leaders from top European companies gathered in Paris in September 2020 to share how they are managing the new world of work and to discuss challenges and new best practices.

Senior executives from Microsoft, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Uber, Thales, LinkedIn, and KPMG shared case studies about what has worked in their organisations, while academic and corporate experts revealed trends shaping the future.

Where does L&D stand in this turbulent year, and how can you prepare for the journey ahead? Here are 7 surprising tips from this unusual gathering.

#1. A teacher, not a textbook.

This year, even more learning is going digital – a trend confirmed by Makoto Miyasako, Head of Talent Management and Analytics at OECD, and Philippe Gerbelot-Barrillon, Head of LinkedIn Learning France, who both shared data from their organisations. Other reports also highlight this trend .

The accelerated shift to digital has its drawbacks. Many people miss a sense of human connection, and creating sustained engagement in fully online programmes remains difficult, according to Alexandre Glas, VP of Product and Data at online learning platform HUH Corporate.

A common design flaw of online learning programmes is that they resemble a digital textbook, said Alexandre. But, while everyone remembers their favourite teacher, who remembers their favourite textbook? – he asked. The problem is not how to build a better textbook. “ We can all have access to knowledge now, almost for free, ” Alexandre pointed out. L&D’s mission should be to fill the role of a live teacher or mentor. Programmes should be designed with engagement as the main goal.

Read: The Risks and Benefits of Emerging Technology for HR (Interview)

#2. The learning is the culture.

Alex Baggerman, Workforce of the Future Lead at KPMG Netherlands, has an unconventional idea. What if training, culture, talent management, leadership models, and other strategic policies were all covered under a single learning agenda?

After internal research, Alex came up with a framework that includes all roles within the organisation with their respective skills and responsibilities. This creates radical transparency – it is easy to see where everyone stands and how one can rise to the next level in the organisation. That gives people ownership of their role and career, Alex said.

An added benefit is that this framework also becomes the blueprint of corporate culture, as it brings everyone together. “ We don’t need to have a culture programme. This is a culture programme. You just go to the same course and talk to each other ,” Alex said. This is what happens when L&D takes the lead: a company’s values are integral to each person’s role, and people feel united around a shared cause.

#3. Expand L&D beyond the organisation.

Laurent Hamel, CLO of Microsoft France, takes the idea of aligning L&D with company strategy to a whole new level. He proposes a shared learning experience for employees and customers.

Microsoft uses the same learning management system (LMS) for both internal and external trainings, Laurent shared. That way, the company delivers shared skills and values to all stakeholders. This is the fast track to creating a shared culture that extends even beyond the company. At the same time, it is a way to upskill more people who can fill the emerging tech jobs of the future.

With learning as a key value at the very top, Microsoft is reimagining itself as an educator, delivering skills and development for all. It is an inspiring story for how far L&D can go.

Read:  Build Technical Skills and Aim for Innovation: Microsoft CLO Advice for L&D Leaders

#4. Diversify to reach everyone.

L&D offerings need to be adapted to various audiences for maximum impact. Segmentation has been a key principle in marketing for years, and now it is shaping learning and development as well.

Makoto, from OECD, studies how the impact of programmes varies according to demographic traits like nationality or gender. He has uncovered surprising correlations: for example, in-person and online learning modalities affect men and women differently. If a course is completely face-to-face, women had higher completion rates, whereas men complete more fully online courses.

This does not imply any essential gender differences – the reason may be that women occupy different job roles, or other contextual factors not covered by Makoto’s research. What matters for L&D leaders is that they should use data to anticipate uneven impact and unintended consequences.

L&D leaders should track learning data and use it to maximise reach. They can boost inclusion by delivering solutions suitable for different audiences.

#5. Peer-to-peer on all levels: train leaders who can create other leaders.

What if executives could become coaches who spread a learning culture throughout the organisation? Victoria Feldman, former Global Leadership Development manager at Uber, achieved this by getting them to practise together in supportive learning groups.

In a leadership programme at Uber, Victoria employed the 70-20-10 learning model, in which only 10% consists of formal training. The majority, 70%, is social – learners use new strategies and behaviours in day-to-day interactions, and then discuss what they observed in “coaching pods” of 5 people.

The programme had a satisfaction score of 94% among nearly 2,000 learners in 16 countries. The takeaway: empower leaders to learn from each other, so they can use the same strategy to coach employees. This sustained momentum means that a programme’s impact only continues to grow.

#6. Resilience is a team effort.

Employees and leaders are often told that they need to build resilience. But resilience is not simply a personal quality, said Jeremie Brecheisen, Senior Managing Consultant, Gallup. It depends on the workplace conditions.

What makes for resilient employees and, consequently, organisations? Gallup identified these 5 requirements:

• Employees know what is expected of them
• They have the equipment needed to do their job
• Employees can do what they do best every day
• They feel their job’s mission or purpose is important
• They feel their co-workers are committed to quality work

These are all factors in which HR and L&D can make a difference – from allowing people to develop their strengths, to helping them connect with their purpose. Meeting these needs measurably increases organisational resilience.

#7. Make space for “uncomfortable conversations”.

For the first time since measurement began in 2000, world events are directly tied to engagement at work, Gallup’s data shows. Engagement rose when the Covid-19 pandemic started. It dipped again when the Black Lives Matter protests began, only to quickly shoot up to record levels within a few weeks, as more people engaged with these events. This shows that “ business and the things that are happening outside of that are becoming more interconnected than ever, ” Jeremie concluded.

In light of this, companies should revisit their expectations about how employees relate to work. Keeping social and personal concerns away from work is no longer relevant, according to Nicholas Hamilton-Archer, Director of Executive Education at Tepper School of Business, Carnegie Mellon University (US). The best policy for companies, Nick advised, is to make space for open and honest conversations. That may push people out of their comfort zone, but it can open up vast opportunities for growth.

Nicholas Davis, Professor of Practice at Thunderbird School of Global Management at Arizona State University (US), agrees that employees and leaders should bring their whole selves to work. This applies to learning, too: a “co-designed, co-learning development journey” that factors in their preferences and values is more effective, he said.

Allow employees to connect with their passions at work, and as they lean into their purpose, the benefits for both culture and productivity would be significant.

Want more exclusive insights and fresh viewpoints from MERIT’s community of experts and HR leaders? Sign up for our newsletter below.

By Ani Kodjabasheva

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Case Studies

Effective Cybersecurity Compliance Training for a Vendor-Neutral Certification Body

Custom cybersecurity learning program improves awareness of digital threats

Global Cloud Infrastructure Company Transforms Sales Training Solutions

How an interactive custom sales training solution boosted course completion and impact

State Business Development Network Deploys CyberSecurity Courses to Aid Entrepreneurs

Nationally accredited statewide network finds new impact with cybersecurity with illustrative custom learning solutions

Business services.

Investment Firm Sets Benchmark with Cybersecurity Course

Custom interactive learning program helps protect Vista Equity Partners from data breaches and cyber attacks

Financial services.

Automotive Manufacturing Giant Drives Success with Custom Learning Solutions

Fortune 500 Manufacturer Accelerates Training Outcomes for Field Service Engineers

Manufacturing.

Transforming Call Center Onboarding

How ELB Learning Helped Blue Cross Blue Shield of Massachusetts Reimagine Onboarding for Better Employee Retention

Custom Interactive Training Solution for a Non-Profit Organization

How Special Olympics International relies on immersive learning environments to train healthcare professionals and students

Non-Profit Organization Delivers Personalized Skills Training at Scale

How Goodwill’s Tech-Infused Learning Spurred Culture Evolution

Life Sciences Compliance Training Made Engaging

How Thermofisher Created and Delivered Just-In-Time Custom Compliance Training for Team Members

Pharmaceuticals.

Blended Learning Solution to Custom Train Manufacturing Managers

How Entegris Trained New Managers With Necessary Skills and Core Competencies

Plan My Ride: An eLearning Program for Safe Driver Education

How a Research-Based, Accessible, eLearning Program Prevented Teens from Being Distracted and Impaired While Driving

Immersive Learning for Professional Contractors

How the Professional Contractor Course Is Preventing 30 Billion Dollars of Utility and Environmental Damage and Increasing Worker Safety Using CenarioVR

Adept and Agile Staffing Solution to Plug Skills Gap

How staff augmentation provided timely support and expertise to keep the Learning & Development (L&D) team on track at an industry-leading enterprise.

Energy, utilities, & waste.

Creating Engaging Volunteer Training with Custom eLearning

How the League of Women Voters of Salt Lake built volunteer confidence and skills through eLearning.

How Custom Learning Solutions Delivers Healthcare Product Training To Support Sales

Immersive Mixed Modality Learning Solution for Johnson & Johnson's Breakthrough Healthcare Technology

Increasing Training Efficiency and Learner Retention With Games

How TELUS International used training games and gamification to drive learning goals and KPIs across a global workforce.

Telecommunications.

Engaging Software Sales Teams and Support Reps With Customized Learning

How Intuit Used Custom Learning Solutions and Gamification to Transform Learning Experiences and Upskill Employees

Powering Productivity and Engagement in Call Centers With Games

How Teleperformance used gamification to engage a global workforce and improve its customer service.

Training Telecommunication Reps on New Products & Services

How Verizon created an efficient and scalable way to train retail sales teams on new products and features.

Improving Customer Interactions in Veterinary Healthcare

How a leader in veterinary healthcare used video-based practice to reach new heights in communication with consumers

Helping Students Succeed With Video Practice in Higher Education

How video-based practice and coaching enables Georgia State University reps to ramp up faster and ensure training return on investment.

Education: higher ed.

American Banking Giant Unlocks Collaborative Training Efforts For Success With New Demographic

How Custom Training Solutions Bridged Branches and Investment Specialists to Ace New Business Goals

Developing Sellers in a Complex Clinical Environment

How 3M uses Rehearsal’s video-based practice platform to prepare sellers for success in a complex and technical clinical environment

Streamlining Financial Services Onboarding & Increasing Employee Retention

How Modern Woodmen delivered engaging sales training and onboarding that complements their brand and culture with video-based practice.

QSR Chain Banks on Custom Leadership Training for a Global Workforce

How Custom eLearning Solutions Helps Global Managers to Lead Better

Quick service restaurants.

Benefit Cosmetics POREfessional Training Program

Welcome to Benefit University: Department of Pores!

Personal care.

Online Autism Training for Police Officers

Realistic videos bridge the gap between knowledge and practical strategies for interacting with individuals on the autism spectrum

Gamified Build Up For New Product Launch

How Wendy’s deployed custom games to announce launch of new product and build buzz on social media.

Breakthrough Patient Care Through Attentive Learning and Skilling

How Custom Learning Solutions and Interactivity Helped Forge New Paths in Caring for Patients with Disabilities

Helping Manufacturing Sales Teams Master a Broad Product Suite Through Intuitive Sales Training

How Chesterton upskills teams and amps up sales through video-based practice.

Custom Learning for Online Retail Organization

How microlearning solved COVID-19 training challenges and set the stage for future growth

Global Healthcare L&D Staff Augmentation

How Montefiore Medical Center Successfully Uses Staff Augmentation to Meet Evolving Business Needs

Training Manufacturers in Top Gear

Using Custom Microlearning to Deliver Skills and Training at the Point of Need

Red Flag Anti-Trust and Fair Competition Simulation

Immersive Compliance Training

Workforce Realignment Briefing for the Leadership Team

How custom learning solutions educated the top brass on strategic workforce planning

How lululemon Stays on Track with Staff Augmentation

Avantax Wealth Management

Rapid Delivery to Meet Business Transformation Needs

Doctors at Play

Game-based learning developed by physicians helps health workers save time, increase accuracy, and relieve stress.

Teaching Lending Principles to Corporate Employees

How game-based learning provided a large bank with engaging training tools for its corporate staff.

How Custom Training Bridges the Communications Gap Between Patients and Care Providers

Helping physicians better understand and engage patients diagnosed with HIV.

Web-based Learning That Engages Students in STEM Topics

How a web-based learning platform sponsored by the National Hockey League taps into teen passions, specifically video games and sports, for STEM learning.

Education: k – 12.

Metaverse Digital Safety for High School Students

How we created a custom learning course focused on digital safety that engages younger learners.

Product Development Process Simulation

How a synchronous, remote experience provides a team-based, hands-on experience.

Social Emotional Learning (SEL) for Primary Education

Helping educators teach and reinforce Social Emotional Learning concepts to second and third grade students.

The Early Literacy Project

Using games to build, practice, and reinforce critical literacy skills.

Lundbeck Gamified App

Evaluating and improving sales rep comprehension through a gamified app.

IT Cosmetics Gamified LMS for Product Sales Training

A gamified Learning Management System used to educate and immerse sales associates.

Middle School Financial Education

Using games to increase student's knowledge and give them the tools to create a better financial future.

Increasing Automotive Sales Effectiveness

How Edmunds.com achieved a 102% increase in sales with video practice and coaching.

Increasing Retention & Revenue for a Human Capital Management Provider

How Paychex revamped their sales onboarding and achieved higher employee retention, higher revenue, and faster speed to competency.

Sennebogen - Custom, CenarioVR®, The Training Arcade®

How Sennebogen Blended Games & VR for Targeted Training to Different User Groups

Pharmaceutical Sales Training that Engages and Drives Retention

How custom training helps reps gain product knowledge and increases post-event knowledge retention.

Fendi’s Immersive Learning Solutions for In-Store Employees

Health, Safety, and Security Training for In-Store Employees

Custom Gamified eLearning to Drive Sales

How Twitch Used Gamified eLearning to Drive Ad Sales

Broadcasting.

Engaging Patients With a Custom App for Ortho Pharmaceutical

How a custom-designed app helps patients stay engaged and on track with their treatment.

Teaching Financial Literacy to Adults

How a mobile application and digital subscription service helped adults on the path to financial well-being.

Building Telecommunications Leaders

How custom management training tested users’ skills in five key areas to see if they have what it takes to become a leader in the telecommunications industry.

Virtual Reality Biology Game for Students

How Vroggo used VR to bring biology to life for middle school STEM students.

Helping Workers Optimize Their Career Journeys

How custom ILT helps workers build their leadership skills.

Sustainability Education Program for Elementary and Middle School Students

Helping students and parents build an understanding that we’re all responsible for our planet.

Online Payments Platform - Custom eLearning

Finding the Human connection Through Social Polling & Comments

Healthcare Onboarding - Custom eLearning

Gamified Workplace Safety & Emergency Training

State Transportation Department - Custom eLearning

Keeping the West Moving with Consistent Transportation Tech Training

Transportation.

White River Marine Group - Custom eLearning

Revamped Sales Training Makes for Smooth Sailing.

Hospitality & leisure.

Custom Compliance Training that Drives Completion

Driving Voluntary Completion of Compliance Training

Kettering Health Network - Lectora

Engaging and Award-winning Healthcare Training

NHS - Lectora

Using Lectora Takes Health Education Training to New Levels

Auto-Owners Insurance - Lectora

Lectora Makes Insurance Training Interactive and Efficient

Hoopis Performance Network - Rockstar Learning Platform

Providing sales training & leadership development resources to financial professionals worldwide.

Sigma Chi Leadership Institute - Custom eLearning

Values-based Training Helps Fraternity Members Make the Right Choices

CISCRP - CenarioVR

VR Event Solution Amazes Event Attendees and Exhibitors

Helping High School Students Plan How to Pay for Higher Ed

A custom course that helps teenagers budget, compare costs, and explore financial aid options for college.

Savings Simulation for Students

Helping middle schoolers become fiscally savvy, informed consumers.

Vanderbilt University School of Nursing - CenarioVR

Reduce Clinical Training Costs With CenarioVR, the Immersive Learning VR Authoring Application and User-Friendly Course Builder.

Modern Antisemitism & Hate Education Program for Grades 9-12

Teaching students about antisemitism, past and present, and other forms of discrimination to help build respect for all people.

The Character Playbook: Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) for Middle School

Helping students cultivate and maintain healthy relationships during their critical middle school years.

How Games Complement Trade Show Kiosk Experiences

A gamified experience tested attendees' skills at retail item display in a fun way.

Social & Emotional Learning for Middle School Students

How custom-built, realistic scenarios help students learn to build healthy relationships.

Raising Awareness of Mental Health as a Priority

Using custom learning to empower learners to take care of their mental health.

Bringing the Classic Monopoly Game to Life on a Touch Screen

How cutting-edge technology helps bring different generations together for a new, yet nostalgic experience.

Plants, Animals, and Our World Education Program for Elementary and Middle School Students

Helping students learn how to protect our environment and our future.

Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) for Middle School to High School

How custom learning delivered modules that resonate with middle school students.

Nerf Blaster Challenge App

How an augmented reality game helped immerse potential customers in the world of Nerf.

Tornado Safety Training

How Immersive Tornado Evacuation Training Protects College Students in Oklahoma

Colon Cancer Awareness for Thomas Jefferson University Hospital

How Thomas Jefferson University Hospital Helped Patients Prevent Colon Cancer with CenarioVR

Financial Literacy for Grades 9-12

How custom learning helps students become financially literate.

Helping Grades 6-9 Explore STEM Career Possibilities

How interactive gameplay and custom eLearning help students explore STEM-related careers.

Teaching Responsible Digital Citizenship and Online Safety

How a custom gamified experience helps students understand online safety.

Middle School STEM Study Program for Careers in Healthcare

Helping middle school students hone skills and explore careers

Online Financial Education Program for Grades 4-6

Helping Middle School Students Develop Healthy Financial Habits

Basketball Meets STEM Learning for 6th & 7th Grade

Connecting statistics and the science of sound to basketball helps students reinforce concepts.

Digital Banking Education Program for Grades 11-12

Modern Digital Banking empowers students to take personal finances into their own hands

Closing the Gap, ELA and Math Refresher for 4th & 5th Grades

This course, developed in partnership with Major League Baseball, is designed to combat summer learning loss.

Sales Training for Bird Control Products

How FUELit Reduced Sales Training Time & Minimized Travel Costs for a Bird Control Products Company with CenarioVR

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Learning & Development - Online Learning Case Studies

The importance of Online Learning increases as companies and organizations become more global. eLearning allows organizations to train staff anywhere, any time.

Business owners  and  leaders in organizations and government provide training to staff to help them grow and become more effective team members. eLearning can also benefit the organization’s business development and sales efforts.

As a consultant I provide my clients with services in  strategy and implementation of their eLearning projects.

Check out the benefits of eLearning and case studies on this page to see a variety of projects in the Learning & Development space.

Benefits of eLearning:

24/7 availability.

Regardless of if you implement eLearning programs for your staff, partners or your distribution channel, your “students” can access the program at any time of day or night, from anywhere. This makes eLearning more flexible and accessible than any other learning options.

Improved Pedagogy

eLearning Industry points out that eLearning programs provide the ability to include gamification, which is particularly important for millennials (the generation born between 1976 and 2001). Gamification enhances learner engagement and improves retention. ( Source : eLearning Industry)

Enhanced Reach

It has become more important to reach audiences in different locations. They may be remote employees, staff in different locations or partners and distribution channels around the world. eLearning can be a cost-effective and interactive approach, especially when paired with web meetings.

No more travelling around the globe to attend training provided at a head office. eLearning comes to you, bringing an interactive workplace to any location and timezone.

Continued Learning

Today’s employees expect ongoing training and skill enhancement. A company that provides ongoing training to their staff will benefit from greater loyalty, improved staff integration and competence. Millennials are especially looking for work that is in line with their personal values and is personally rewarding.

Available Services

• Stakeholder Needs Analysis
• Requirements Settings
• Instructional Design
• Course Development
• Project Management

How I work with my clients

Based on 20+ years of experience in my corporate career and consulting practice, I support my clients with needs analysis, stakeholder alignment, r e quirements setting and project implementation.

Let me support you and your team to get your web-based learning off the ground. From understanding your internal needs to finding the best implementation strategy. Regardless if you contract with developers around the world or require implementation on your favourite eLearning platform.

Are you an eLearning agency looking for members to expand your team? I also work as a freelance consultant.  Contact me to discuss your needs.

What My Clients Say:

PAMELA ROY, PH.D.

Manager of Learning & Assessment

Diversity Abroad

"Diversity Abroad is the leading professional consortium of educational institutions, government agencies, for-profit and non-profit organizations dedicated to advancing diversity and inclusive good practices that increase access, achieve equitable diversity and foster inclusive excellence in global education. We consulted with Petra Mayer to create a Request for Proposal for an eLearning project designed to support faculty members at US higher education institutions to more effectively plan, implement and lead inclusive education abroad programs. Petra guided us through the discovery process and documented our needs and assumptions so as to better communicate with developers. She also created a survey for our members and provided us with a short list of developers and alternative system solutions. Through the work with Petra, we gained much greater clarity on the project."

Learning & Development Case Studies

The following case studies demonstrate a variety of projects I have been involved in over the past 20+ years. I am skilled in strategy development, needs analysis and requirements settings. I can also act as project lead for your training project or support your project during the delivery phase.

The following case studies cover the full spectrum of eLearning development.

In this example we we cover the process of taking a client through a LMS Discovery Project to better understand the organization’s business, technical and security requirements.

In this example we describe how we helped the Subject Matter Experts in a Construction Firm following a process documentation project on creating a curriculum for a high priority topic. 

In this example we took a team of Subject Matter Experts through the creation of curriculum for the courses they are tasked to develop.  After helping them to establish their course outline, we provided guidance in course creation on their LMS.

In this example we implemented an LMS for a non-profit, developed training for staff and supported the development for modular training during a 2-year client engagement. 

Feasibility study for a Learning Management System (LMS) based on a Request for Information (RFI) and 8 vendor responses. (2019)

Software Training development and LMS implementation for a US software company in conjunction with their internal SMEs (2021)

eLearning Certification Program consisting of multiple courses for a Technology Company. Implementation using Articulate Storyline 360. (2018)

eLearning Module by Rocky Mountaineer travel agents around the world to gain product knowledge. Implementation using Brainshark to accommodate resource and maintenance needs (2015)

Developing clear requirements is crucial for eLearning. This case study demonstrates the process of documenting requirements for RFP purposes (2017).

Development of an interactive game-based eLearning module for the OneWorld Alliance. The purpose was to educate airline staff and travel agents on the benefits and products of the airline alliance (2008)

Development of an interactive game-based eLearning module for the one world Alliance. The purpose was to educate airline staff and travel agents on the benefits and products of the airline alliance (2008)

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Case-based learning.

Case-based learning (CBL) is an established approach used across disciplines where students apply their knowledge to real-world scenarios, promoting higher levels of cognition (see Bloom’s Taxonomy ). In CBL classrooms, students typically work in groups on case studies, stories involving one or more characters and/or scenarios.  The cases present a disciplinary problem or problems for which students devise solutions under the guidance of the instructor. CBL has a strong history of successful implementation in medical, law, and business schools, and is increasingly used within undergraduate education, particularly within pre-professional majors and the sciences (Herreid, 1994). This method involves guided inquiry and is grounded in constructivism whereby students form new meanings by interacting with their knowledge and the environment (Lee, 2012).

There are a number of benefits to using CBL in the classroom. In a review of the literature, Williams (2005) describes how CBL: utilizes collaborative learning, facilitates the integration of learning, develops students’ intrinsic and extrinsic motivation to learn, encourages learner self-reflection and critical reflection, allows for scientific inquiry, integrates knowledge and practice, and supports the development of a variety of learning skills.

CBL has several defining characteristics, including versatility, storytelling power, and efficient self-guided learning.  In a systematic analysis of 104 articles in health professions education, CBL was found to be utilized in courses with less than 50 to over 1000 students (Thistlethwaite et al., 2012). In these classrooms, group sizes ranged from 1 to 30, with most consisting of 2 to 15 students.  Instructors varied in the proportion of time they implemented CBL in the classroom, ranging from one case spanning two hours of classroom time, to year-long case-based courses. These findings demonstrate that instructors use CBL in a variety of ways in their classrooms.

The stories that comprise the framework of case studies are also a key component to CBL’s effectiveness. Jonassen and Hernandez-Serrano (2002, p.66) describe how storytelling:

Is a method of negotiating and renegotiating meanings that allows us to enter into other’s realms of meaning through messages they utter in their stories,

Helps us find our place in a culture,

Allows us to explicate and to interpret, and

Facilitates the attainment of vicarious experience by helping us to distinguish the positive models to emulate from the negative model.

Neurochemically, listening to stories can activate oxytocin, a hormone that increases one’s sensitivity to social cues, resulting in more empathy, generosity, compassion and trustworthiness (Zak, 2013; Kosfeld et al., 2005). The stories within case studies serve as a means by which learners form new understandings through characters and/or scenarios.

CBL is often described in conjunction or in comparison with problem-based learning (PBL). While the lines are often confusingly blurred within the literature, in the most conservative of definitions, the features distinguishing the two approaches include that PBL involves open rather than guided inquiry, is less structured, and the instructor plays a more passive role. In PBL multiple solutions to the problem may exit, but the problem is often initially not well-defined. PBL also has a stronger emphasis on developing self-directed learning. The choice between implementing CBL versus PBL is highly dependent on the goals and context of the instruction.  For example, in a comparison of PBL and CBL approaches during a curricular shift at two medical schools, students and faculty preferred CBL to PBL (Srinivasan et al., 2007). Students perceived CBL to be a more efficient process and more clinically applicable. However, in another context, PBL might be the favored approach.

In a review of the effectiveness of CBL in health profession education, Thistlethwaite et al. (2012), found several benefits:

Students enjoyed the method and thought it enhanced their learning,

Instructors liked how CBL engaged students in learning,

CBL seemed to facilitate small group learning, but the authors could not distinguish between whether it was the case itself or the small group learning that occurred as facilitated by the case.

Other studies have also reported on the effectiveness of CBL in achieving learning outcomes (Bonney, 2015; Breslin, 2008; Herreid, 2013; Krain, 2016). These findings suggest that CBL is a vehicle of engagement for instruction, and facilitates an environment whereby students can construct knowledge.

Science – Students are given a scenario to which they apply their basic science knowledge and problem-solving skills to help them solve the case. One example within the biological sciences is two brothers who have a family history of a genetic illness. They each have mutations within a particular sequence in their DNA. Students work through the case and draw conclusions about the biological impacts of these mutations using basic science. Sample cases: You are Not the Mother of Your Children ; Organic Chemisty and Your Cellphone: Organic Light-Emitting Diodes ;   A Light on Physics: F-Number and Exposure Time

Medicine – Medical or pre-health students read about a patient presenting with specific symptoms. Students decide which questions are important to ask the patient in their medical history, how long they have experienced such symptoms, etc. The case unfolds and students use clinical reasoning, propose relevant tests, develop a differential diagnoses and a plan of treatment. Sample cases: The Case of the Crying Baby: Surgical vs. Medical Management ; The Plan: Ethics and Physician Assisted Suicide ; The Haemophilus Vaccine: A Victory for Immunologic Engineering

Public Health – A case study describes a pandemic of a deadly infectious disease. Students work through the case to identify Patient Zero, the person who was the first to spread the disease, and how that individual became infected.  Sample cases: The Protective Parent ; The Elusive Tuberculosis Case: The CDC and Andrew Speaker ; Credible Voice: WHO-Beijing and the SARS Crisis

Law – A case study presents a legal dilemma for which students use problem solving to decide the best way to advise and defend a client. Students are presented information that changes during the case.  Sample cases: Mortgage Crisis Call (abstract) ; The Case of the Unpaid Interns (abstract) ; Police-Community Dialogue (abstract)

Business – Students work on a case study that presents the history of a business success or failure. They apply business principles learned in the classroom and assess why the venture was successful or not. Sample cases: SELCO-Determining a path forward ; Project Masiluleke: Texting and Testing to Fight HIV/AIDS in South Africa ; Mayo Clinic: Design Thinking in Healthcare

Humanities - Students consider a case that presents a theater facing financial and management difficulties. They apply business and theater principles learned in the classroom to the case, working together to create solutions for the theater. Sample cases: David Geffen School of Drama

Recommendations

Finding and Writing Cases

Consider utilizing or adapting open access cases - The availability of open resources and databases containing cases that instructors can download makes this approach even more accessible in the classroom. Two examples of open databases are the Case Center on Public Leadership and Harvard Kennedy School (HKS) Case Program , which focus on government, leadership and public policy case studies.

• Consider writing original cases - In the event that an instructor is unable to find open access cases relevant to their course learning objectives, they may choose to write their own. See the following resources on case writing: Cooking with Betty Crocker: A Recipe for Case Writing ; The Way of Flesch: The Art of Writing Readable Cases ;   Twixt Fact and Fiction: A Case Writer’s Dilemma ; And All That Jazz: An Essay Extolling the Virtues of Writing Case Teaching Notes .

Implementing Cases

Take baby steps if new to CBL - While entire courses and curricula may involve case-based learning, instructors who desire to implement on a smaller-scale can integrate a single case into their class, and increase the number of cases utilized over time as desired.

Use cases in classes that are small, medium or large - Cases can be scaled to any course size. In large classes with stadium seating, students can work with peers nearby, while in small classes with more flexible seating arrangements, teams can move their chairs closer together. CBL can introduce more noise (and energy) in the classroom to which an instructor often quickly becomes accustomed. Further, students can be asked to work on cases outside of class, and wrap up discussion during the next class meeting.

Encourage collaborative work - Cases present an opportunity for students to work together to solve cases which the historical literature supports as beneficial to student learning (Bruffee, 1993). Allow students to work in groups to answer case questions.

Form diverse teams as feasible - When students work within diverse teams they can be exposed to a variety of perspectives that can help them solve the case. Depending on the context of the course, priorities, and the background information gathered about the students enrolled in the class, instructors may choose to organize student groups to allow for diversity in factors such as current course grades, gender, race/ethnicity, personality, among other items.  

Use stable teams as appropriate - If CBL is a large component of the course, a research-supported practice is to keep teams together long enough to go through the stages of group development: forming, storming, norming, performing and adjourning (Tuckman, 1965).

Walk around to guide groups - In CBL instructors serve as facilitators of student learning. Walking around allows the instructor to monitor student progress as well as identify and support any groups that may be struggling. Teaching assistants can also play a valuable role in supporting groups.

Interrupt strategically - Only every so often, for conversation in large group discussion of the case, especially when students appear confused on key concepts. An effective practice to help students meet case learning goals is to guide them as a whole group when the class is ready. This may include selecting a few student groups to present answers to discussion questions to the entire class, asking the class a question relevant to the case using polling software, and/or performing a mini-lesson on an area that appears to be confusing among students.  

Assess student learning in multiple ways - Students can be assessed informally by asking groups to report back answers to various case questions. This practice also helps students stay on task, and keeps them accountable. Cases can also be included on exams using related scenarios where students are asked to apply their knowledge.

Barrows HS. (1996). Problem-based learning in medicine and beyond: a brief overview. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 68, 3-12.  

Bonney KM. (2015). Case Study Teaching Method Improves Student Performance and Perceptions of Learning Gains. Journal of Microbiology and Biology Education, 16(1): 21-28.

Breslin M, Buchanan, R. (2008) On the Case Study Method of Research and Teaching in Design.  Design Issues, 24(1), 36-40.

Bruffee KS. (1993). Collaborative learning: Higher education, interdependence, and authority of knowledge. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD.

Herreid CF. (2013). Start with a Story: The Case Study Method of Teaching College Science, edited by Clyde Freeman Herreid. Originally published in 2006 by the National Science Teachers Association (NSTA); reprinted by the National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science (NCCSTS) in 2013.

Herreid CH. (1994). Case studies in science: A novel method of science education. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 23(4), 221–229.

Jonassen DH and Hernandez-Serrano J. (2002). Case-based reasoning and instructional design: Using stories to support problem solving. Educational Technology, Research and Development, 50(2), 65-77.  

Kosfeld M, Heinrichs M, Zak PJ, Fischbacher U, Fehr E. (2005). Oxytocin increases trust in humans. Nature, 435, 673-676.

Krain M. (2016) Putting the learning in case learning? The effects of case-based approaches on student knowledge, attitudes, and engagement. Journal on Excellence in College Teaching, 27(2), 131-153.

Lee V. (2012). What is Inquiry-Guided Learning?  New Directions for Learning, 129:5-14.

Nkhoma M, Sriratanaviriyakul N. (2017). Using case method to enrich students’ learning outcomes. Active Learning in Higher Education, 18(1):37-50.

Srinivasan et al. (2007). Comparing problem-based learning with case-based learning: Effects of a major curricular shift at two institutions. Academic Medicine, 82(1): 74-82.

Thistlethwaite JE et al. (2012). The effectiveness of case-based learning in health professional education. A BEME systematic review: BEME Guide No. 23.  Medical Teacher, 34, e421-e444.

Tuckman B. (1965). Development sequence in small groups. Psychological Bulletin, 63(6), 384-99.

Williams B. (2005). Case-based learning - a review of the literature: is there scope for this educational paradigm in prehospital education? Emerg Med, 22, 577-581.

Zak, PJ (2013). How Stories Change the Brain. Retrieved from: https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/how_stories_change_brain

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Home > Books > Education Annual Volume 2023

Cognitive Learning Theory and Development: Higher Education Case Study

Submitted: 30 December 2022 Reviewed: 21 February 2023 Published: 18 July 2023

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.110629

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Cognitive skills facilitate thinking, reading, and learning, as well as retaining information, reasoning, and responding. Theories of cognitive development attempt to explain how humans develop and change from infancy to old age. Cognitive control suppresses inappropriate habitual actions simultaneously by choosing thoughts, emotions, and behaviors to meet task demands. This chapter is a compilation of major theories on cognitive development, both earlier and contemporary. A longitudinal study was conducted at Mazoon College, Sultanate of Oman. Six different sections of the authors’ own classes were chosen as subjects of study to include 176 students (mixed ability learners) who were taking preparatory English language courses for bachelor’s degrees. Over three semesters, 14 months of data were collected. During reading and writing exercises, learners were required to abstract, think, hypothesize, and draw conclusions. Experimental and control groups were compared in this study. The results of the research found that it is beneficial for learners to take courses that link to their cognitive abilities, as this will help them to develop more positively. Study results confirm that studying provides opportunities to develop new skills and broaden one’s knowledge base. Student thoughts on learning and achievement are evoked by English as a second language.

• control functions
• cognitive development
• longitudinal study
• cognitive development in higher education
• cognitive learning

Author Information

Zaheer ahmed khan.

• Mazoon College, Muscat, Sultanate Oman

Javarria Adnan

Syed adnan raza *.

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

1. Introduction

1.1 cognitive control functions.

Cognitive skills facilitate thinking, reading, learning, retaining information, reasoning, and paying attention as core functions of the brain. Collectively, they work to take incoming information and add it to the bank of knowledge that they use every day at school, work, and in everyday life. Cognitive skills are used in problem-solving, remembering information, and making decisions. In cognitive control, thoughts, emotions, and behaviors are intentionally chosen based on task demands, circumstances, and social context to suppress inappropriate habitual actions simultaneously [ 1 ]. Three key areas have been identified in the study of cognitive control functions: working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility to accomplish certain tasks.

Working memory is the ability to retain information, and one must be able to recall information from working memory to complete academic tasks. As an example, consider a student who is reading a narrative text. If that student is unable to grasp the gist of the story as it unfolds, they will not be able to read it successfully, and they will not enjoy the reading experience. There is a possibility that they might end up losing the thread of the story altogether. This is because they have to return to the beginning of a sentence, paragraph, or page quite frequently. They must develop reading fluency to become effective readers, and in order to achieve this goal, they must have a well-functioning working memory. Conversations should be conducted in the same manner. Learners are likely to experience confusion or even a breakdown in communication if a question is asked, and then the answer is not remembered. This is because of the effort necessary to understand the response.

According to Tiego et al. [ 2 ], inhibitory control involves the suppression of stimuli and behaviors that are irrelevant to the goal’s attainment. Attention, especially in the face of distractions, and control over one’s emotional and behavioral responses to diverse stimuli are very important to accomplishing a task or achieving a goal. Consider a situation in which a student is engaged in a writing task when he or she is interrupted in their work by another student, noise, or some other disturbance from around them. Inhibitory control skills are important to deal with the irritation successfully and continue with their work by ignoring the interruptions rather than losing track of their work. Developing inhibitory control skills is essential for dealing with irritation effectively. To be able to continue working quickly, they need to be able to ignore interruptions rather than lose track of their task.

The third aspect of the cognitive control function is cognitive flexibility, which refers to the ability to solve problems effectively. This is a multifaceted approach that enables students to think outside the box, think creatively, and adapt to changing environments. To think creatively without cognitive flexibility is impossible. To effectively communicate, students must be able to use language in accordance with the circumstances of the environment instead of exchanging prefabricated phrases. They will have to create sentences that they have never heard or seen before. In responding to the conversation of another person, they will need to react flexibly, creatively, and spontaneously. Therefore, they need to use repair strategies to support the process of communication to eliminate any misunderstanding, especially if they or their converser have difficulties comprehending. They need to be able to ask their interlocutor to repeat in order to paraphrase what has been said. Therefore, one must be able to change the course of the dialog flexibly to avoid being stuck.

According to Dawson and Guare [ 3 ], cognitive control is a function developed in the brain of the learner. Under the influence of others and the environment, cognitive and linguistic skills develop over time. Therefore, the learning environment and teaching play a crucial role in the development of these skills. Unlike motor control functions, cognitive control functions appear to be interrelated rather than used in isolation. There is often a correlation between working memory and inhibitory control (teachers usually notice that students who are proficient at concentrating and do not easily get distracted tend to also have better working memory). Best and Miller [ 4 ] argue that working memory skills and the ability to control inhibitions are significant skills in cognitive flexibility.

2. Development of cognitive control

It is only through thinking, exploring, and solving problems that learners can acquire knowledge. By thinking about and understanding their surroundings, students develop knowledge, skills, problem-solving abilities, and dispositions. From a neurological perspective, brain development is part of cognitive development. Learning novel concepts and making connections between them is facilitated by building upon previous knowledge and ideas. Students can approach coursework with enthusiasm and confidence when they have a thorough understanding of topics and strong learning skills. Learning in college requires students to be able to read, understand, remember, write, think, analyze, and solve problems. To function effectively, these cognitive skills must be combined. Cognitive skills contribute to the enhancement of academic performance. Through three transactions, students gain an increasing ability to overcome habits. At first, they develop cognitive control in response to environmental stimuli. Later, cognitive control is applied both reactively and proactively. Lastly, learners become more self-directed rather than dependent on environmental cues to engage in cognitive control. The following factors, however, influence the development of cognitive control.

3. Influence of language learning

A study by Morales et al. [ 5 ] compared the performance of monolingual children and bilingual children on working memory tests. The results indicated that bilingual children performed better than monolingual children in these tasks. Bilingual children are more likely to perform these tasks successfully due to their ability to deal with “other executive function demands.” It appears that bilingual children outperformed monolingual children on these tasks. Bilingual children are more likely to perform these tasks successfully due to their ability to deal with “other executive function demands.” In the development of bilingualism, cognitive control may play a role in proficiency outcomes. It is because what we think becomes what we communicate, and what we communicate can lead to creative ideas. An immersive approach appears to improve functions, such as attention and mental alertness, in individuals who are learning a new language.

4. The influence of stress and anxiety

Stress makes students more likely to fail, make mistakes, and perform poorly on tests, especially if they fear failure and mistakes. Students may find stress to be one of the most powerful deterrents to learning, regardless of the source of the stress. Students’ self-talk while performing a task is often dominated by worries, which leads to less achievement. This is because students are involved in a process that reduces their working memory capacity and their ability to solve problems [ 6 ]. It is like what happens when students have unrealistically high expectations of themselves and strive to achieve perfection—their working memory is occupied with self-worry, limiting their ability to process information. The working memory of students in both situations is occupied either with negative self-talk or worries about possibly not being able to meet their high standards.

5. The influence of emotional engagement

Whether training in cognitive control functions will or will not be successful depends on the degree of emotional engagement. A learner’s strong belief in their own engagement, their feelings of excitement, their sense of challenge, and their sense of achievement, as well as their sense that a particular activity is meaningful to them, are essential aspects of essentials. Emotional investment is essential to ensuring that a learner feels committed to an activity. They devote a significant amount of time and effort to this endeavor. Learning activities in the classroom are exciting and fulfilling, which contribute to the development of cognitive control. An activity’s method of execution is crucial to this critical act. Therefore, the attitude of teachers is essential in making activities meaningful and engaging while allowing their students to make progress.

6. Theoretical perspective of cognitive learning

Thinking and reasoning abilities are developed through cognitive development. An understanding of human learning, socialization, and behavior is based on cognitive theory, which examines the internal workings of the brain. Information processing is an incredibly relevant topic for cognitive theorists. As children develop cognitively, they become capable of thinking about the world around them. Cognitive development can be influenced by everyday experiences. Cognitive development is initially considered through Piaget’s stages, which correspond to certain ages. The Vygotsky theory is another significant contribution. His focus was on factors affecting cognitive development. This theory emphasizes that the social environment contributes significantly to cognitive development.

7. Jean Piaget’s theory

There is always a set order for the stages.

There is never a skip in a stage.

At each stage, the stage before it undergoes a significant transformation.

It is the later stages that incorporate the earlier stages.

8. The road map of cognitive development

Learning about the world requires children to be able to anticipate how objects and people will interact with one another. Human perception and comprehension of the environment are influenced by social interaction patterns. Iterative perception leads to an increase in one’s world knowledge. A development link is the assimilation process, followed by the accommodation process. Based on Piaget’s (1936) argument, learning is related to “equilibration objects and people will interact with one another”. Human perception and comprehension of the environment are influenced by social interaction patterns. Iterative perception leads to an increase in one’s world knowledge. A development link is the assimilation process, followed by the accommodation process.

Assimilation: Children familiarize themselves with new experiences by connecting them to previous ones (i.e., schemes). They may incorporate rattles into their grasping strategy because of previous interactions with sticks or rattles. In accordance with this, when they interpret objects, they have expectations based on their past experiences with sticks.

Accommodation: Both children and adults are subject to this process of accommodation. Because every first-time experience varies, youngsters will be able to adapt to these differences and expand their knowledge. The acquisition of updated information and experiences will alter one’s existing views of the world (schemas).

9. A cognitive development model based on Piaget’s four stages

The development process follows a “staircase” pattern. According to Piaget, there are four major stages of cognitive development: (1) sensorimotor intelligence, (2) preoperational thinking, (3) concrete operational thinking, and (4) formal operational thinking. Childhood aging periods and stages are generally correlated with each stage. During these stages, ideas are generated.

9.1 The sensorimotor stage

Object permanence is visible at this stage (from birth to age 2). Based on Piaget’s theory, infants begin to “think” by using their senses and motor actions during the sensorimotor stage. Infants are constantly touching, manipulating, looking, listening, and even biting and chewing objects, as every new parent can attest. According to Piaget, the infant’s actions represent objects and events and children acquire knowledge about the world through these actions.

9.2 The preoperational stage

This is a period (from ages 2 to 7) of symbolic thoughts. As children progress through this stage, they make use of their newly acquired ability to represent objects. It is important to note that, at the present time, they do not do so in an organized or logical manner. Preschoolers, for example, engage in dramatic play or improvised pretend play as a form of cognition. Children engaged in imaginative play are thinking on two levels simultaneously: fantasy and reality. Dramatic play exemplifies metacognition, or reflecting on and monitoring the process of thinking, due to this dual processing of experience.

9.3 The concrete operational stage

This is a period (from ages 7 to 11) of logical thoughts. At this stage, children become more logical and flexible in presenting ideas and events at the elementary school level. They still act and operate unconsciously. A systematic approach to problem-solving improves children’s academic performance. The child may be following a rule unconsciously. As well as performing certain arithmetic tasks and science experiments in class, they also perform certain scientific experiments. The mind of a child focuses on concrete events. He or she tries to use logic, but objects and events cannot yet be thought of or presented systematically.

9.4 The formal operational stage

This is a stage (age 11 and beyond) of scientific reasoning. At this stage, reasoning about abstract or hypothetical objects becomes possible for the children. As they represent ideas and events in elementary school, they become logical and flexible. Still, they operate and act unconsciously. Students succeed academically when they solve problems systematically. Additionally, they perform certain arithmetic tasks and science experiments in class. Children focus on concrete events. Although they try to use logic, they are unable to describe objects or events systematically.

10. Vygotsky theory

Based on this theory, scaffolding was introduced, which is defined as “social collaboration conducive to cognitive development.” According to Vygotsky, four “elementary mental functions” are with us from birth: attention, sensation, perception, and memory. Utilization of these elementary skills enables us to acquire higher mental functions within our social and cultural environment. According to this theory, social conciliation is a process of knowledge construction, and infants are said to learn new interpersonal and cognitive skills through interactions with older people. Therefore, cognitive functions are developed because of the interaction between humans. Through collaborative dialogs with more knowledgeable members of society, children acquire their cultural values, beliefs, and problem-solving strategies.

In terms of child development, Vygotsky’s approach is a form of social constructivism. Consequently, this theory has led to the development of more interactive and collaborative instructional and learning organizations. In these organizations, students and teachers are encouraged to interact socially. As Vygotsky believed, higher-order functions of the brain are shaped by parents, caregivers, peers, and the individual’s culture. According to Vygotsky, there can be differences in human development between cultures. Vygotsky’s theory discusses concepts, such as the zone of proximal development, culture-specific tools, and private speech. In the process of creating meaning, the community plays an essential role.

According to Vygotsky, social interaction plays a crucial role in cognitive development. Learning is a necessary, universal aspect of culturally organized psychological function. Unlike Piaget’s view, social learning generally precedes development, according to Vygotsky [ 8 ]. Therefore, according to this theory, constructed cognitive abilities are argued to be socially guided. Learning, memory, attention, and problem-solving abilities are formed through cultural mediation. By means of Vygotsky’s theory, teaching and learning have become interactive and collaborative. This type of organization encourages students to learn by interacting with peers and teachers.

11. Contemporary theoretical perspective

The Piaget theory has been criticized for using a small sample with rigid stage limits. Vygotsky’s work demonstrates the development of Neo-Piagetian thinking, which integrates context (family, culture, history, language, and play). Piaget’s descriptions of accommodation processes are complemented by Vygotsky’s emphasis on environmental factors. According to modern theory, children’s cognitive development follows specific principles. These principles shift and shift as a child interacts with the environment.

Many cognitive abilities are developed among children at a very early stage. Children have natural information outwardly world, and their learning is fast. Piaget was off-base about knowledge. As far as article lastingness, it was noticed that newborn children look for objects sooner than Piaget proposed. Besides, newborn children younger than one have the mental capacity to comprehend that secret items are not stowed away from sight.

Piaget and strategic issues as far as the standards of formative science, Piaget’s hypothesis has a few issues. Right off the bat, with respect to the determination of members, Piaget did not choose an extraordinary assortment of members to give a dependable outcome; for the most part, he just inspected his own youngsters. Moreover, one of the main parts of the exploration strategy is diminishing the impact of testing predisposition by choosing members cautiously. Consequently, summing up his plans for kids from various societies or nations all over the planet is absurd.

Besides, Piaget frequently used the clinical technique to gather information. This technique is more adaptable, so members are probably going to pose various inquiries. Notwithstanding, uniform materials, questions, bearings, and procedures to assess mental factors are the spine of exploratory brain research. Current analysts have been disappointed by Piaget’s reports of his investigation. Piaget did not make sense of the social-financial foundation of the kids, the quantity of members, or the member’s race or nationality, and he did not give more than adequate insight concerning his testing measures.

It is challenging to tell whether Piaget is depicting kids speculatively or testing them. Besides, as per Piaget, “clinicians over-summed up their techniques and showed up at magnificent details, especially when a multitude of researchers made an interpretation of their outcomes into numerical terms.” Besides, “intense perception, especially when made by [a great observer], beats all insights” (1936/1952, p. 72, referred to in Mill operator, 2012, 85-86). This implies that Piaget did not give factual outlines of his revelations, and he gave extensive example conventions deciphered by Piaget, from which peruses regularly do not figure out the topics.

Though Piaget has informed us about the four mental developmental stage but late examination has shown that not all teenagers arrive at the formal functional stage. Since the instructive cycle in certain social orders does not stress decisive reasoning, which is basic for arriving at the formal functional stage. Because of an absence of instructive foundation, concentrates on show that the main portion of people in certain social orders arrives at the formal functional stage. Moreover, people can show formal functional expertise in only one field; for instance, a generally excellent designer can ponder this particular region but is probably going to experience issues contemplating verse.

Modern cognitive development theory evolves as evidence is gathered and suggestions are made. Currently, researchers are studying factors affecting cognitive development. According to Taylor [ 9 ], these factors include both internal (such as sexual orientation) and external (such as the community). Kellermann et al. [ 10 ] discuss epilepsy’s effects on cognitive development.

Dadvand et al. [ 11 ] demonstrate that exposure to green and open spaces benefits cognition. A similar study by Barac et al. [ 12 ] demonstrated various effects of bilingualism on cognitive development as an internal factor conditioned by the environment. Sun & Esposito [ 13 ] indicate the specificity principle plays a role in children’s language development. As a result of extensive research, more specific factors are now being examined to provide more details and enhance our understanding of human cognitive development. Future views of this theory may result in a comprehensive understanding of human development due to the diversity of modern views. However, more research and more evidence are required before that can be achieved.

12. Cognitive development and educators as pedagogical leaders

Theories related to early development, sociocultural context, and contemporary context provide educators with theoretical scaffolding. By utilizing contemporary theories, such as Piaget’s cognitive theory for observing children’s play stages, Vygotsky’s concept of cultural tools, and ZPD in early childhood education, educators scaffold children’s play and learning. Zones of proximal development (ZPD) are key in scaffolding, allowing children to accomplish as much on their own as possible while tutoring fills in what they are unable to accomplish. Contemporary theorists point out other influences and realities educators need to be aware of. Therefore, they develop a self-understanding of how much they must be open to change and take into account children’s perspectives when employing their pedagogical approach to enhance the learning of students in the total scheme of teaching and learning.

Education as a profession requires educators to have a strong reliance on verbal cues, such as providing suggestions and instructions for children to construct their own understandings of the world. A pedagogical leader builds students’ social, academic, and intellectual capital, as well as teachers’ intellectual and professional capital. The notion of “pedagogical leadership” refers to bringing a pedagogical framework to all aspects of teaching and focusing on dialog with the learners. Children learn more when they are in an environment in which the family is engaged, the organization’s curricular philosophy is followed, data are used to measure program effectiveness, and standards are established to maximize learning. An understanding of pedagogy is rooted in a solid theoretical and practical foundation. Therefore, cultural and social values influence learning, teaching, and development.

With the modern educational system’s national priorities, teachers must develop students with the skills and knowledge necessary not only for lifelong learning but also for the knowledge economy. In the knowledge-based economy, individuals and institutions actively interact with each other to learn from one another. As a result, teachers play a crucial role in promoting student learning in a pedagogical context. Organizing lessons, facilitating interaction, and solving classroom challenges require a teacher who is capable of handling content and student learning.

To be effective in the context of the modern era, developmental theories work well when combined with contemporary approaches, such as sociocultural theory and post-structural theory. Those theories really help to question universal norms; they help to think about what it is we see in terms of children’s holistic development and not just whether they can do this or that by themselves. Sociocultural theories emphasize “the central role that families and cultural groups play in children’s learning and the importance of respectful relationships” and “provide insights into the social and cultural contexts of learning and development.” It emphasizes that cognitive development is essentially a social process. This is of great importance to educators who have to plan how to teach children with diverse social and cultural backgrounds. Post-structural theory inspires educators to “challenge traditional ways of seeing children, teaching, and learning.” It offers insights into issues of power, equity, and social justice in early childhood settings.

Considering theoretical understandings, educators may consider how different theories can assist them in looking holistically at children’s capacities to participate at different ages. Because it is impossible to separate children from their interactions with others around them, educators must use more than one theory to observe learning. To establish a framework of what is acceptable and fair for students, educators should consider contemporary theories along with earlier theories of cognitive development. Learning takes place within the context of a learner’s cognitive processes. To promote social, emotional, and cognitive development in children, educators should provide them with interesting and stimulating materials to use in their environments. Five types of educational approaches (constructivist, collaborative, integrative, reflective, and inquiry-based) are incorporated into a cognitive development theory. Classroom environmental, mental, and cultural realities are integrated into these pedagogical and cognitive approaches.

Thus, theoretical and pedagogical orientations support the distinction of cognitive strategies from metacognitive strategies (learning organization) and social/affective strategies (interaction base). In language teaching, educators utilize strategies, such as repetition, organizing new language, summarizing meaning, guessing meaning based on context, and using imagery for memorization. The purpose of these strategies is to improve learning by deliberately manipulating language.

13. Criticism on cognitive psychology

Cognitive psychology focuses on interior data cycles, such as discernment, consideration, language, and memory. The psychology profession is concerned with these interior cycles and their impact on our behavior and feelings. As a result of cognitive psychology research, new speculations have been developed, and more insight into how the mind works has been gained. Researchers have found that cognitive development is difficult to identify. According to another interpretation of this methodology, it ignores other factors besides cognitive ones that can influence behavior. The social and cognitive environments are two factors that may influence a person’s behavior. There are some limitations to this approach.

Psychology researchers usually carry out their studies in false environments or ignore the current situation. For instance, participants in a memory study could feel pressure to perform well in a study hall setting, resulting in worse memory performance than if they were evaluated at home. Since the focus lacks natural legitimacy, its effects are less applicable to daily life and may even be irrelevant outside the review environment. In many cases, students feel confident and well-prepared before an exam, but when they enter the exam hall, everything vanishes. A lack of cognitive development can be caused by nervousness or hypertension.

In most instances, Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development respond to misconceptions or insignificant details that do not contradict the central principles of his theory. Some people have complained that his tests were too difficult for children. A variety of skills can be tested by altering the process so that younger students can pass the tests. In other studies, the ages associated with the stages have been examined, and the diversity of children has been highlighted. Rather than focusing on the age at which a child reaches a particular milestone, Piaget emphasized succession.

When it comes to specific errands, children use various types of reasoning and are conflictual at every stage. In another study, it was found that children use specific types of reasoning when solving specific errands and that they are conflictual throughout the process, indicating that they will use functional reasoning. That is, “level decal age” refers to the fact that a child may not always use concrete functional reasoning on such errands. Although it was acknowledged that this went against Piaget’s hypothesis, it does so assuming that children are believed to be in a phase. Piaget predicted this outcome based on a thorough understanding of his hypothesis.

Looking closer at his hypothesis, it appears that children develop different types of reasoning based on their experiences. The degree to which a child is involved with the project materials will determine how well they use concrete and functional reasoning.

Furthermore, Piaget’s conception of cognitive progression has been criticized for misinterpreting social factors. In some instances, he departs from Vygotsky’s belief that social connections are so important. Anyhow, it surprised Vygotsky when he reviewed Piaget’s original work and found it to be too dependent on friendly variables! According to Piaget, social elements are clearly significant and important, but they do not fully explain progress on their own. According to him, equilibrium is also a constant, ever-changing interaction. A key foundation for current research on the formative brain remains Piaget’s hypothesis of cognitive development. The primary point of his argument is affirmed rather than challenged by subsequent revelations.

On the other hand, “reductionism” is a term only used to describe theories that alter how people behave. Many brain science research approaches fail to take into account all of the different factors that affect the human psyche and how we behave. Instead, they focus on just one aspect of understanding how the brain works. Individual differences are typically ignored in cognitive psychology, where it is assumed that all inner processing is consistent across individuals. This is reductionist because it ignores the influences of nature, the environment, or genetics on cognitive capacity.

Cognitive psychology studies cognitive cycles with a restricted focus. Because of the PC analogy, data handling specialists tend to focus primarily on the coherent components of information handling. They also tend to focus less on the deeper, innovative, and social facets that can also influence thinking. The field of cognitive psychology has often relied on correlations between the functioning of computers and the functioning of the human mind. Does the cerebrum function in this manner? In comparison to the most advanced computer, the human mind is infinitely more remarkable and adaptable.

Criticizing the cognitive approach, Burruhus Frederic Skinner [ 14 ] argues that only external stimulus-response behavior can be measured scientifically. Due to their inability to be observed and measured, mediation processes between stimulus and response cannot be observed. The mediation processes between stimulus and response cannot be observed or measured because they do not exist. He continues to explore problems with cognitive exploration techniques, especially thoughtfulness, due to its abstract and informal nature.

Behaviorists believe that children’s brains are like a blank slate (tabula rasa) and are born without cognitive functions, such as schemas, memories, or perceptions. In determining behavior, the cognitive approach often overlooks physical (biological psychology) and environmental (behaviorism) factors. In addition to cognitive psychology, cognitive neuroscience and artificial intelligence (AI) have been influenced by and integrated with cognitive psychology.

14. Cognitive development of students in higher education

In higher education institutions (HEIs), stakeholders perceive cognitive development in relation to intellectual capital (IC) and sustainable development (SD). In HEIs, two constructs (IC and SD) are related, especially through relational capital and structural capital [ 15 ]. Therefore, intellectual growth is influenced by the study environment, which is conducive to the development of intellectual ability.

Cognitive development is correlated with student learning approaches, but learners may develop cognitively differently in different environments. According to Zhang & Watkins [ 16 ], there was a reported difference in cognitive development among American and Chinese students. The study also demonstrated that extracurricular activities were positively related to cognitive development for both American and Chinese students. A stimulating learning environment and a focus on cognitive abilities result in improved academic performance. Among other factors, academic achievement is influenced by a student’s ability to process information quickly, function in a visual-spatial environment, and calculate.

A key goal of education is to engage students with educational plans and encourage them to work intellectually. Engagement in cognitive activities involves working beyond the minimum requirements by putting thoughtful energy into the comprehension of complex ideas. In it, psychological investment is focused on learning, understanding, and mastering knowledge. An engaged student is capable of exceeding expectations and prefers challenges over requirements. Through this, students can expand their knowledge frontiers and develop meaningful and enduring academic commitments. Students’ social and cognitive development is enhanced by engagement in the classroom. A student’s engagement in higher education requires consideration of their potential to grow and motivation for development as distinctive characteristics. The development process is driven by the potential of an individual as a motivating value. To achieve creativity, a learner must develop, grow continuously, and engage in motivational-creative activities [ 17 ]. According to the five-dimensional model [ 18 ], five areas must be considered: (1) academic engagement, (2) cognitive engagement, (3) social engagement with peers, (4) social engagement with teachers, and (5) effective engagement. All these dimensions have high consistency. An undergraduate degree in pedagogical education has three components: (1) a value-based motivation component, (2) a cognitive component, and (3) a practical component. Therefore, by working on cognitive development through these engagements, a sufficient level of knowledge and skills can be developed in students of higher education institutions. A bachelor’s degree is generally associated with competitiveness. This belief holds that knowledge (cognition) is the only competitive advantage that remains over time. For cognitive learning to take place, students’ creativity must be developed. The perception of difficulty increases with the level of subjective memory dysfunction [ 19 ]. Further, speed and perceived difficulty correlate when a task is perceived as difficult. An individual’s task and metacognition must be considered to examine the integrity of their information processing speed.

Besides other factors, students’ cognitive development is also affected by dimensions of teaching effectiveness in higher education institutions [ 20 ]. There are two fundamental perceptions of students regarding instructors: clarity and organization. A combination of both aspects of learning is associated with enhanced outcomes. These outcomes include students’ critical thinking skills, their propensity for lifelong learning, their academic motivation, their likelihood of completing their bachelor’s degree, and their use of deep learning techniques [ 21 ]. From a pedagogical perspective, student-directed learning [ 22 , 23 ] involves students in the processes of collaboration, testing, creation, and directing their own learning. Students engage in active learning by writing, reading, discussing, evaluating, and creating. Therefore, students develop skills in cooperation and communication with peers in addition to participating in content development and knowledge building. The most efficient way to provide students with opportunities for cognitive development is through a student-directed learning strategy. Student-centered learning refers to the efforts of teachers to facilitate and design the learning process to engage students in their learning. Student-centered education focuses on developing problem-solving skills using complex and open-ended problems. Unlike traditional learning, problem-based learning involves students presenting their knowledge based on their understanding of course content and class participation.

15. Glossary

15.1 assimilation.

Assimilation is the process by which a learner relates newly acquired information to older cognitive structures. Thus, assimilation occurs when a learner encounters a novel idea and must “fit” it into what they already know.

15.2 Accommodation

Accommodation is a substantial process that requires the learner to reshape existing knowledge due to the acquisition of recent information. An adaptation occurs when preexisting knowledge is altered to accommodate newly learned information. Thus, accommodation involves creating new schemas.

15.3 Cognitive learning

Cognitive learning emphasizes helping learners learn how to use their brains to their full potential, where experience leads to changes in knowledge. The formation of insights and latent learning are both components of cognitive learning. The cognitive theory asserts that emotions and behavior are largely influenced by thoughts. Several factors influence learning, such as problem-solving skills, memory retention, thinking skills, and the perception of what is learned.

15.4 Cognitive development

An individual’s cognitive development is the development of his or her ability to reason and think. Cognitive information development includes four stages: reasoning, intelligence, language, and memory. Through cognitive development, children learn to think critically about the world around them. The cognitive development of a child is influenced by everyday experiences.

15.5 Cognitive skills

Cognitive skills are brain-based skills necessary for acquiring knowledge, manipulating information, and reasoning. Cognitive skills refer to cognitive capacities. These skills include thinking, reading, learning, remembering, reasoning, and paying attention. Learners organize newly acquired information into the repository of knowledge they use every day in class, at work, and in their personal lives.

15.6 Jean Piaget’s theory

According to Jean Piaget, children’s intelligence changes throughout their growth. Children need to develop a mental model of the world around them as part of their cognitive development. Children pass through stages in their development of intelligence in terms of their formal thought processes.

15.7 Problem-solving strategies

Learners can find the most appropriate solution to their problems by looking beyond the obvious answers and using problem-solving strategies. Learners develop problem-solving skills by identifying problems, analyzing them, generating alternative solutions, and evaluating them. Common problem-solving techniques used in education are computing, simplifying, illustrating, and summarizing information and ideas.

15.8 Vygotsky’s theory

Social interactions can guide and mediate a person’s learning ability. The theory suggests that socialization contributes significantly to learning. Essentially, this theory outlines three core concepts related to cognitive development: (1) culture plays an influential role in learning, (2) language is the root of culture, and (3) individuals learn and develop within their communities.

15.9 Zone of proximal development (ZPD)

A learner is traveling between two terminals: the known and the unknown. Guidance and encouragement from a knowledgeable person can help a learner who is having difficulty mastering certain skills. A skilled partner can guide and encourage a learner to achieve greater results than he or she could on their own. In other words, those skills the learner is “close” to acquiring are considered.

16. Case in point

The teaching environment in Oman involves three main factors: learners, teachers, and obstacles. Therefore, the comparison of students’ results after certain methodical interventions with a control group reflected the difference in achievement. Omani colleges’ English classes, for example, provide students with both basic language skills and a foundation for advanced language abilities that will be crucial to completing their degrees. The process of learning a second language requires more than just language skills. For our learners to be successful at learning a new language, they must be in control of their own learning and self-management.

A longitudinal study was conducted at Mazoon College, Sultanate of Oman. A total of 176 students (mixed ability learners) taking preparatory English language courses for a bachelor’s degree were chosen as the subject of study from six different sections of the authors’ own classes. The data were collected over a period of 14 months (three semesters). Learners were given reading and writing exercises that focused on abstraction, thinking, hypothesizing, and drawing conclusions. The study was conducted on an experimental group of 93 students and compared with a control group of 83 students.

16.1 Theoretical perspective

Guided by the theory of cognitive development to understand the interplay between teaching strategy and cognition in education, students use a certain amount of working memory, which is explained by cognitive load theory. Observing and recording the assessments that how stress and emotion alter the cognitive processes that support performance our study concluded from findings in the preview of cognitive psychology and education point of view.

16.2 Methodology

Verbal and written English language skills

Thinking skills

Developing knowledge

Memory development

Perceptual skills

Emotional control

Outcomes ( Table 1 ) are based on the assessment of students’ data on given tasks. A tendency investigation of summative assessments and behavioral outcomes assessment measured the following: verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, response to challenging situations, processing speed, number of mistakes, and willingness to accept a challenge ( Figure 1 ).

Descriptive.

Marks average.

There was a significant difference in variance ( Table 2 ) between the control group and the experimental group.

Hypothesis test summary.

The significance level is 0.05.

Asymptotic significances are displayed.

17. Conclusion

Based on research on cognitive development among students of English as a second language in higher education, this chapter examines cognitive development’s theoretical grounds and criticisms, as well as its value and contribution. Additionally, the chapter illustrates how pedagogical approaches are guided by the dimensions of student learning. The outcomes of the study highlight the study process as a chance to develop new skills in students through cognitive engagement. Attending English as a second language class evokes thoughts of learning and achievement in students. Examination of given situations revealed that study engagements may lead to feelings of tension, apprehension, or fear about performing up to the expectations set for learners by teachers and curriculum. Therefore, learners of English as a second language feel under pressure from anxiety and stress. The acquisition and demonstration of knowledge cannot simply sum up what students learn in class. Memory, attention, cognitive control, motivation, and emotions all play a role in academic performance. Providing students with close supervision, assistance, and interaction opportunities enhanced the performance outcomes of the experimental group. Pedagogical interventions integrated with cognitive development perspectives applied to the experimental group resulted in improvements in learning and a reduction of anxiety and stress compared to the control group. The following categories of activities and strategies are presented based on assessments (e.g., formative and summative) aimed at developing cognitive control functions in the language classroom (ages 18–25) or combinations of those activities.

17.1 Determine the level of the learners and assign appropriate activities

Based on the description above, it is evident that these activities provide a dual benefit by developing language skills and improving cognitive control functions simultaneously. Taking part in these activities enhances one’s ability to control cognitive processes. Stress and positive emotional engagement play an influential role in the development of cognitive control.

It is likely that the activities will be repeated over time and that the challenges will become increasingly challenging.

17.2 Learning from mistakes

Ensure that your learners understand that making mistakes is natural and that you do not grade them according to how they perform these tasks. Remind them that these activities will be performed on a regular basis. If they spend more time focusing on and enjoying the activities, their performance will improve.

17.3 Teaching English as a second language: methods of improving cognitive control

The use of self-talk to improve cognitive control skills improves a student’s ability to set and achieve goals, and plan and carry out plans.

It is imperative to monitor and analyze a process when it is taught to people rather than expecting that they are already familiar with it.

A script can be used to support this process, which includes model questions, templates, and checklists. It is critical that students repeat these language routines over time in order to gradually internalize them and use them in their own self-talk.

This process can also facilitate the acquisition of a high level of proficiency in the target language. It can be taught to students individually or in groups.

The development of self-control strategies in the classroom is intended to create a culture of can-do in the classroom.

It is critical to encourage students to develop further by replacing negative beliefs about their abilities. This phase can be challenging in terms of establishing a positive classroom culture. Furthermore, negative beliefs about students’ abilities may adversely affect teachers’ attitudes toward their students.

Develop metacognition and study strategies for young adults. The importance of recognizing that any concerns teachers may have regarding cognitive control functions may not be about the core skills themselves cannot be overstated. They may choose to combine these skills in a more sophisticated manner.

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Leading Organizational Development and Change pp 471–481 Cite as

Case Study Teaching and Learning

• Riann Singh 2 &
• Shalini Ramdeo 2  
• First Online: 09 July 2020

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This chapter is the first of three chapters that explore case studies in OD. This chapter presents the fundamentals of case method teaching and learning. It is important to understand such fundamentals before presenting OD cases to readers. In OD and other related fields, the case approach is widely used as a pedagogy for learning by making decisions on information about an issue or problem. Case method teaching and learning strategies attempt to bridge the gap between theoretical and practical applications in any field of study. The chapter also presents the reader with the basics of case method approaches, provides an explanation of its importance in OD, describes how students should approach case method learning, and outlines how they can approach case analysis and discussion.

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Singh, R., Ramdeo, S. (2020). Case Study Teaching and Learning. In: Leading Organizational Development and Change. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-39123-2_21

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American Journal of Business

ISSN : 1935-5181

Article publication date: 23 March 2021

Issue publication date: 2 April 2021

The digital learning and learning & development (L&D) at workplaces in corporates is having a significant challenge, where only about 1% of the week is spent on L&D by the employees. There are an array of recent L&D reports–by Deloitte, 2019; Skillsoft's, 2019; LinkedIn Workplace Learning Report-2019; UK L&D Report-2019; FICCI-NASSCOM and EY “Future of Jobs” Report-2017–which have clearly been indicating that the digital learning is fast-emerging as one of the realistic option. The employees invest their time and energy for skilling/up-skilling/re-skilling for remaining relevant to the emerging business context under volatility, uncertainty, complexity and ambiguity (VUCA) world and also coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is being researched.

Design/methodology/approach

The L&D interventions have primary objective of enhancing skills, competencies and career growth among employees, and the learning engagement styles/ systems are undergoing dramatic paradigm shifts. There is dire need to understand the impact of sweeping changes with Industry 4.0 and HR 4.0; however, there are only a few industry-centric studies that are available to assess the impact of technology on L&D with digital learning. Hence, there is a need to study the factors influencing various segments of workforce in large corporates, where the learning engagement with digital learning is fast-emerging among corporates.

Given the digital learning / L&D context in corporates, this research paper has attempted to review and analyse the opportunities, challenges and emerging trends with respect to leveraging technology and innovation to enhance L&D to deliver the business goals, under the 70:20:10 framework, with case analysis of ten different corporates (across different industry sectors) viz., Genpact, Nexval, Airbus, Siemens, AstraZeneca Pharma, HPCL, HGS (BPM), HP, Flipkart and IBM. The A-to-Z of Talent Management and Leadership Development (adopted version from India Leadership Academy, Publicis Sapient, 2019) best practices are analysed, summarized and presented to indicate emerging trends in Industry 4.0 era.

Research limitations/implications

This study has been carried out for just ten major corporates/ multinational companies (MNCs) operating in various sectors. The sample size used is relatively less; therefore, the study can be carried out with a larger sample size and deeper data analysis and insights across countries/continents. At present, this can be considered as a base-research for undertaking deep-dive analysis. The sectoral analysis and cross-industry perspectives require consideration in next studies. To address the sector-specific issues, the research can be undertaken for either a particular sector such as manufacturing, automotive, IT/ITeS, telecom, aviation, agri-tech and pharmaceutical, knowledge-based industries, etc. or comparative analysis across few related sectors required.

Practical implications

This research has provided/shall provide a basis to understand the various factors that influence the L&D and digital learning ecosystem in large corporates. It is expected to provide a practical and also strategic perspective towards effective usage of digital learning systems (both in-house and open systems) for enhancing the effectiveness of L&D in the context of VUCA World and HR 4.0 around us. The proposed hypothesis of “The Digital Learning is the “Future of HR”, especially for the L&D in large Corporate Academies (in the context of Industry 4.0)” stands justified.

Social implications

The clear shift from training culture to “Learning Culture” is possible and feasible with strategically planned digital learning/ L&D interventions, which benefits the corporates, employees, customers and the society at large.

Originality/value

To the best of our knowledge, probably this is one of the first paper in the analysing the industry best L&D/Digital learning practices from an practitioners and academic perspective, as we live in the era of bit-sized and byte sized micro-learning. This study contributes to the academics by providing insights on possible digital learning policies that can be practiced by large corporates, where the “ownership of learning and career growth” is transferred onto the employees. The result of this study complements the evolving digital learning trends, in line with science of self-driven and lifelong learning principle.

• Digital learning
• Employee learning
• Engaged learning
• Learnability of working executives
• Learning and development (L&D)
• Lifelong learning
• Micro-learning
• Online learning
• Self-learning
• Work place learning

Acknowledgements

The Authors gratefully acknowledge the support and cooperation from HR/L&D Leaders, CHROs and Business Leaders of the Corporates, mentioned herein this paper, for furnishing the relevant information for undertaking this industry-based case analysis research and also the authors/publishers of Industry Reports used here. The Authors also recognise and gratefully acknowledge the professional learning and continuous support received through NHRD-N (National HRD Network), New Delhi and Bangalore Chapters., as the Life Members of NHRD. We have not received any funding support for conducting this research from any organization.

Hiremath, N.V. , Mohapatra, A.K. and Paila, A.S. (2021), "A study on digital learning, learning and development interventions and learnability of working executives in corporates", American Journal of Business , Vol. 36 No. 1, pp. 35-61. https://doi.org/10.1108/AJB-09-2020-0141

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Home » Management Case Studies » Case Study of Nestle: Training and Development

Case Study of Nestle: Training and Development

Nestle is world’s leading food company, with a 135-year history and operations in virtually every country in the world. Nestle’s principal assets are not office buildings, factories, or even brands. Rather, it is the fact that they are a global organization comprised of many nationalities, religions, and ethnic backgrounds all working together in one single unifying corporate culture .

Culture at Nestle and Human Resources Policy

Nestle culture unifies people on all continents. The most important parts of Nestle’s business strategy and culture are the development of human capacity in each country where they operate. Learning is an integral part of Nestle’s culture. This is firmly stated in The Nestle Human Resources Policy, a totally new policy that encompasses the guidelines that constitute a sound basis for efficient and effective human resource management . People development is the driving force of the policy, which includes clear principles on non-discrimination, the right of collective bargaining as well as the strict prohibition of any form of harassment. The policy deals with recruitment , remuneration and training and development and emphasizes individual responsibility, strong leadership and a commitment to life-long learning as required characteristics for Nestle managers.

Training Programs at Nestle

The willingness to learn is therefore an essential condition to be employed by Nestle. First and foremost, training is done on-the-job. Guiding and coaching is part of the responsibility of each manager and is crucial to make each one progress in his/her position. Formal training programs are generally purpose-oriented and designed to improve relevant skills and competencies . Therefore they are proposed in the framework of individual development programs and not as a reward.

Literacy Training

Most of Nestle’s people development programs assume a good basic education on the part of employees. However, in a number of countries, we have decided to offer employees the opportunity to upgrade their essential literacy skills. A number of Nestle companies have therefore set up special programs for those who, for one reason or another, missed a large part of their elementary schooling.

These programs are especially important as they introduce increasingly sophisticated production techniques into each country where they operate. As the level of technology in Nestle factories has steadily risen, the need for training has increased at all levels. Much of this is on-the-job training to develop the specific skills to operate more advanced equipment. But it’s not only new technical abilities that are required.   It’s sometimes new working practices. For example, more flexibility and more independence among work teams are sometimes needed if equipment is to operate at maximum efficiency .

“Sometimes we have debates in class and we are afraid to stand up. But our facilitators tell us to stand up because one day we might be in the parliament!” (Maria Modiba, Production line worker, Babelegi factory, Nestle South Africa).

Nestle Apprenticeship Program

Apprenticeship programs have been an essential part of Nestle training where the young trainees spent three days a week at work and two at school. Positive results observed but some of these soon ran into a problem. At the end of training, many students were hired away by other companies which provided no training of their own.

“My two elder brothers worked here before me. Like them, for me the Nestle Apprenticeship Program in Nigeria will not be the end of my training but it will provide me with the right base for further advancement. We should have more apprentices here as we are trained so well!” (John Edobor Eghoghon, Apprentice Mechanic, Agbara Factory, Nestle Nigeria) (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); “It’s not only a matter of learning bakery; we also learn about microbiology, finance, budgeting, costs, sales, how to treat the customer, and so on. That is the reason I think that this is really something that is going to give meaning to my life. It will be very useful for everything.” (Jair Andres Santa, Apprentice Baker, La Rosa Factory Dosquebradas, Nestle Columbia).

Local Training

Two-thirds of all Nestle employees work in factories, most of which organize continuous training to meet their specific needs. In addition, a number of Nestle operating companies run their own residential training centers. The result is that local training is the largest component of Nestle’s people development activities worldwide and a substantial majority of the company’s 240000 employees receive training every year. Ensuring appropriate and continuous training is an official part of every manager’s responsibilities and, in many cases; the manager is personally involved in the teaching. For this reason, part of the training structure in every company is focused on developing managers own coaching skills. Additional courses are held outside the factory when required, generally in connection with the operation of new technology.

The variety of programs is very extensive. They start with continuation training for ex-apprentices who have the potential to become supervisors or section leaders, and continue through several levels of technical, electrical and maintenance engineering as well as IT management. The degree to which factories develop “home-grown” specialists varies considerably, reflecting the availability of trained people on the job market in each country. On-the-job training is also a key element of career development in commercial and administrative positions. Here too, most courses are delivered in-house by Nestle trainers but, as the level rises, collaboration with external institutes increases.

“As part of the Young Managers’ Training Program I was sent to a different part of the country and began by selling small portions of our Maggi bouillon cubes to the street stalls, the ‘sari sari’ stores, in my country. Even though most of my main key accounts are now supermarkets, this early exposure were an invaluable learning experience and will help me all my life.” (Diane Jennifer Zabala, Key Account Specialist, Sales, Nestle Philippines). “Through its education and training program, Nestle manifests its belief that people are the most important asset. In my case, I was fortunate to participate in Nestle’s Young Managers Program at the start of my Nestle career, in 1967. This foundation has sustained me all these years up to my present position of CEO of one of the top 12 Nestle companies in the world.” (Juan Santos, CEO, Nestle Philippines)

Virtually every national Nestle company organizes management-training courses for new employees with High school or university qualifications. But their approaches vary considerably. In Japan, for example, they consist of a series of short courses typically lasting three days each. Subjects include human assessment skills, leadership and strategy as well as courses for new supervisors and new key staff. In Mexico, Nestle set up a national training center in 1965. In addition to those following regular training programs, some 100 people follow programs for young managers there every year. These are based on a series of modules that allows tailored courses to be offered to each participant. Nestle India runs 12-month programs for management trainees in sales and marketing, finance and human resources, as well as in milk collection and agricultural services. These involve periods of fieldwork, not only to develop a broad range of skills but also to introduce new employees to company organization and systems. The scope of local training is expanding. The growing familiarity with information technology has enabled “distance learning” to become a valuable resource, and many Nestle companies have appointed corporate training assistants in this area. It has the great advantage of allowing students to select courses that meet their individual needs and do the work at their own pace, at convenient times. In Singapore, to quote just one example, staff is given financial help to take evening courses in job-related subjects. Fees and expenses are reimbursed for successfully following courses leading to a trade certificate, a high school diploma, university entrance qualifications, and a bachelor’s degree.

International Training

Nestle’s success in growing local companies in each country has been highly influenced by the functioning of its International Training Centre, located near company’s corporate headquarters in Switzerland. For over 30 years, the Rive-Reine International Training Centre has brought together managers from around the world to learn from senior Nestle managers and from each other.Country managers decide who attends which course, although there is central screening for qualifications, and classes are carefully composed to include people with a range of geographic and functional backgrounds. Typically a class contains 15—20 nationalities. The Centre delivers some 70 courses, attended by about 1700 managers each year from over 80 countries. All course leaders are Nestle managers with many years of experience in a range of countries. Only 25% of the teaching is done by outside professionals, as the primary faculty is the Nestle senior management. The programs can be broadly divided into two groups:

• Management courses: these account for about 66% of all courses at Rive-Reine. The participants have typically been with the company for four to five years. The intention is to develop a real appreciation of Nestle values and business approaches. These courses focus on internal activities.
• Executive courses: these classes often contain people who have attended a management course five to ten years earlier. The focus is on developing the ability to represent Nestle externally and to work with outsiders. It emphasizes industry analysis, often asking: “What would you do if you were a competitor?”

Nestle’s overarching principle is that each employee should have the opportunity to develop to the maximum of his or her potential. Nestle do this because they believe it pays off in the long run in their business results, and that sustainable long-term relationships with highly competent people and with the communities where they operate enhance their ability to make consistent profits. It is important to give people the opportunities for life-long learning as at Nestle that all employees are called upon to upgrade their skills in a fast-changing world. By offering opportunities to develop , they not only enrich themselves as a company, they also make themselves individually more autonomous, confident, and, in turn, more employable and open to new positions within the company. Enhancing this virtuous circle is the ultimate goal of their training efforts at many different levels through the thousands of training programs they run each year.

External Links:

• Employee and Career Development  (Nestle Global)

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4 thoughts on “ Case Study of Nestle: Training and Development ”

Very nice case study

one question, when is this case study published? please ,thank you. i am doing this for final year project. as references

Post date: 03-09-2010

How does Nestle evaluate the effectiveness of training programs? Explain your reasons

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• Published: 16 April 2024

Designing a framework for entrepreneurship education in Chinese higher education: a theoretical exploration and empirical case study

• Luning Shao 1 ,
• Yuxin Miao 2 ,
• Shengce Ren 3 ,
• Sanfa Cai 4 &
• Fei Fan   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8756-5140 5 , 6  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  11 , Article number:  519 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Entrepreneurship education (EE) has rapidly evolved within higher education and has emerged as a pivotal mechanism for cultivating innovative and entrepreneurial talent. In China, while EE has made positive strides, it still faces a series of practical challenges. These issues cannot be effectively addressed solely through the efforts of universities. Based on the triple helix (TH) theory, this study delves into the unified objectives and practical content of EE in Chinese higher education. Through a comprehensive literature review on EE, coupled with educational objectives, planned behavior, and entrepreneurship process theories, this study introduces the 4H objective model of EE. 4H stands for Head (mindset), Hand (skill), Heart (attitude), and Help (support). Additionally, the research extends to a corresponding content model that encompasses entrepreneurial learning, entrepreneurial practice, startup services, and the entrepreneurial climate as tools for achieving the objectives. Based on a single-case approach, this study empirically explores the application of the content model at T-University. Furthermore, this paper elucidates how the university plays a role through the comprehensive development of entrepreneurial learning, practices, services, and climate in nurturing numerous entrepreneurs and facilitating the flourishing of the regional entrepreneurial ecosystem. This paper provides important contributions in its application of TH theory to develop EE within the Chinese context, and it provides clear guidance by elucidating the core objectives and practical content of EE. The proposed conceptual framework serves not only as a guiding tool but also as a crucial conduit for fostering the collaborative development of the EE ecosystem. To enhance the robustness of the framework, this study advocates strengthening empirical research on TH theory through multiple and comparative case studies.

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Introduction

In the era of the knowledge economy, entrepreneurship has emerged as a fundamental driver of social and economic development. As early as 1911, Schumpeter proposed the well-known theory of economic development, wherein he first introduced the concepts of entrepreneurship and creative destruction as driving forces behind socioeconomic development. Numerous endogenous growth theories, such as the entrepreneurial ecosystem mechanism of Acs et al. ( 2018 ), which also underscores the pivotal role of entrepreneurship in economic development, are rooted in Schumpeter’s model. Recognized as a key means of cultivating entrepreneurs and enhancing their capabilities (Jin et al., 2023 ), entrepreneurship education (EE) has received widespread attention over the past few decades, especially in the context of higher education (Wong & Chan, 2022 ).

Driven by international trends and economic demands, China places significant emphasis on nurturing innovative talent and incorporating EE into the essential components of its national education system. The State Council’s “Implementation Opinions on Deepening the Reform of Innovation and Entrepreneurship Education in Higher Education” (hereafter referred to as the report) underscores the urgent necessity for advancing reforms in innovation and EE in higher education institutions. This initiative aligns with the national strategy of promoting innovation-driven development and enhancing economic quality and efficiency. Furthermore, institutions at various levels are actively and eagerly engaging in EE.

Despite the positive strides made in EE in China, its development still faces a series of formidable practical challenges. As elucidated in the report, higher education institutions face challenges such as a delay in the conceptualization of EE, inadequate integration with specialized education, and a disconnect from practical applications. Furthermore, educators exhibit a deficiency in awareness and capabilities, which manifests in a singular and less effective teaching methodology. The shortage of practical platforms, guidance, and support emphasizes the pressing need for comprehensive innovation and EE systems. These issues necessitate collaborative efforts from universities, industry, and policymakers.

Internationally established solutions for the current challenges have substantially matured, providing invaluable insights and guidance for the development of EE in the Chinese context. In the late 20th century, the concept of the entrepreneurial university gained prominence (Etzkowitz et al., 2000 ). Then, entrepreneurial universities expanded their role from traditional research and teaching to embrace a “third mission” centered on economic development. This transformation entailed fostering student engagement in entrepreneurial initiatives by offering resources and guidance to facilitate the transition of ideas into viable entrepreneurial ventures. Additionally, these entrepreneurial universities played a pivotal role in advancing the triple helix (TH) model (Henry, 2009 ). The TH model establishes innovation systems that facilitate knowledge conversion into economic endeavors by coordinating the functions of universities, government entities, and industry. The robustness of this perspective has been substantiated through comprehensive theoretical and empirical investigations (Mandrup & Jensen, 2017 ).

Therefore, this study aims to explore how EE in Chinese universities can adapt to new societal trends and demands through the guidance of TH theory. This research involves two major themes: educational objectives and content. Educational objectives play a pivotal role in regulating the entire process of educational activities, ensuring alignment with the principles and norms of education (Whitehead, 1967 ), while content provides a practical pathway to achieving these objectives. Specifically, the study has three pivotal research questions:

RQ1: What is the present landscape of EE research?

RQ2: What unified macroscopic goals should be formulated to guide EE in Chinese higher education?

RQ3: What specific EE system should be implemented to realize the identified goals in Chinese higher education?

The structure of this paper is as follows: First, we conduct a comprehensive literature review on EE to answer RQ1 , thereby establishing a robust theoretical foundation. Second, we outline our research methodology, encompassing both framework construction and case studies and providing a clear and explicit approach to our research process. Third, we derive the objectives and content model of EE guided by educational objectives, entrepreneurial motivations, and entrepreneurial process theories. Fourth, focusing on a typical university in China as our research subject, we conduct a case study to demonstrate the practical application of our research framework. Finally, we end the paper with the findings for RQ2 and RQ3 , discussions on the framework, and conclusions.

Literature review

The notion of TH first appeared in the early 1980s, coinciding with the global transition from an industrial to a knowledge-based economy (Cai & Etzkowitz, 2020 ). At that time, the dramatic increase in productivity led to overproduction, and knowledge became a valuable mechanism for driving innovation and economic growth (Mandrup & Jensen, 2017 ). Recognizing the potential of incorporating cutting-edge university technologies into industry and facilitating technology transfer and innovation, the US government took proactive steps to enhance the international competitiveness of American industries. This initiative culminated in the enactment of relevant legislation in 1980, which triggered a surge in technology transfer, patent licensing, and the establishment of new enterprises within the United States. Subsequently, European and Asian nations adopted similar measures, promoting the transformation of universities’ identity (Grimaldi et al., 2011 ). Universities assumed a central role in technology transfer, the formation of businesses, and regional revitalization within the knowledge society rather than occupying a secondary position within the industrial community. The conventional one-to-one relationships between universities, companies, and the government evolved into a dynamic TH model (Cai & Etzkowitz, 2020 ). Beyond their traditional roles in knowledge creation, wealth production, and policy coordination, these sectors began to engage in multifaceted interactions, effectively “playing the role of others” (Ranga & Etzkowitz, 2013 ).

The TH model encompasses three fundamental elements: 1) In a knowledge-based society, universities assume a more prominent role in innovation than in industry; 2) The three entities engage in collaborative relationships, with innovation policies emerging as a result of their mutual interactions rather than being solely dictated by the government; and 3) Each entity, while fulfilling its traditional functions, also takes on the roles of the other two parties (Henry, 2009 ). This model is closely aligned with EE.

On the one hand, EE can enhance the effectiveness of TH theory by strengthening the links between universities, industry, and government. The TH concept was developed based on entrepreneurial universities. The emerging entrepreneurial university model integrates economic development as an additional function. Etzkowitz’s research on the entrepreneurial university identified a TH model of academia-industry-government relations implemented by universities in an increasingly knowledge-based society (Galvao et al., 2019 ). Alexander and Evgeniy ( 2012 ) articulated that entrepreneurial universities are crucial to the implementation of triple-helix arrangements and that by integrating EE into their curricula, universities have the potential to strengthen triple-helix partnerships and boost the effectiveness of the triple-helix model.

On the other hand, TH theory also drives EE to achieve high-quality development. Previously, universities were primarily seen as sources of knowledge and human resources. However, they are now also regarded as reservoirs of technology. Within EE and incubation programs, universities are expanding their educational capabilities beyond individual education to shaping organizations (Henry, 2009 ). Surpassing their role as sources of new ideas for existing companies, universities blend their research and teaching processes in a novel way, emerging as pivotal sources for the formation of new companies, particularly in high-tech domains. Furthermore, innovation within one field of the TH influences others (Piqué et al., 2020 ). An empirical study by Alexander and Evgeniy ( 2012 ) outlined how the government introduced a series of initiatives to develop entrepreneurial universities, construct innovation infrastructure, and foster EE growth.

Overview of EE

EE occupies a crucial position in driving economic advancement, and this domain has been the focal point of extensive research. Fellnhofer ( 2019 ) examined 1773 publications from 1975 to 2014, introducing a more closely aligned taxonomy of EE research. This taxonomy encompasses eight major clusters: social and policy-driven EE, human capital studies related to self-employment, organizational EE and TH, (Re)design and evaluation of EE initiatives, entrepreneurial learning, EE impact studies, and the EE opportunity-related environment at the organizational level. Furthermore, Mohamed and Sheikh Ali ( 2021 ) conducted a systematic literature review of 90 EE articles published from 2009 to 2019. The majority of these studies focused on the development of EE (32%), followed by its benefits (18%) and contributions (12%). The selected research also addressed themes such as the relationship between EE and entrepreneurial intent, the effectiveness of EE, and its assessment (each comprising 9% of the sample).

Spanning from 1975 to 2019, these two reviews offer a comprehensive landscape of EE research. The perspective on EE has evolved, extending into multiple dimensions (Zaring et al., 2021 ). However, EE does not always achieve the expected outcomes, as challenges such as limited student interest and engagement as well as persistent negative attitudes are often faced (Mohamed & Sheikh Ali, 2021 ). In fact, the challenges faced by EE in most countries may be similar. However, the solutions may vary due to contextual differences (Fred Awaah et al., 2023 ). Furthermore, due to this evolution, there is a need for a more comprehensive grasp of pedagogical concepts and the foundational elements of modern EE (Hägg & Gabrielsson, 2020 ). Based on the objectives of this study, four specific themes were chosen for an in-depth literature review: the objectives, contents and methods, outcomes, and experiences of EE.

Objectives of EE

The objectives of EE may provide significant guidance for its implementation and the assessment of its effectiveness, and EE has evolved to form a diversified spectrum. Mwasalwiba ( 2010 ) presented a multifaceted phenomenon in which EE objectives are closely linked to entrepreneurial outcomes. These goals encompass nurturing entrepreneurial attitudes (34%), promoting new ventures (27%), contributing to local community development (24%), and imparting entrepreneurial skills (15%). Some current studies still emphasize particular dimensions of these goals, such as fostering new ventures or value creation (Jones et al., 2018 ; Ratten & Usmanij, 2021 ). These authors further stress the significance of incorporating practical considerations related to the business environment, which prompts learners to contemplate issues such as funding and resource procurement. This goal inherently underscores the importance of entrepreneurial thinking and encourages learners to transition from merely being students to developing entrepreneurial mindsets.

Additionally, Kuratko and Morris ( 2018 ) posit that the goal of EE should not be to produce entrepreneurs but to cultivate entrepreneurial mindsets in students, equipping them with methods for thinking and acting entrepreneurially and enabling them to perceive opportunities rapidly in uncertain conditions and harness resources as entrepreneurs would. While the objectives of EE may vary based on the context of the teaching institution, the fundamental goal is increasingly focused on conveying and nurturing an entrepreneurial mindset among diverse stakeholders. Hao’s ( 2017 ) research contends that EE forms a comprehensive system in which multidimensional educational objectives are established. These objectives primarily encompass cultivating students’ foundational qualities and innovative entrepreneurial personalities, equipping them with essential awareness of entrepreneurship, psychological qualities conducive to entrepreneurship, and a knowledge structure for entrepreneurship. Such a framework guides students towards independent entrepreneurship based on real entrepreneurial scenarios.

Various studies and practices also contain many statements about entrepreneurial goals. The Entrepreneurship Competence Framework, which was issued by the EU in 2016, delineates three competency domains: ideas and opportunities, resources and action. Additionally, the framework outlines 15 specific entrepreneurship competencies (Jun, 2017 ). Similarly, the National Content Standards for EE published by the US Consortium encompass three overarching strategies for articulating desired competencies for aspiring entrepreneurs: entrepreneurial skills, ready skills, and business functions (Canziani & Welsh, 2021 ). First, entrepreneurial skills are unique characteristics, behaviors, and experiences that distinguish entrepreneurs from ordinary employees or managers. Second, ready skills, which include business and entrepreneurial knowledge and skills, are prerequisites and auxiliary conditions for EE. Third, business functions help entrepreneurs create and operate business processes in business activities. These standards explain in the broadest terms what students need to be self-employed or to develop and grow a new venture. Although entrepreneurial skills may be addressed in particular courses offered by entrepreneurship faculties, it is evident that business readiness and functional skills significantly contribute to entrepreneurial success (Canziani & Welsh, 2021 ).

Contents and methods of EE

The content and methods employed in EE are pivotal factors for ensuring the delivery of high-quality entrepreneurial instruction, and they have significant practical implications for achieving educational objectives. The conventional model of EE, which is rooted in the classroom setting, typically features an instructor at the front of the room delivering concepts and theories through lectures and readings (Mwasalwiba, 2010 ). However, due to limited opportunities for student engagement in the learning process, lecture-based teaching methods prove less effective at capturing students’ attention and conveying new concepts (Rahman, 2020 ). In response, Okebukola ( 2020 ) introduced the Culturo-Techno-Contextual Approach (CTCA), which offers a hybrid teaching and learning method that integrates cultural, technological, and geographical contexts. Through a controlled experiment involving 400 entrepreneurship development students from Ghana, CTCA has been demonstrated to be a model for enhancing students’ comprehension of complex concepts (Awaah, 2023 ). Furthermore, learners heavily draw upon their cultural influences to shape their understanding of EE, emphasizing the need for educators to approach the curriculum from a cultural perspective to guide students in comprehending entrepreneurship effectively.

In addition to traditional classroom approaches, research has highlighted innovative methods for instilling entrepreneurial spirit among students. For instance, students may learn from specific university experiences or even engage in creating and running a company (Kolb & Kolb, 2011 ). Some scholars have developed an educational portfolio that encompasses various activities, such as simulations, games, and real company creation, to foster reflective practice (Neck & Greene, 2011 ). However, some studies have indicated that EE, when excessively focused on applied and practical content, yields less favorable outcomes for students aspiring to engage in successful entrepreneurship (Martin et al., 2013 ). In contrast, students involved in more academically oriented courses tend to demonstrate improved intellectual skills and often achieve greater success as entrepreneurs (Zaring et al., 2021 ). As previously discussed, due to the lack of a coherent theoretical framework in EE, there is a lack of uniformity and consistency in course content and methods (Ribeiro et al., 2018 ).

Outcomes of EE

Research on the outcomes of EE is a broad and continually evolving field, with most related research focusing on immediate or short-term impact factors. For example, Anosike ( 2019 ) demonstrated the positive effect of EE on human capital, and Chen et al. ( 2022 ) proposed that EE significantly moderates the impact of self-efficacy on entrepreneurial competencies in higher education students through an innovative learning environment. In particular, in the comprehensive review by Kim et al. ( 2020 ), six key EE outcomes were identified: entrepreneurial creation, entrepreneurial intent, opportunity recognition, entrepreneurial self-efficacy and orientation, need for achievement and locus of control, and other entrepreneurial knowledge. One of the more popular directions is the examination of the impact of EE on entrepreneurial intentions. Bae et al. ( 2014 ) conducted a meta-analysis of 73 studies to examine the relationship between EE and entrepreneurial intention and revealed little correlation. However, a meta-analysis of 389 studies from 2010 to 2020 by Zhang et al. ( 2022 ) revealed a positive association between the two variables.

Nabi et al. ( 2017 ) conducted a systematic review to determine the impact of EE in higher education. Their findings highlight that studies exploring the outcomes of EE have primarily concentrated on short-term and subjective assessments, with insufficient consideration of longer-term effects spanning five or even ten years. These longer-term impacts encompass factors such as the nature and quantity of startups, startup survival rates, and contributions to society and the economy. As noted in the Eurydice report, a significant impediment to advancing EE is the lack of comprehensive delineation concerning education outcomes (Bourgeois et al., 2016 ).

Experiences in the EE system

With the deepening exploration of EE, researchers have turned to studying university-centered entrepreneurship ecosystems (Allahar and Sookram, 2019 ). Such ecosystems are adopted to fill gaps in “educational and economic development resources”, such as entrepreneurship curricula. A growing number of universities have evolved an increasingly complex innovation system that extends from technology transfer offices, incubators, and technology parks to translational research and the promotion of EE across campuses (Cai & Etzkowitz, 2020 ). In the university context, the entrepreneurial ecosystem aligns with TH theory, in which academia, government, and industry create a trilateral network and hybrid organization (Ranga & Etzkowitz, 2013 ).

The EE system is also a popular topic in China. Several researchers have summarized the Chinese experience in EE, including case studies and overall experience, such as the summary of the progress and system development of EE in Chinese universities over the last decade by Weiming et al. ( 2013 ) and the summary of the Chinese experience in innovation and EE by Maoxin ( 2017 ). Other researchers take an in-depth look at the international knowledge of EE, such as discussions on the EE system of Denmark by Yuanyuan ( 2015 ), analyzes of the ecological system of EE at the Technical University of Munich by Yubing and Ziyan ( 2015 ), and comparisons of international innovation and EE by Ke ( 2017 ).

In general, although there has been considerable discussion on EE, the existing body of work has not properly addressed the practical challenges faced by EE in China. On the one hand, the literature is fragmented and has not yet formed a unified and mature theoretical framework. Regarding what should be taught and how it can be taught and assessed, the answers in related research are ambiguous (Hoppe, 2016 ; Wong & Chan, 2022 ). On the other hand, current research lacks empirical evidence in the context of China, and guidance on how to put the concept of EE into practice is relatively limited. These dual deficiencies impede the effective and in-depth development of EE in China. Consequently, it is imperative to comprehensively redefine the objectives and contents of EE to provide clear developmental guidance for Chinese higher education institutions.

Research methodology

To answer the research questions, this study employed a comprehensive approach by integrating both literature-based and empirical research methods. The initial phase focused on systematically reviewing the literature related to entrepreneurial education, aiming to construct a clear set of frameworks for the objectives and content of EE in higher education institutions. The second phase involved conducting a case study at T-University, in which the theoretical frameworks were applied to a real-world context. This case not only contributed to validating the theoretical constructs established through the literature review but also provided valuable insights into the practical operational dynamics of entrepreneurial education within the specific university setting.

Conceptual framework stage

This paper aims to conceptualize the objective and content frameworks for EE. The methodology sequence is as follows: First, we examine the relevant EE literature to gain insights into existing research themes. Subsequently, we identify specific research articles based on these themes, such as “entrepreneurial intention”, “entrepreneurial self-efficacy”, and “entrepreneurial approach”, among others. Third, we synthesize the shared objectives of EE across diverse research perspectives through an analysis of the selected literature. Fourth, we construct an objective model for EE within higher education by integrating Bloom’s educational objectives ( 1956 ) and Gagne’s five learning outcomes ( 1984 ), complemented by entrepreneurship motivation and process considerations. Finally, we discuss the corresponding content framework.

Case study stage

To further elucidate the conceptual framework, this paper delves into the methods for the optimization of EE in China through a case analysis. Specifically, this paper employs a single-case approach. While a single case study may have limited external validity (Onjewu et al., 2021 ), if a case study informs current theory and conceptualizes the explored issues, it can still provide valuable insights from its internal findings (Buchanan, 1999 ).

T-University, which is a comprehensive university in China, is chosen as the subject of the case study for the following reasons. First, T-University is located in Shanghai, which is a Chinese international technological innovation center approved by the State Council. Shanghai’s “14th Five-Year Plan” proposes the establishment of a multichannel international innovation collaboration platform and a global innovation cooperation network. Second, T-University has initiated curriculum reforms and established a regional knowledge economy ecosystem by utilizing EE as a guiding principle, which aligns with the characteristics of its geographical location, history, culture, and disciplinary settings. This case study will showcase T-University’s experiences in entrepreneurial learning, entrepreneurial practice, startup services, and the entrepreneurial climate, elucidating the positive outcomes of this triangular interaction and offering practical insights for EE in other contexts.

The data collection process of this study was divided into two main stages: field research and archival research. The obtained data included interview transcripts, field notes, photos, internal documents, websites, reports, promotional materials, and published articles. In the initial stage, we conducted a 7-day field trip, including visits to the Innovation and Entrepreneurship Institute, the Career Development Centre, the Academic Affairs Office, and the Graduate School. Moreover, we conducted semistructured interviews with several faculty members and students involved in entrepreneurship education at the university to understand the overall state of implementation of entrepreneurship education at the university. In the second stage, we contacted the Academic Affairs Office and the Student Affairs Office at the university and obtained internal materials related to entrepreneurship education. Additionally, we conducted a comprehensive collection and created a summary of publicly available documents, official school websites, public accounts, and other electronic files. To verify the validity of the multisource data, we conducted triangulation and ultimately used consistent information as the basis for the data analysis.

For the purpose of our study, thematic analysis was employed to delve deeply into the TH factors, the objective and content frameworks, and their interrelationships. Thematic analysis is a method for identifying, analyzing, and reporting patterns within data. This approach emphasizes a comprehensive interpretation of the data, as it extracts information from multiple perspectives and derives valuable conclusions through summary and induction (Onjewu et al., 2021 ). Therefore, thematic analysis likely serves as the foundation for most other qualitative data analysis methods (Willig, 2013 ). In this study, three researchers individually conducted rigorous analyses and comprehensive reviews to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the data. Subsequently, they engaged in collaborative discussions to explore their differences and ultimately reach a consensus.

Framework construction

Theoretical basis of ee in universities.

The study is grounded in the theories of educational objectives, planned behavior, and the entrepreneurial process. Planned behavior theory can serve to elucidate the emergence of entrepreneurial activity, while entrepreneurial process theory can be used to delineate the essential elements of successful entrepreneurship.

Theory of educational objectives. The primary goal of education is to assist students in shaping their future. Furthermore, education should directly influence students and facilitate their future development. Education can significantly enhance students’ prospects by imparting specific skills and fundamental principles and cultivating the correct attitudes and mindsets (Bruner, 2009 ). According to “The Aims of Education” by Whitehead, the objective of education is to stimulate creativity and vitality. Gagne identifies five learning outcomes that enable teachers to design optimal learning conditions based on the presentation of these outcomes, encompassing “attitude,” “motor skills,” “verbal information,” “intellectual skills,” and “cognitive strategies”. Bloom et al. ( 1956 ) argue that education has three aims, which concern the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains. Gedeon ( 2017 ) posits that EE involves critical input and output elements. The key objectives encompass mindset (Head), skill (hand), attitude (heart), and support (help). The input objectives include EE teachers, resources, facilities, courses, and teaching methods. The output objectives encompass the impacts of the input factors, such as the number of students, the number of awards, and the establishment of new companies. The primary aims of Gedeon ( 2017 ) correspond to those of Bloom et al. ( 1956 ).

Theory of planned behavior. The theory of planned behavior argues that human behavior is the outcome of well-thought-out planning (Ajzen, 1991 ). Human behavior depends on behavioral intentions, which are affected by three main factors. The first is derived from the individual’s “attitude” towards taking a particular action; the second is derived from the influence of “subjective norms” from society; and the third is derived from “perceived behavioral control” (Ajzen, 1991 ). Researchers have adopted this theory to study entrepreneurial behavior and EE.

Theory of the entrepreneurship process. Researchers have proposed several entrepreneurial models, most of which are processes (Baoshan & Baobao, 2008 ). The theory of the entrepreneurship process focuses on the critical determinants of entrepreneurial success. The essential variables of the entrepreneurial process model significantly impact entrepreneurial performance. Timmons et al. ( 2004 ) argue that successful entrepreneurial activities require an appropriate match among opportunities, entrepreneurial teams, resources, and a dynamic balance as the business develops. Their model emphasizes flexibility and equilibrium, and it is believed that entrepreneurial activities change with time and space. As a result, opportunities, teams, and resources will be unbalanced and need timely adjustment.

4H objective model of EE

Guided by TH theory, the objectives of EE should consider universities’ transformational identity in the knowledge era and promote collaboration among students, faculty, researchers, and external players (Mandrup & Jensen, 2017 ). Furthermore, through a comprehensive analysis of the literature and pertinent theoretical underpinnings, the article introduces the 4H model for the EE objectives, as depicted in Fig. 1 .

The 4H objective model of entrepreneurship education.

The model comprises two levels. The first level pertains to outcomes at the entrepreneurial behavior level, encompassing entrepreneurial intention and entrepreneurial performance. These two factors support universities’ endeavors to nurture individuals with an entrepreneurial mindset and potential and contribute to the region’s growth of innovation and entrepreneurship. The second level pertains to fundamentals, which form the foundation of the first level. The article defines these as the 4H model, representing mindset (Head), skill (Hand), attitude (Heart), and support (Help). This model integrates key theories, including educational objectives, the entrepreneurship process, and planned behavior.

First, according to the theory of educational objectives, the cognitive, emotional, and skill objectives proposed by Bloom et al. ( 1956 ) correspond to the key goals of education offered by Gedeon ( 2017 ), namely, Head, Hand, and Heart; thus, going forward, in this study, these three objectives are adopted. Second, according to the theory of planned behavior, for the promotion of entrepreneurial intention, reflection on the control of beliefs, social norms, and perceptual behaviors must be included. EE’s impact on the Head, Hand, and Heart will promote the power of entrepreneurs’ thoughts and perceptual actions. Therefore, this approach is beneficial for enhancing entrepreneurial intentions. Third, according to entrepreneurship process theory, entrepreneurial performance is affected by various factors, including entrepreneurial opportunities, teams, and resources. Consideration of the concepts of Head, Hand, and Heart can enhance entrepreneurial opportunity recognition and entrepreneurial team capabilities. However, as the primary means of obtaining external resources, social networks play an essential role in improving the performance of innovation and entrepreneurship companies (Gao et al., 2023 ). Therefore, an effective EE program should tell students how to take action, connect them with those who can help them succeed (Ronstadt, 1985 ), and help them access the necessary resources. If EE institutions can provide relevant help, they will consolidate entrepreneurial intentions and improve entrepreneurial performance, enabling the EE’s objective to better support the Head, Hand, and Heart.

Content model of EE

EE necessitates establishing a systematic implementation framework to achieve the 4H objectives. Current research on EE predominantly focuses on two facets: one focuses on EE methods to improve students’ skills, and the other focuses on EE outcome measurements, which consider the impact of EE on different stakeholders. Based on this, to foster innovation in EE approaches and enable long-term sustainable EE outcomes, the 4H Model of EE objectives mandates that pertinent institutions provide entrepreneurial learning, entrepreneurial practice, startup services, and a suitable entrepreneurial climate. These components constitute the four integral facets of the content model for EE, as depicted in Fig. 2 .

The content model of entrepreneurship education.

Entrepreneurial learning

Entrepreneurial learning mainly refers to the learning of innovative entrepreneurial knowledge and theory. This factor represents the core of EE and can contribute significantly to the Head component. It can also improve the entrepreneurial thinking ability of academic subjects through classroom teaching, lectures, information reading and analysis, discussion, debates, etc. Additionally, it can positively affect the Hand and Heart elements of EE.

Entrepreneurial practice

Entrepreneurial practice mainly refers to academic subjects comprehensively enhancing their cognition and ability by participating in entrepreneurial activities. This element is also a key component of EE and plays a significant role in the cultivation of the Hand element. Entrepreneurial practice is characterized by participation in planning and implementing entrepreneurial programs, competitions, and simulation activities. Furthermore, it positively impacts EE’s Head, Heart, and Help factors.

Startup services

Startup services mainly refer to entrepreneurial-related support services provided by EE institutions, which include investment and financing, project declaration, financial and legal support, human resources, marketing, and intermediary services. These services can improve the success of entrepreneurship projects. Therefore, they can reinforce the expectations of entrepreneurs’ success and positively impact the Heart, Hand, and Head objectives of EE.

Entrepreneurial climate

The entrepreneurial climate refers to the entrepreneurial environment created by EE institutions and their community and is embodied mainly in the educational institutions’ external and internal entrepreneurial culture and ecology. The environment can impact the entrepreneurial attitude of educated individuals and the Heart objective of EE. Additionally, it is beneficial for realizing EE’s Head, Hand, and Help goals.

Case study: EE practice of T-University

Overview of ee at t-university.

T-University is one of the first in China to promote innovation and EE. Since the 1990s, a series of policies have been introduced, and different platforms have been set up. After more than 20 years of teaching, research, and practice, an innovation and entrepreneurship education system with unique characteristics has gradually evolved. The overall goal of this system is to ensure that 100% of students receive such education, with 10% of students completing the program and 1% achieving entrepreneurship with a high-quality standard. The overall employment rate of 2020 graduates reached 97.49%. In recent years, the proportion of those pursuing entrepreneurship has been more than 1% almost every year. The T-Rim Knowledge-Based Economic Circle, an industrial cluster formed around knowledge spillover from T-University’s dominant disciplines, employs more than 400 T-University graduates annually.

In 2016, T-University established the School of Innovation & Entrepreneurship, with the president serving as its dean. This school focuses on talent development and is pivotal in advancing innovation-driven development strategies. It coordinates efforts across various departments and colleges to ensure comprehensive coverage of innovation and EE, the integration of diverse academic disciplines, and the transformation of interdisciplinary scientific and technological advancements (see Fig. 3 ).

T-University innovation and entrepreneurship education map.

T-University is dedicated to integrating innovation and EE into every stage of talent development. As the guiding framework for EE, the university has established the Innovation and EE sequence featuring “three-dimensional, linked, and cross-university cooperation” with seven educational elements. These elements include the core curriculum system of innovation and entrepreneurship, the “one top-notch and three excellences” and experimental zones of innovation and entrepreneurship talent cultivation model, the four-level “China-Shanghai-University-School” training programs for innovation and entrepreneurship, four-level “International-National-Municipal-University” science and technology competitions, four-level “National-Municipal-University-School” innovation and entrepreneurship practice bases, three-level “Venture Valley-Entrepreneurship Fund-Industry Incubation” startup services and a high-level teaching team with both full-time and part-time personnel.

T-University has implemented several initiatives. First, the university has implemented 100% student innovation and EE through reforming the credit setting and curriculum system. Through the Venture Valley class, mobile class, and “joint summer school”, more than 10% of the students completed the Innovation and EE program. Moreover, through the professional reform pilot and eight professional incubation platforms in the National Science and Technology Park of T-University and other measures, 1% of the students established high-quality entrepreneurial enterprises. Second, the university is committed to promoting the integration of innovation and entrepreneurship and training programs, exploring and practising a variety of innovative talent cultivation models, and adding undergraduate innovation ability development as a mandatory component of the training program. In addition, pilot reforms have been conducted in engineering, medicine, and law majors, focusing on integrating research and education.

T-University has constructed a high-level integrated innovation and entrepreneurship practice platform by combining internal and external resources. This platform serves as the central component in Fig. 3 , forming a sequence of innovation and entrepreneurship practice opportunities, including 1) the On-and-off Campus Basic Practice Platform, 2) the Entrepreneurship Practice Platform with the Integration of Production, Learning, and Research, 3) the Transformation Platform of Major Scientific Research Facilities and Achievements, and 4) the Strategic Platform of the T-Rim Knowledge-Based Economic Circle. All these platforms are accessible to students based on their specific tasks and objectives.

Moreover, the university has reinforced its support for entrepreneurship and collaborated with local governments in Sichuan, Dalian, and Shenzhen to establish off-campus bases jointly. In 2016, in partnership with other top universities in China, the university launched the Innovation and Entrepreneurship Alliance of Universities in the Yangtze River Delta. This alliance effectively brings together government bodies, businesses, social communities, universities, and funding resources in the Yangtze River Delta, harnessing the synergistic advantages of these institutions. In 2018, the university assumed the director role for the Ministry of Education’s Steering Committee for Innovation and Entrepreneurship. Through collaborations with relevant government agencies and enterprises, T-University has continued its efforts to reform and advance innovation and EE, establishing multiple joint laboratories to put theory into practice.

Startup service

In terms of entrepreneurial services, T-University has focused on the employment guidance center and the science and technology Park, working closely with the local industrial and commercial bureaus in the campus area to provide centralized entrepreneurial services. Through entities such as the Shanghai Municipal College Entrepreneurship Guidance Station, entrepreneurship seedling gardens, the science and technology park, and off-campus bases such as the entrepreneurship valley, the university has established a full-cycle service system that is tailored to students’ innovative and entrepreneurial activities, providing continuous professional guidance and support from the early startup stage to maturity.

Notably, the T-University Science and Technology Park has set up nine professional incubation service platforms that cover investment and financing, human resources, entrepreneurship training, project declaration, financial services, professional intermediaries, market promotion, advanced assessment, and the labor union. Moreover, the Technology Park has established a corporate service mechanism for liaison officers, counselors, and entrepreneurship mentors to ensure that enterprises receive comprehensive support and guidance. Through these services, T-University has successfully cultivated numerous high-tech backbone enterprises, such as New Vision Healthcare, Zhong Hui Ecology, Tongjie Technology, Tonglei Civil Engineering, and Tongchen Environmental Protection, which indicates the positive effect of these entrepreneurial services.

T-University places significant emphasis on fostering the entrepreneurial climate, which is effectively nurtured through the T-Rim Knowledge-Based Economic Circle and on-campus entrepreneurship activities. Moreover, T-University is dedicated to establishing and cultivating a dynamic T-Rim Knowledge-Based Economic Circle in strategic alignment with the district government and key agencies. This innovative ecosystem strategically centers around three prominent industrial clusters: the creative and design industry, the international engineering consulting services industry, and the new energy/materials and environmental technology industry. These industrial clusters provide fertile ground for graduates’ employment and entrepreneurial pursuits and have yielded remarkable economic outputs. In 2020, the combined value of these clusters surged to a staggering RMB 50 billion, with 80% of entrepreneurs being teachers, students, or alumni from T-University.

This commitment has led to the establishment of an intricate design industry chain featuring architectural design and urban planning design; it also supports services in automobile design, landscape design, software design, environmental engineering design, art media design, and associated services such as graphic production, architectural modeling, and engineering consulting.

The EE system at T-University

T-University has undertaken a comprehensive series of initiatives to promote EE, focusing on four key aspects: entrepreneurial learning, entrepreneurial practice, startup service, and the entrepreneurial climate. As of the end of 2021, the National Technology Park at T-University has cumulatively supported more than 3000 enterprises. Notably, the park has played a pivotal role in assisting more than 300 enterprises established by college students.

In its commitment to EE, the university maintains an open approach to engaging with society. Simultaneously, it integrates innovative elements such as technology, information, and talent to facilitate students’ entrepreneurial endeavors. Through the synergy between the university, government entities, and the market, EE cultivates a cadre of entrepreneurial talent. The convergence of these talents culminates in the formation of an innovative and creative industry cluster within the region, representing the tangible outcome of the university’s “disciplinary chain—technology chain—industry chain” approach to EE. This approach has gradually evolved into the innovative ecosystem of the T-Rim Knowledge-Based Economic Circle.

Findings and discussion

Unified macroscopic objectives of ee.

To date, a widespread consensus on defining EE in practical terms has yet to be achieved (Mwasalwiba, 2010 ; Nabi et al., 2017 ). Entrepreneurial education should strive towards a common direction, which is reflected in the agreement on educational objectives and recommended teaching methods(Aparicio et al., 2019 ). Mason and Arshed ( 2013 ) criticized that entrepreneurial education should teach about entrepreneurship rather than for entrepreneurship. Therefore, EE should not only focus on singular outcome-oriented aspects but also emphasize the cultivation of fundamental aspects such as cognition, abilities, attitudes, and skills.

This study embarks on a synthesis of the EE-related literature, integrating educational objective theory, planned behavior theory, and entrepreneurial process theory. The 4H model of EE objectives, which consists of basic and outcome levels, is proposed. This model aims to comprehensively capture the core elements of EE, addressing both students’ performance in entrepreneurial outcomes and their development of various aspects of foundational cognitive attributes and skills.

The basic level of the EE objective model includes the 4Hs, namely Head (mindset), Hand (skill), Heart (attitude), and Help (support). First, Head has stood out as a prominent learning outcome within EE over the past decade (Fretschner & Lampe, 2019 ). Attention given to the “Head” aspect not only highlights the development of individuals recognized as “entrepreneurs” (Mitra, 2017 ) but also underscores its role in complementing the acquisition of skills and practical knowledge necessary for initiating new ventures and leading more productive lives (Neck & Corbett, 2018 ).

Second, the Hand aspect also constitutes a significant developmental goal and learning outcome of EE. The trajectory of EE is evolving towards a focus on entrepreneurial aspects, and the learning outcomes equip students with skills relevant to entrepreneurship (Wong & Chan, 2022 ). Higher education institutions should go beyond fundamental principles associated with knowledge and actively cultivate students’ entrepreneurial skills and spirit.

Third, Heart represents EE objectives that are related to students’ psychological aspects, as students’ emotions, attitudes, and other affective factors impact their perception of entrepreneurship (Cao, 2021 ). Moreover, the ultimate goal of EE is to instill an entrepreneurial attitude and pave the way for future success as entrepreneurs in establishing new businesses and fostering job creation (Kusumojanto et al., 2021 ). Thus, the cultivation of this mindset is not only linked to the understanding of entrepreneurship but also intricately tied to the aspiration for personal fulfillment (Yang, 2013 ).

Fourth, entrepreneurship support (Help) embodies the goal of providing essential resource support to students to establish a robust foundation for their entrepreneurial endeavors. The establishment of a comprehensive support system is paramount for EE in universities. This establishment encompasses the meticulous design of the curriculum, the development of training bases, and the cultivation of teacher resources (Xu, 2017 ). A well-structured support system is crucial for equipping students with the necessary knowledge and skills to successfully navigate the complexities of entrepreneurship (Greene & Saridakis, 2008 ).

The outcome level of the EE objective model encompasses entrepreneurial intention and entrepreneurial performance, topics that have been extensively discussed in the previous literature. Entrepreneurial intention refers to individuals’ subjective willingness and plans for entrepreneurial behavior (Wong & Chan, 2022 ) and represents the starting point of the entrepreneurial process. Entrepreneurial performance refers to individuals’ actual behaviors and achievements in entrepreneurial activities (Wang et al., 2021 ) and represents the ultimate manifestation of entrepreneurial goals. In summary, the proposed 4H model of the EE objectives covers fundamental attitudes, cognition, skills, support, and ultimate outcomes, thus answering the question of what EE should teach.

Specific implementable system of EE

To facilitate the realization of EE goals, this study developed a corresponding content model as an implementable system and conducted empirical research through a case university. Guided by the 4H objectives, the content model also encompasses four dimensions: entrepreneurial learning, entrepreneurial practice, startup service, and entrepreneurial climate. Through a detailed exposition of the practical methods at T-university, this study provides support for addressing the question of how to teach EE.

In the traditional EE paradigm, there is often an overreliance on the transmission of theoretical knowledge, which leads to a deficiency in students’ practical experience and capabilities (Kremel and Wetter-Edman, 2019 ). Moreover, due to the rapidly changing and dynamic nature of the environment, traditional educational methods frequently become disconnected from real-world demands. In response to these issues, the approach of “learning by doing” has emerged as a complementary and improved alternative to traditional methods (Colombelli et al., 2022 ).

The proposed content model applies the “learning by doing” approach to the construction of the EE system. For entrepreneurial learning, the university has constructed a comprehensive innovation and EE chain that encompasses courses, experimental areas, projects, competitions, practice bases, and teaching teams. For entrepreneurial practice, the university has built a high-level, integrated innovation and entrepreneurship practice platform that provides students with the opportunity to turn their ideas into actual projects. For startup services, the university has established close collaborative relationships with local governments and enterprises and has set up nine professional incubation service platforms. For the entrepreneurial climate, the university cultivated a symbiotic innovation and EE ecosystem by promoting the construction of the T-Rim Knowledge-Based Economic Circle. Through the joint efforts of multiple parties, the entrepreneurial activities of teachers, students, and alumni have become vibrant and have formed a complete design industry chain and an enterprise ecosystem that coexists with numerous SMEs.

Development of a framework based on the TH theory

Through the exploration of the interactive relationships among universities, governments, and industries, TH theory points out a development direction for solving the dilemma of EE. Through the lens of TH theory, this study developed a comprehensive framework delineating the macroscopic objectives and practical methods of EE, as depicted in Fig. 4 . In this context, EE has become a common undertaking for multiple participants. Therefore, universities can effectively leverage the featured external and internal resources, facilitating the organic integration of entrepreneurial learning, practice, services, and climate. This, in turn, will lead to better achievement of the unified goals of EE.

Practical contents and objectives based on the triple helix theory.

Numerous scholars have explored the correlation between EE and the TH theory. Zhou and Peng ( 2008 ) articulated the concept of an entrepreneurial university as “the university that strongly influences the regional development of industries as well as economic growth through high-tech entrepreneurship based on strong research, technology transfer, and entrepreneurship capability.” Moreover, Tianhao et al. ( 2020 ) emphasized the significance of fostering collaboration among industry, academia, and research as the optimal approach to enhancing the efficacy of EE. Additionally, Ribeiro et al. ( 2018 ) underscored the pivotal role of MIT’s entrepreneurial ecosystem in facilitating startup launches. They called upon educators, university administrators, and policymakers to allocate increased attention to how university ecosystems can cultivate students’ knowledge, skills, and entrepreneurial mindsets. Rather than viewing EE within the confines of universities in isolation, we advocate for establishing an integrated system that encompasses universities, government bodies, and businesses. Such a system would streamline their respective roles and ultimately bolster regional innovation and entrepreneurship efforts.

Jones et al. ( 2021 ) reported that with the widespread embrace of EE by numerous countries, the boundaries between universities and external ecosystems are becoming increasingly blurred. This convergence not only fosters a stronger entrepreneurial culture within universities but also encourages students to actively establish startups. However, these startups often face challenges related to limited value and long-term sustainability. From the perspective of TH theory, each university can cultivate an ecosystem conducive to specialized entrepreneurial activities based on its unique resources and advantages. To do so, universities should actively collaborate with local governments and industries, leveraging shared resources and support to create a more open, inclusive, and innovation-supporting ecosystem that promotes lasting reform and sustainability.

There are two main ways in which this paper contributes to the literature. First, this study applies TH theory to both theoretical and empirical research on EE in China, presenting a novel framework for the operation of EE. Previous research has applied TH theory in contexts such as India, Finland, and Russia, showcasing the unique contributions of TH in driving social innovation. This paper introduces the TH model to the Chinese context, illustrating collaborative efforts and support for EE from universities, industries, and governments through the construction of EE objectives and content models. Therefore, this paper not only extends the applicability of the TH theory globally but also provides valuable insights for EE in the Chinese context.

Second, the proposed conceptual framework clarifies the core goals and practical content of EE. By emphasizing the comprehensive cultivation of knowledge, skills, attitudes, and resources, this framework provides a concrete reference for designing EE courses, activities, and support services. Moreover, the framework underscores the importance of collaborative efforts among stakeholders, facilitating resource integration to enhance the quality and impact of EE. Overall, the conceptual framework presented in this paper serves not only as a guiding tool but also as a crucial bridge for fostering the collaborative development of the EE ecosystem.

While EE has widespread global recognition, many regions still face similar developmental challenges, such as a lack of organized objectives and content delivery methods. This article, grounded in the context of EE in Chinese higher education institutions, seeks to address the current challenges guided by TH theory. By aligning EE with socioeconomic demands and leveraging TH theory, this study offers insights into the overall goals and practical content of EE.

This study presents a 4H objective model of EE comprising two levels. The first level focuses on outcomes related to entrepreneurial behavior, including entrepreneurial intentions and performance, which highlight the practical effects of EE. The second level is built as the foundation of the outcomes and encompasses the four elements of mindset, skill, attitude, and support. This multilayered structure provides a more systematic and multidimensional consideration for the cultivation of entrepreneurial talent. The framework offers robust support for practical instructional design and goal setting. Additionally, the research extends to the corresponding content model, incorporating four elements: entrepreneurial learning, entrepreneurial practice, startup services, and the entrepreneurial climate. This content model serves as a practical instructional means to achieve EE goals, enhancing the feasibility of implementing these objectives in practice.

Moreover, this study focused on a representative Chinese university, T-University, to showcase the successful implementation of the 4H and content models. Through this case, we may observe how the university, through comprehensive development in entrepreneurial learning, practice, services, and climate, nurtured many entrepreneurs and facilitated the formation of the innovation and entrepreneurship industry cluster. This approach not only contributes to the university’s reputation and regional economic growth but also offers valuable insights for other regions seeking to advance EE.

This study has several limitations that need to be acknowledged. First, the framework proposed is still preliminary. While its application has been validated through a case study, further exploration is required to determine the detailed classification and elaboration of its constituent elements to deepen the understanding of the EE system. Second, the context of this study is specific to China, and the findings may not be directly generalizable to other regions. Future research should investigate the adaptability of the framework in various cultural and educational contexts from a broader international perspective. Finally, the use of a single-case approach limits the generalizability of the research conclusions. Subsequent studies can enhance comprehensiveness by employing a comparative or multiple-case approach to assess the framework’s reliability and robustness.

In conclusion, this study emphasizes the need to strengthen the application of TH theory in EE and advocates for the enhancement of framework robustness through multiple and comparative case studies. An increase in the quantity of evidence will not only generate greater public interest but also deepen the dynamic interactions among universities, industries, and the nation. This, in turn, may expedite the development of EE in China and foster the optimization of the national economy and the overall employment environment.

Data availability

The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are not publicly available. Making the full data set publicly available could potentially breach the privacy that was promised to participants when they agreed to take part, in particular for the individual informants who come from a small, specific population, and may breach the ethics approval for the study. The data are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

We express our sincere gratitude to all individuals who contributed to the data collection process. Furthermore, we extend our appreciation to Linlin Yang and Jinxiao Chen from Tongji University for their invaluable suggestions on the initial draft. Special thanks are also due to Prof. Yuzhuo Cai from Tampere University for his insightful contributions to this paper. Funding for this study was provided by the Chinese National Social Science Funds [BIA190205] and the Shanghai Educational Science Research General Project [C2023033].

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All the authors contributed to the study’s conception and design. Material preparation, data collection, and analysis were performed by Luning Shao, Yuxin Miao, Sanfa Cai and Fei Fan. The first Chinese outline and draft were written by Luning Shao, Yuxin Miao, and Shengce Ren. The English draft of the manuscript was prepared by Fei Fan. All the authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All the authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Shao, L., Miao, Y., Ren, S. et al. Designing a framework for entrepreneurship education in Chinese higher education: a theoretical exploration and empirical case study. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11 , 519 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03024-2

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Received : 22 May 2023

Accepted : 03 April 2024

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03024-2

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