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108 Apartheid Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

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The apartheid era in South Africa, which lasted from 1948 to 1994, was a dark period in the country's history. The policy of apartheid, meaning "separateness" in Afrikaans, enforced racial segregation and discrimination, leading to immense suffering and injustice for the non-white population. If you are tasked with writing an essay on apartheid, it can be challenging to come up with a compelling topic. To help you, we have compiled a list of 108 apartheid essay topic ideas and examples that cover various aspects of this period in history.

• The origins of apartheid: Tracing the historical roots of racial segregation in South Africa.
• The impact of apartheid on education: Analyzing the unequal educational opportunities for different racial groups.
• The role of the African National Congress (ANC) in the fight against apartheid.
• The international response to apartheid: Examining the global reaction and sanctions against South Africa.
• Apartheid in literature: Analyzing how apartheid is portrayed in South African literature.
• The psychological effects of apartheid on its victims.
• The role of women in the anti-apartheid movement.
• The impact of apartheid on sports and the sporting boycott of South Africa.
• Apartheid and religion: Exploring the role of different religious groups during this period.
• The role of music in the anti-apartheid struggle.
• The impact of apartheid on healthcare and access to medical services.
• The role of Nelson Mandela in the fight against apartheid.
• The legacy of apartheid in contemporary South Africa.
• Apartheid and the media: Examining the role of the media during this period.
• The economic impact of apartheid on different racial groups.
• Apartheid and forced removals: Analyzing the forced displacement of non-white populations.
• The role of international organizations in the fight against apartheid.
• Apartheid and the criminal justice system: Analyzing racial bias in the legal system.
• Apartheid and the environment: Examining the impact of discriminatory policies on the natural world.
• Apartheid and the arts: Exploring how apartheid influenced South African art, film, and theater.
• Apartheid and the role of education in social change.
• The impact of apartheid on mental health and well-being.
• Apartheid and the role of youth in the anti-apartheid struggle.
• The role of white South Africans in the fight against apartheid.
• Apartheid and the Truth and Reconciliation Commission: Analyzing the process of healing and reconciliation.
• The impact of apartheid on family structures and dynamics.
• Apartheid and language: Examining the effects of language policies on different racial groups.
• The role of international solidarity movements in supporting the anti-apartheid struggle.
• Apartheid and the labor movement: Analyzing the role of trade unions during this period.
• Apartheid and the role of the church in social change.
• The impact of apartheid on cultural heritage and identity.
• Apartheid and the role of women in the workforce.
• Apartheid and the role of education in perpetuating or challenging racial inequality.
• The impact of apartheid on land ownership and redistribution.
• Apartheid and resistance: Exploring different forms of resistance to racial segregation.
• Apartheid and the role of the police and security forces.
• Apartheid and the role of the judiciary in upholding discriminatory laws.
• The impact of apartheid on interracial relationships and marriage.
• Apartheid in education: Analyzing the Bantu Education Act and its consequences.
• Apartheid and the role of the international business community.
• The impact of apartheid on the LGBTQ+ community.
• Apartheid and the role of tribal authorities in enforcing racial segregation.
• Apartheid and the role of propaganda in shaping public opinion.
• The impact of apartheid on the economy: Analyzing the effects of discriminatory policies on economic development.
• Apartheid and the role of non-violent resistance in the anti-apartheid struggle.
• Apartheid and the role of the media in promoting racial stereotypes.
• The impact of apartheid on cultural production and artistic expression.
• Apartheid and the role of international diplomacy in ending racial segregation.
• Apartheid and the role of white privilege in perpetuating racial inequality.
• The impact of apartheid on the healthcare system: Analyzing disparities in access to medical services.
• Apartheid and the role of education in shaping racial attitudes and prejudices.
• Apartheid and the role of the military in enforcing racial segregation.
• The impact of apartheid on the mental health of both oppressors and the oppressed.
• Apartheid and the role of NGOs in supporting the anti-apartheid struggle.
• Apartheid and the role of the United Nations in addressing racial discrimination.
• The impact of apartheid on urban planning and spatial segregation.
• Apartheid and the role of music as a form of protest and resistance.
• Apartheid and the role of international boycotts in pressuring the South African government.
• The impact of apartheid on the environment: Analyzing the effects of discriminatory policies on ecosystems.
• Apartheid and the role of education in promoting tolerance and understanding.
• Apartheid and the role of popular culture in challenging racial stereotypes.
• The impact of apartheid on the agricultural sector: Analyzing disparities in land ownership and farming practices.
• Apartheid and the role of student movements in the anti-apartheid struggle.
• Apartheid and the role of white South Africans in reconciliation and nation-building.
• The impact of apartheid on family structures and dynamics within different racial groups.
• Apartheid and the role of international aid organizations in supporting marginalized communities.
• Apartheid and the role of the judiciary in challenging discriminatory laws.
• The impact of apartheid on interracial adoption and foster care.
• Apartheid and the role of social media in mobilizing resistance and raising awareness.
• Apartheid and the role of cultural exchange programs in promoting understanding and empathy.
• The impact of apartheid on the tourism industry: Analyzing the effects of racial segregation on travel and hospitality.
• Apartheid and the role of education in fostering social cohesion and unity.
• Apartheid and the role of the military-industrial complex in enforcing racial segregation.
• The impact of apartheid on the psychological well-being of different racial groups.
• Apartheid and the role of religious institutions in promoting racial reconciliation.
• Apartheid and the role of NGOs in supporting victims of human rights abuses.
• The impact of apartheid on transportation and infrastructure development.
• Apartheid and the role of theater and performance art in challenging racial discrimination.
• Apartheid and the role of international sporting events in pressuring the South African government.
• The impact of apartheid on natural resources: Analyzing the effects of discriminatory policies on environmental degradation.
• Apartheid and the role of education in promoting empathy and understanding.
• Apartheid and the role of cultural festivals in celebrating diversity and challenging racial stereotypes.
• The impact of apartheid on the mining industry: Analyzing disparities in labor conditions and wages.
• Apartheid and the role of student activism in promoting social justice.
• Apartheid and the role of civil society organizations in advocating for human rights.
• The impact of apartheid on transportation systems and access to public services.
• Apartheid and the role of photography in documenting racial discrimination.
• Apartheid and the role of international academic exchanges in promoting cross-cultural understanding.
• The impact of apartheid on the hospitality industry: Analyzing disparities in access to hotels and restaurants.
• Apartheid and the role of education in fostering inclusivity and equality.
• Apartheid and the role of cultural institutions in preserving and promoting marginalized histories.
• The impact of apartheid on the manufacturing sector: Analyzing disparities in employment and working conditions.
• Apartheid and the role of youth activism in promoting social change.
• Apartheid and the role of grassroots movements in challenging racial discrimination.
• The impact of apartheid on energy resources: Analyzing the effects of discriminatory policies on energy production and consumption.
• Apartheid and the role of education in promoting critical thinking and challenging prejudice.
• Apartheid and the role of community-based organizations in supporting marginalized communities.
• The impact of apartheid on urban development and housing policies.
• Apartheid and the role of visual arts in challenging racial stereotypes.
• Apartheid and the role of international cultural exchanges in promoting understanding and dialogue.
• The impact of apartheid on the construction industry: Analyzing disparities in employment and working conditions.
• Apartheid and the role of youth empowerment programs in promoting social justice.
• Apartheid and the role of women's organizations in advocating for gender equality and racial justice.
• The impact of apartheid on water resources: Analyzing the effects of discriminatory policies on water access and management.
• Apartheid and the role of education in promoting empathy and compassion.
• Apartheid and the role of community radio stations in amplifying marginalized voices.
• The impact of apartheid on the retail sector: Analyzing disparities in ownership and consumer access.
• Apartheid and the role of cultural diversity training in fostering inclusivity and understanding.

These essay topic ideas and examples provide a diverse range of perspectives on apartheid, allowing you to choose a topic that aligns with your interests and research goals. Remember to critically analyze sources, examine primary documents, and consider multiple viewpoints to develop a well-rounded and comprehensive essay on this significant period in South African history.

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Understanding South Africa's Apartheid Era

Common Questions About South Africa's Racial Segregation

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During most of the 20th century, South Africa was ruled by a system called Apartheid, an Afrikaans word meaning 'apartness,' which was based on a system of racial segregation and justified by white supremacist ideology. 

When Did Apartheid Start?

The term Apartheid was introduced during the 1948 election campaign by DF Malan's  Herenigde Nasionale Party  (HNP - 'Reunited National Party'). But racial segregation had been in force for many decades in South Africa. In hindsight, there is something of an inevitability in the way the country developed its extreme policies. When the  Union of South Africa  was formed on May 31, 1910, Afrikaner Nationalists were given a relatively free hand to reorganize the country's franchise according to existing standards of the now-incorporated Boer republics, the  Zuid Afrikaansche Repulick  (ZAR - South African Republic or Transvaal) and Orange Free State. Non-whites in the Cape Colony had some representation, but this would prove to be short-lived.

How did this system of white supremacy come to be in what is, essentially, a Black country with a majority Black population? The answer lies in centuries of violence, colonization, and slavery, inflicted by white Europeans since the 1600s. Over the course of centuries, European settlers (mostly Dutch and British) seized South African resources and brutally used systems of state-sanctioned segregation and violence to suppress the existing South African population, whose tribes had lived on the land for thousands of years. Treaties made with local tribes were cast aside by the European settlers as soon as they were no longer convenient, land was seized under the claim of being "empty" when it was in fact home to Black Africans, resources were likewise seized and exploited, and local populations that resisted were met with violence, enslavement, or outright genocide. By the time apartheid systems were given a name, the foundations had been laid for hundreds of years.

Who Supported Apartheid?

The Apartheid policy was supported in South Africa by various Afrikaans newspapers and Afrikaner 'cultural movements' such as the  Afrikaner Broederbond  and Ossewabrandwag.

Outside the borders, the entire European/Western world either implicitly or explicitly supported the policy, having an economic and ideological stake in South Africa. The country was important for resources like gold and coal, as well as serving as a market for goods manufactured in the West. During an age where Western countries were prioritizing anti-communist strategies, South Africa also was considered of strategic value and too important to "lose" to communist powers. The apartheid government, of course, leaned into all of that in order to ensure that any anti-apartheid movements, at home or abroad, did not have enough support to succeed.

How Did the Apartheid Government Come to Power?

The United Party actually gained the majority of votes in the 1948 general election. But due to the manipulation of the geographical boundaries of the country's constituencies before the election, the Herenigde Nasionale Party managed to win the majority of constituencies, thereby winning the election. In 1951, the HNP and Afrikaner Party officially merged to form the National Party, which became synonymous with Apartheid.

South Africa's system of government was implemented by British Parliament under the South Africa Act of 1909. Under this system, a parliamentary system similar to Britain's was instituted, but the right to vote was almost completely restricted to white men; in most areas, Black people could not vote, and they were barred from being elected to parliament. As a result of this deliberate exclusion of the Black majority, elections - like the election of 1948 - only reflected the interests of the white minority.

What Were the Foundations of Apartheid?

Over the decades, various forms of legislation were introduced which extended the existing segregation against Black people, Indian people, and other non-white communities. The most significant acts were the  Group Areas Act No 41 of 1950 , which led to over three million people being relocated through forced removals; the Suppression of Communism Act No 44 of 1950, which was so broadly worded that almost any dissident group could be 'banned;' the Bantu Authorities Act No 68 of 1951, which led to the creation of Bantustans (and ultimately 'independent' homelands); and the  Natives (Abolition of Passes and Co-ordination of Documents) Act No 67 of 1952 , which, despite its title, led to the rigid application of Pass Laws.

What Was Grand Apartheid?

During the 1960s, severe racial discrimination applied to most aspects of life in South Africa and Bantustans were created for Blacks. The system had evolved into 'Grand Apartheid.' The country was rocked by the  Sharpeville Massacre , the African National Congress (ANC) and Pan Africanist Congress (PAC) were banned. Eventually, British opposition to Apartheid played a significant role in South Africa's withdrawal from the British Commonwealth; it declared itself a Republic.

Apartheid functioned as something akin to genocide, if more indirect, in South Africa during this time. The intense racial discrimination meant restricting Black people's access to healthcare, quality food, safe homes, and other human rights that keep people alive. South Africa, of course, was not the only country to codify severe racism into law: during the same era, Jim Crow laws and Black Codes in the United States served the similar purpose of restricting the quality of life and even necessities of life in order to force Black people into a legal, political, economic, and social under-class.

What Happened in the 1970s and 1980s?

During the 1970s and 80s, Apartheid was reinvented—a result of increasing internal and international pressures and worsening economic difficulties. Black youth was exposed to increasing politicization and found expression against 'Bantu education' through the  1976 Soweto Uprising .

Anti-apartheid activists and Black political leaders were targeted, imprisoned, and even outright assassinated. Afrikaner police admitted to killing activist Steve Biko, the government imprisoned Nelson Mandela for nearly 30 years for condemning apartheid, Winnie Mandela was tortured in a South African prison, and the list goes on and on. In short, the South African state did its best to eliminate any Black people who challenged its authority and fought against apartheid.

When Did Apartheid End?

In February 1990, President FW de Klerk announced Nelson Mandela 's release and began the slow dismantling of the Apartheid system. In 1992, a whites-only referendum approved the reform process. In 1994, the first democratic elections were held in South Africa, with people of all races being able to vote. A Government of National Unity was formed, with Nelson Mandela as president and FW de Klerk and Thabo Mbeki as deputy presidents.

• The End of South African Apartheid
• A Brief History of South African Apartheid
• What Was Apartheid in South Africa?
• Apartheid Era Signs - Racial Segregation in South Africa
• Apartheid 101
• The Origins of Apartheid in South Africa
• What Is a Literacy Test?
• Grand Apartheid in South Africa
• Nelson Mandela
• Biography of Nontsikelelo Albertina Sisulu, South African Activist
• Biography of Walter Max Ulyate Sisulu, Anti-Apartheid Activist
• Geography and History of South Africa
• Biography: Joe Slovo
• The Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act
• Quotes From PW Botha, Prime Minister of South Africa

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By: History.com Editors

Updated: April 20, 2023 | Original: October 7, 2010

Apartheid, or “apartness” in the language of Afrikaans, was a system of legislation that upheld segregation against non-white citizens of South Africa. After the National Party gained power in South Africa in 1948, its all-white government immediately began enforcing existing policies of racial segregation. Under apartheid, nonwhite South Africans—a majority of the population—were forced to live in separate areas from whites and use separate public facilities. Contact between the two groups was limited. Despite strong and consistent opposition to apartheid within and outside of South Africa, its laws remained in effect for the better part of 50 years. In 1991, the government of President F.W. de Klerk began to repeal most of the legislation that provided the basis for apartheid.

Apartheid in South Africa

Racial segregation and white supremacy had become central aspects of South African policy long before apartheid began. The controversial 1913 Land Act , passed three years after South Africa gained its independence, marked the beginning of territorial segregation by forcing Black Africans to live in reserves and making it illegal for them to work as sharecroppers. Opponents of the Land Act formed the South African National Native Congress, which would become the African National Congress (ANC).

Did you know? ANC leader Nelson Mandela, released from prison in February 1990, worked closely with President F.W. de Klerk's government to draw up a new constitution for South Africa. After both sides made concessions, they reached agreement in 1993, and would share the Nobel Peace Prize that year for their efforts.

The Great Depression and World War II brought increasing economic woes to South Africa, and convinced the government to strengthen its policies of racial segregation. In 1948, the Afrikaner National Party won the general election under the slogan “apartheid” (literally “apartness”). Their goal was not only to separate South Africa’s white minority from its non-white majority, but also to separate non-whites from each other, and to divide Black South Africans along tribal lines in order to decrease their political power.

Apartheid Becomes Law

By 1950, the government had banned marriages between whites and people of other races, and prohibited sexual relations between Black and white South Africans. The Population Registration Act of 1950 provided the basic framework for apartheid by classifying all South Africans by race, including Bantu (Black Africans), Coloured (mixed race) and white.

A fourth category, Asian (meaning Indian and Pakistani) was later added. In some cases, the legislation split families; a parent could be classified as white, while their children were classified as colored.

A series of Land Acts set aside more than 80 percent of the country’s land for the white minority, and “pass laws” required non-whites to carry documents authorizing their presence in restricted areas.

In order to limit contact between the races, the government established separate public facilities for whites and non-whites, limited the activity of nonwhite labor unions and denied non-white participation in national government.

Apartheid and Separate Development

Hendrik Verwoerd , who became prime minister in 1958, refined apartheid policy further into a system he referred to as “separate development.” The Promotion of Bantu Self-Government Act of 1959 created 10 Bantu homelands known as Bantustans. Separating Black South Africans from each other enabled the government to claim there was no Black majority and reduced the possibility that Black people would unify into one nationalist organization.

Every Black South African was designated as a citizen as one of the Bantustans, a system that supposedly gave them full political rights, but effectively removed them from the nation’s political body.

In one of the most devastating aspects of apartheid, the government forcibly removed Black South Africans from rural areas designated as “white” to the homelands and sold their land at low prices to white farmers. From 1961 to 1994, more than 3.5 million people were forcibly removed from their homes and deposited in the Bantustans, where they were plunged into poverty and hopelessness.

Opposition to Apartheid

Resistance to apartheid within South Africa took many forms over the years, from non-violent demonstrations, protests and strikes to political action and eventually to armed resistance.

Together with the South Indian National Congress, the ANC organized a mass meeting in 1952, during which attendees burned their pass books. A group calling itself the Congress of the People adopted a Freedom Charter in 1955 asserting that “South Africa belongs to all who live in it, Black or white.” The government broke up the meeting and arrested 150 people, charging them with high treason.

Sharpeville Massacre

In 1960, at the Black township of Sharpeville, the police opened fire on a group of unarmed Black people associated with the Pan-African Congress (PAC), an offshoot of the ANC. The group had arrived at the police station without passes, inviting arrest as an act of resistance. At least 67 people were killed and more than 180 wounded.

The Sharpeville massacre convinced many anti-apartheid leaders that they could not achieve their objectives by peaceful means, and both the PAC and ANC established military wings, neither of which ever posed a serious military threat to the state.

Nelson Mandela

By 1961, most resistance leaders had been captured and sentenced to long prison terms or executed. Nelson Mandela , a founder of Umkhonto we Sizwe (“Spear of the Nation”), the military wing of the ANC, was incarcerated from 1963 to 1990; his imprisonment would draw international attention and help garner support for the anti-apartheid cause.

On June 10, 1980, his followers smuggled a letter from Mandela in prison and made it public: “UNITE! MOBILIZE! FIGHT ON! BETWEEN THE ANVIL OF UNITED MASS ACTION AND THE HAMMER OF THE ARMED STRUGGLE WE SHALL CRUSH APARTHEID!”

President F.W. de Klerk

In 1976, when thousands of Black children in Soweto, a Black township outside Johannesburg, demonstrated against the Afrikaans language requirement for Black African students, the police opened fire with tear gas and bullets.

The protests and government crackdowns that followed, combined with a national economic recession, drew more international attention to South Africa and shattered any remaining illusions that apartheid had brought peace or prosperity to the nation.

The United Nations General Assembly had denounced apartheid in 1973, and in 1976 the UN Security Council voted to impose a mandatory embargo on the sale of arms to South Africa. In 1985, the United Kingdom and United States imposed economic sanctions on the country.

Under pressure from the international community, the National Party government of Pieter Botha sought to institute some reforms, including abolition of the pass laws and the ban on interracial sex and marriage. The reforms fell short of any substantive change, however, and by 1989 Botha was pressured to step aside in favor of another conservative president, F.W. de Klerk, who had supported apartheid throughout his political career.

When Did Apartheid End?

Though a conservative, De Klerk underwent a conversion to a more pragmatic political philosophy, and his government subsequently repealed the Population Registration Act, as well as most of the other legislation that formed the legal basis for apartheid. De Klerk freed Nelson Mandela on February 11, 1990.

A new constitution, which enfranchised Black citizens and other racial groups, took effect in 1994, and elections that year led to a coalition government with a nonwhite majority, marking the official end of the apartheid system.

The End of Apartheid. Archive: U.S. Department of State . A History of Apartheid in South Africa. South African History Online . South Africa: Twenty-Five Years Since Apartheid. The Ohio State University: Stanton Foundation . 

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The Struggle against Apartheid: Lessons for Today's World

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The United Nations has been concerned with the issue of racial discrimination since its inception. The UN General Assembly adopted on 19 November 1946 during its first session a resolution declaring that "it is in the higher interests of humanity to put an immediate end to religious and so-called racial persecution and discrimination", and calling on "Governments and responsible authorities to conform both to the letter and to the spirit of the Charter of the United Nations, and to take the most prompt and energetic steps to that end". Racial discrimination became one of the main items on the United Nations agenda after African nations attained independence and after the Sharpeville massacre in South Africa on 21 March 1960 sensitized world opinion to the perils of apartheid and racial discrimination. In 1963, the Assembly adopted the Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, which led to the International Convention in 1965. It proclaimed the International Year for Action to Combat Racial Discrimination in 1971 and the three Decades for Action to Combat Racism and Racial Discrimination, starting in 1973, as well as the International Year of Mobilization against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance in 2001. The United Nations also organized two world conferences against racial discrimination, more recently the 2001 World Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance, in Durban, South Africa. The General Assembly, the Economic and Social Council and the Commission on Human Rights have devoted thousands of meetings to the discussions on racial discrimination and adopted hundreds of resolutions. Other UN agencies, notably the International Labour Organization (ILO) and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), have made significant contributions to the common effort. Racial discrimination is now being condemned by all Governments, and racially discriminatory legislation has been abrogated by most Member States. The Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, a body of independent experts monitoring the implementation of the International Convention, has had some success in persuading Governments to take further action. The progress made by these efforts should not be minimized. Yet, the Durban Conference pointed out with grave concern that, despite all the efforts of the international community, countless human beings continued to be victims of racial discrimination. New developments worldwide, such as the greatly increased migration, have led to a resurgence of manifestations of racism. Xenophobia has also caused violent conflicts and even genocide. Why is it that the international community, which achieved remarkable success in dealing with apartheid in South Africa, has been as yet unsuccessful in eliminating racial discrimination from Earth? And are there any further lessons to be learned from the struggle against apartheid? It must be recognized at the outset that apartheid was a unique case of blatant racism. The National Party, which came to power in South Africa in 1948, made apartheid a State policy and espoused the vicious ideology that people of different racial origins could not live together in equality and harmony. Successive Governments reinforced the legacy of racist oppression against the non-white people-the indigenous Africans, people of Asian origin and of mixed descent -- who constitute over 80 per cent of the population. National liberation rather than human rights became the objective of the struggle against racist tyranny.Apartheid was an affront to the nations of Africa and Asia that were emerging into independence from colonial rule. They demanded that the United Nations consider the grave situation in South Africa as a threat to international peace and to take effective measures, including sanctions, for the liberation of the South African people. They received support from ever-increasing majorities in the United Nations. The liberation of South Africa from racist tyranny and the national reconciliation that followed were the result of the struggle of the South African people and the international action promoted by the United Nations for almost half a century. While the minority racist regime was replaced by a non-racial democratic Government, and the main racist laws abrogated in the process, the task of eliminating the vestiges of apartheid and its effects was left to the new Government. At present, no government espouses racism, and the problem is not the enactment of new racist laws. The victims of oppression and racial discrimination are generally minorities or non-citizens. Racial discrimination in individual countries is seen in terms of human rights rather than as a threat to the peace. While United Nations declarations and resolutions have been adopted with unanimous support, a number of Governments have not shown the political will to combat age-old prejudices, traditional or customary inequities, or even violence against oppressed communities. Politicians and political parties incite racial hostility, while public authorities and local officials ignore national legislation on racial equality. The oppressed communities continue to have little representation in police forces, the judiciary, the legislatures and other decision-making bodies. Governments are reluctant to complain about racial discrimination in other countries unless their own nationals are victimized. Hence, racist oppression in individual countries rarely appears on the agenda of major United Nations organs. In the 1960s, when there was a deadlock on sanctions against South Africa because of the opposition of its trading partners, the United Nations launched an international campaign against apartheid to encourage committed Governments, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and individuals to implement a wide range of measures to isolate the South African regime and its supporters and assist the freedom movement. Writers, artists, musicians and athletes, among others, were mobilized in support of the freedom movement, whose representatives were given observer status in the United Nations and participated in decision-making. The campaign eventually helped to persuade the major trading partners to impose an arms embargo and take other measures. It may be that the experience of that campaign can be emulated in some ways in the struggle against racial discrimination. If the constraints of the United Nations as an organization of Governments prove a hurdle, the initiative may perhaps be taken by individual Governments that recognize the grave dangers of racial discrimination and related ills. With their support, NGOs could launch an effective campaign, set up structures to monitor constantly all developments concerning racial discrimination and violence, and expose those who profit from or incite racism. A worldwide campaign can help the United Nations to find ways to consider the situation in individual countries and take more effective actions than mere appeals. If complaints of violations of trade union rights can be considered by the ILO and the UN Economic and Social Council, there is no reason why the denial of rights of communities subjected to racial discrimination cannot be considered without any formal complaint by Member States.The Commission on Human Rights, responding to suggestions by African countries and other States, has taken the initiative to prepare studies on discrimination against people of African origin, which concerns a number of States. It is perhaps timely for African, Caribbean and other States to call for effective procedures for action, as in the case of apartheid. It may be recalled that meaningful action followed the establishment of the Special Committee against Apartheid, with a mandate to promote international action and report, with recommendations, to the General Assembly and the Security Council. The experience of the Ad Hoc Working Group of experts, set up by the Commission to investigate and report on human rights violations in southern Africa, may also be an example in considering action on the plight of Roma and immigrants. During the struggle against apartheid, the Special Committee found it essential to promote the establishment of funds and agencies outside the United Nations, with the assistance of committed Governments and NGOs, to supplement and support UN action, as they were able to do what UN organs could not. That experience may also have lessons for the present, as the following illustrate: the International Defence and Aid Fund for Southern Africa, which provided legal assistance to political prisoners and maintenance for their families in need, resorting to secret channels when the South African Government banned the Fund; the World Campaign against Military and Nuclear Collaboration with South Africa, whose support was crucial in the implementation of the arms embargo against that country, as the Security Council Committee received no information from Governments on violations; and the Shipping Research Bureau (Shirebu), which helped greatly in monitoring the implementation of UN recommendations on the oil embargo. The Association of West European Parliamentarians against Apartheid and the NGO Sub-Committee against Colonialism, Apartheid and Racial Discrimination also made significant contributions. The elimination of racial discrimination, entrenched for centuries and reinforced by some recent developments, is not an easy task. It needs perseverance and determination, building on past achievements and developing new strategies as necessary. There must be a sense of urgency. The example of struggle against apartheid remains an inspiration for such an effort.

The UN Chronicle  is not an official record. It is privileged to host senior United Nations officials as well as distinguished contributors from outside the United Nations system whose views are not necessarily those of the United Nations. Similarly, the boundaries and names shown, and the designations used, in maps or articles do not necessarily imply endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.

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World History Project - 1750 to the Present

Course: world history project - 1750 to the present   >   unit 8.

• READ: End of Old Regimes
• BEFORE YOU WATCH: Decolonization and Nationalism Triumphant
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• READ: And Then Gandhi Came — Nationalism, Revolution, and Sovereignty
• READ: Decolonizing Women
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• WATCH: Chinese Communist Revolution
• BEFORE YOU WATCH: Resisting Colonialism — Through a Ghanaian Lens
• WATCH: Resisting Colonialism - Through a Ghanaian Lens

READ: Apartheid

• End of Empire

First read: preview and skimming for gist

Second read: key ideas and understanding content.

• What was apartheid?
• What were some apartheid laws and policies?
• In what ways does the author argue that apartheid was like Jim Crow in the US South?
• What did the Freedom Charter call for?
• How did the struggle against apartheid get caught up in the Cold War?
• What happened in 1976, in Soweto, that was so important?
• What kinds of international response did protests like these create?

Third read: evaluating and corroborating

• The end of apartheid was a group effort. What changes in “community” within South Africa helped end apartheid. What actions of global “networks” helped end the racist system? Why is it useful to view this important change through both frames?
• This article highlights the communities and networks that resisted apartheid. Can you explain any ways that global and local production and distribution were helpful in ending the system?

What is apartheid?

• Classifying all South Africans into racial categories: "white," "black," and "colored" (mixed race).
• Making it illegal for people to marry across those categories, or even to have sexual relations.
• Mandating segregation (separation of races) in schools and all public facilities.
• Moving all black South Africans into small areas referred to as "homelands" or Bantustans. In total, 30 million black South Africans—over 70 percent of the population—were moved onto 13 percent of South Africa's land.
• Restricting freedom of movement, requiring black South Africans to always carry a "pass book" showing their assigned race and "homeland." Being outside of one's "homeland" was cause for arrest.
• Forbidding black South Africans from owning land outside of the Bantustans.
• Forbidding black labor unions from striking.
• Making it illegal to protest, or to gather in groups large enough to start a protest.
• Denying black people the right to vote, except for local authorities in their Bantustans.

The anti-apartheid movement

A global response.

• Afrikaans is one of the official languages of South Africa. This language evolved from the Dutch, who settled in the area in the seventeenth century.
• Townships in South Africa are sections within urban areas that are usually underdeveloped and non-white.

Want to join the conversation?

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College Minor: Everything You Need to Know

14 fascinating teacher interview questions for principals, tips for success if you have a master’s degree and can’t find a job, 14 ways young teachers can get that professional look, which teacher supplies are worth the splurge, 8 business books every teacher should read, conditional admission: everything you need to know, college majors: everything you need to know, 7 things principals can do to make a teacher observation valuable, 3 easy teacher outfits to tackle parent-teacher conferences, apartheid essay topics.

Apartheid Essay Titles

• Apartheid: Nelson Mandela and Politically-Sanctioned Racial Segregation Freedom Development
• Apartheid, Racial Isolation, and White Control
• Labour Business Sectors During Politically-Sanctioned Racial Segregation in South Africa
• South African Politically-Sanctioned Racial Segregation: Political Resistance Missions against the Government
• Comparing the Israeli Struggle with Palestine toward the South African Politically-Sanctioned Racial Segregation
• Education and Distance Schooling in Politically-Sanctioned Racial Segregation South Africa
• South Africa and Politically-Sanctioned Racial Segregation: Have the Impacts of Politically-Sanctioned Racial Segregation Vanished
• Apartheid: Hypothesis and Work During the Politically-Sanctioned Racial Segregation Period
• Apartheid and Its Verifiable Foundation in South Africa
• Apartheid and Its Impacts on Society
• Describing and Deteriorating Post-Politically-Sanctioned Racial Segregation Pay Imbalance in South Africa
• American Politically-Sanctioned Racial Segregation: Isolation and the Creation of the Underclass
• How the Progress from Politically-Sanctioned Racial Segregation to a Majority Rule Government Was Made Due
• Apartheid and the Arrangement of Politically-Sanctioned Racial Segregation in South Africa
• Colonial Rule, Politically-Sanctioned Racial Segregation and Normal Assets: Top Livelihoods in South Africa, 1903-2007
• Racism, Subjection, and the Politically-Sanctioned Racial Segregation of South Africa
• International Authorizations and Politically-Sanctioned Racial Segregation Monetary Limitations and the Reaction of the Public Authority
• Victorian Anthropological Hypotheses Repeated by the Politically-Sanctioned Racial Segregation of South Africa
• The Financial and Social Effects of Politically-Sanctioned Racial Segregation in Africa
• African Politically-Sanctioned Racial Segregation and Its Verifiable and Hypothetical Setting

Fascinating Topics to Write About Apartheid

• The Elements That Finished Politically-Sanctioned Racial Segregation Up in 1994
• Apartheid and Post-Politically-Sanctioned Racial Segregation South Africa
• After Politically-Sanctioned Racial Segregation: the Impacts of ANC Power
• Apartheid and the Battles in Existence of the Individuals of Colour
• The History and Laws of Politically-Sanctioned Racial Segregation in South Africa
• The Different Changes That the Politically-Sanctioned Racial Segregation Got South Africa
• South Africa’s Wrongdoing Expands Since Politically-Sanctioned Racial Segregation Finishing
• Apartheid End and the Pretended by Gatherings
• The Connection between Private Enterprise, Subjugation, Imperialism, and Politically-Sanctioned Racial Segregation
• Life After Politically-Sanctioned Racial Segregation South African Ladies
• Defiance of Politically-Sanctioned Racial Segregation Political Strategy of Racial Isolation
• Reasons Behind the Consummation of the Politically-Sanctioned Racial Segregation
• Police Terrorizing During the Politically-Sanctioned Racial Segregation
• The South African Conspiracy Preliminary and the Impact on Politically-Sanctioned Racial Segregation’s Prosperity
• How Effective Were the Techniques Used to Battle Politically-Sanctioned Racial Segregation in South Africa
• South Africa During and After the Politically-Sanctioned Racial Segregation
• Africans’ Lives Under Politically-Sanctioned Racial Segregation
• Apartheid: Precise and Aim Mistreatment
• The Church’s Battle against Politically-Sanctioned Racial Segregation

19 Ways to Support Students Who Exhibit ...

Aztec essay topics.

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Home — Essay Samples — History — Contemporary History — Apartheid

Essays on Apartheid

Choosing apartheid essay topics.

When it comes to writing an essay on Apartheid, choosing the right topic is crucial. Apartheid was a dark period in South Africa's history, and there are numerous aspects of this topic that can be explored in an essay. Whether you are a history student, a social science student, or simply interested in learning more about this important part of history, choosing the right essay topic is essential for a successful and engaging piece of writing.

The Importance of the Topic

Understanding the impact and legacy of Apartheid is crucial for anyone seeking to understand not only the history of South Africa, but also the ongoing struggle for equality and justice around the world. Apartheid was a system of institutionalized racial segregation and discrimination that had far-reaching effects on the people of South Africa and beyond. Exploring Apartheid in an essay can help shed light on the historical, social, and political complexities of this era, and help foster a deeper understanding of the ongoing fight for racial equality and social justice.

Choosing a Topic

When choosing a topic for your Apartheid essay, it is important to consider both your interests and the specific requirements of your assignment. You may want to focus on a particular aspect of Apartheid, such as its impact on education, healthcare, politics, or culture. Alternatively, you could explore the legacy of Apartheid and its impact on contemporary South Africa. No matter what topic you choose, be sure to conduct thorough research and consider different perspectives to provide a comprehensive analysis of the subject.

Recommended Essay Topics

Impacts of apartheid.

• The impact of Apartheid on education in South Africa
• The effects of Apartheid on healthcare and public health in South Africa
• The role of Apartheid in shaping the political landscape of South Africa

Legacy of Apartheid

• The ongoing effects of Apartheid on contemporary South Africa
• The role of Apartheid in shaping race relations in South Africa today
• The impact of Apartheid on South African culture and identity
• Examining the Lasting Effects of Apartheid in South Africa
• The Economic Ramifications of Apartheid in South Africa
• The Psychological Impact of Apartheid on South Africa

Resistance and Activism

• The role of key figures in the resistance against Apartheid
• The impact of international activism and solidarity in the fight against Apartheid
• The legacy of Apartheid-era activism in contemporary social justice movements

Comparative Analysis

• Comparing Apartheid to other forms of institutionalized discrimination and segregation
• Analyzing the similarities and differences between Apartheid and other historical instances of racial oppression
• Exploring the global impact of Apartheid and its connections to other movements for social justice

These are just a few examples of the many directions you can take when writing an essay on Apartheid. No matter which topic you choose, be sure to approach it with sensitivity, respect, and a commitment to understanding and addressing the complex historical and social issues at hand.

Remember to engage with a variety of sources, including academic articles, primary documents, and personal narratives, to provide a well-rounded and comprehensive analysis of your chosen topic. By choosing a topic that is both meaningful to you and relevant to the broader historical and social context, you can create a compelling and informative Apartheid essay that contributes to a deeper understanding of this important period in history.

The Way Apartheid Affected South Africa

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The Role of Nelson Mandela in The Fight Against Apartheid

Apartheid as a racial socialism in south africa, the influence of colonisation and apartheid on black african communities, opposition to apartheid in the years 1948-1959 was unsuccessful, let us write you an essay from scratch.

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Opportunity to Lead in World of No Conflict

Comparative analysis of gaza and south african apartheid, depiction of south africa during apartheid in master harold and the boys by athol fugard, memories about apartheid in native nostalgia by jacob dlamini, apartheid's policy regarding the language issue in african education.

1948 - early 1990s

South Africa, South West Africa (Namibia)

Apartheid is an Afrikaans word meaning "separateness." Apartheid was a system sanctioned by law, of racial segregation in South Africa and South West Africa (Namibia) from 1948 until the early 1990s.

Sanctioned racial segregation was widely practiced in South Africa before 1948. In 1948, the Afrikaner National Party won the general election and extended the policy that called "apartheid." As result, non-white South Africans would be forced to live in separate areas from whites and use separate public facilities. Apartheid laws remained in effect for the better part of 50 years.

Through the Population Registration Act of 1950, South African population was classified as either Bantu (all Black Africans), Coloured (those of mixed race), or white and a fourth category, Asian which was added later.

The Promotion of Bantu Self-Government Act of 1959 created 10 Bantu homelands known as Bantustans, that were designated by the white-dominated government of South Africa as pseudo-national homelands for the country’s Black African population during the 20th century. From 1961 to 1994, more than 3.5 million people were transfered in the Bantustans.

One of the first and most violent demonstrations against apartheid happened in Sharpeville on March 21, 1960. The police opened fire on a group of unarmed blacks and killed about 69 Black Africans and wounded many more.

Nelson Mandela, leader of the movement to end South African apartheid. In 1944, Mandela joined the African National Congress (ANC) and became a leader of Johannesburg’s youth wing of the ANC. In 1961, he was arrested for treason, and although acquitted he was arrested again in 1962. In June 1964, he was sentenced to life in prison. F.W. de Klerk freed Nelson Mandela on February 11, 1990. A few years later, Mandela was elected South Africa’s president.

The United Nations General Assembly had denounced apartheid in 1973. In 1985, the United Kingdom and United States imposed economic sanctions on the country. De Klerk’s government repealed the Population Registration Act and the other legislation that formed the legal basis for apartheid.

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Apartheid, Its Causes and the Process Essay

The essay on Apartheid, its causes and the process itself is very limited in its explanations, has weak arguments and irrelevant evidence that does neither support nor explain the true reasons, process or the outcome of the struggle between the population and the government. The absence of thesis adds to the confusing structure of the essay, which does not have a clear tone and so, the reader is left with no factual information or true understanding of what really took place and how it happened.

The first point that is mentioned in the work is that the colonization by Europeans and their actions were characterized through the depletion of Gold and diamonds. This is used as a reason for colonization, which led to discrimination of people, based on their race and more specifically, visual color differences. This is not specific and does not explain the true reasons for the colonization. In reality, the white man was spreading the influence of the civilized world and the search for new territories to colonize was in place.

The developed nations were spreading their rule over the parts of the world where people lived more basic and independent lives. The primary causes for colonization were demands for power, greed and more territory (Ellis 90). The fact that people of Africa were of different race or color had nothing to do with the fact that they were oppressed and colonized. If they were of different race or color, the same thing would have happened.

The examples can be seen all over the world, from Asia to North and South America. Another real reason for the overtake of African native population was the fact that the colonizers had a better technology and more advanced weapons. The simple fact that they had the ability and tools to overtake a great amount of people with relative ease, gave them enough power to force their demands and rule over African people.

The work mentions that people were divided into whites, colored, Indians and Blacks. This point is completely irrelevant and has no value. The reality is that people who were colored, Indian and Black were separated from white people and whites were the ones who did the separating of themselves from the rest of the native population. Also, this separation does not show what it has led to. It is mentioned for no reason and is placed in the essay to support no real claim or other point, which could be valid and proved.

The major argument of the essay that Nelson Mandela and his movement were the ones that stopped the Apartheid, is not explained and is not at all clear (Shone 75). How it was done and through what forces is undetermined and unseen. The resistance of people against the white rule is mentioned but this fact is weak, as resistance is obvious at any time when one nation or people are taking over another.

It is stated that “Hundred of black men were sent to jail specifically Robin Island where all forms of abuse were exercised” (Buntman 33). This fact is weak in the following explanation of bonds between prisoners. It is not elaborated on—how did this abuse reflect in the further retaliation of the native population and what were the specific actions, strategies and resistance on the Roben Island.

The manifestation of the bonds is a very significant point historically, but the essay must show evidence that proves and compares how these strengths were used by the people. The same is true when the essay mentions the resistance by Nelson Mandela. It states that he organized a movement and that he was sent to jail.

How he organized the movement and what were the strong points is not explained at all. The mere fact that he was sent to jail does not show how this influenced the change in the resistance and what were the turning and considerable moments of the resistance that had their force over the colonizers is not produced as evidence. Also, Nelson Mandela is said to have been a great leader and supporter of African people.

In which ways he supported them, what were his actions and how specifically he used his authority, as well as understanding of the issue and reasoning in his support, is not clear. This adds to the total confusion and lack of facts throughout the essay. The second last paragraph of the essay mentions that women played an important role in the movement and resistance against the oppression and Apartheid. There are no examples or techniques given that display how women have used their resources to resist the colonization.

The general atmosphere and the reaction of the white men is stated: “Conditions were set to deny women access to urban areas as they were seen as a threat” (Lee 7). This actually, negates the explanation how women were important to the resistance and the role. It shows weakness of women, instead of their strength in helping the resistance.

Overall, it is clear that the essay does not have many facts in support of causes, process of the resistance and the outcome. The actions of the native population are mentioned very briefly and do not serve as clear explanations. Nelson Mandela’s presence in the essay is not specific enough and no points about his actions and influence are given.

Works Cited

Buntman, Fran Lisa. Robben Island and prisoner resistance to apartheid. New York, United States: Campbridge University Press, 2003. Print.

Ellis, Stephen. Comrades Against Apartheid: The Anc & the South African Communist Party in Exile . Bloomington, United States: Indiana University Press, 1992. Print.

Lee, Rebekah. African women and Apartheid: migration and settlement in urban South Africa. New York, United States: Tauris Academic Studies, 1974. Print.

Shone, Rob. Nelson Mandela: The Life of an African Statesman . New York, United States: The Rosen Publishing Group, 2006. Print.

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IvyPanda. (2019, May 7). Apartheid, Its Causes and the Process. https://ivypanda.com/essays/apartheid/

"Apartheid, Its Causes and the Process." IvyPanda , 7 May 2019, ivypanda.com/essays/apartheid/.

IvyPanda . (2019) 'Apartheid, Its Causes and the Process'. 7 May.

IvyPanda . 2019. "Apartheid, Its Causes and the Process." May 7, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/apartheid/.

1. IvyPanda . "Apartheid, Its Causes and the Process." May 7, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/apartheid/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Apartheid, Its Causes and the Process." May 7, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/apartheid/.

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Athol Fugard

Ask litcharts ai: the answer to your questions.

Tsotsi represents South African apartheid (a system of legally enforced segregation and discrimination) as a racist structure that destroys Black South Africans’ lives—even when they aren’t experiencing direct, interpersonal racism. Many of the Black characters’ lives are destroyed by racist apartheid laws despite having little direct contact with racist white people. For example, the Black South African protagonist, Tsotsi , lost his mother in childhood because white police rounded up Black people, including her, whom they suspected of living or working in white areas without the required pass. While one of the policemen did display clear racist attitudes—he called Tsotsi’s mother “kaffir,” a South African racial slur—it was the law, not his individual beliefs, that empowered him to destroy Tsotsi’s family. Tsotsi’s mother’s abduction propelled Tsotsi into homelessness and gang membership. In this sense, though Tsotsi rarely interacts with white people, the racist and white supremacist structure of apartheid changed the direction of his whole life.

Other Black characters similarly suffer from the racist economic and legal structures of apartheid, whether or not they come into regular contact with racist white people: the beggar Morris Tshabalala is crippled in a mining accident as a Black worker in an industry where the profits and gold go to white people. The young mother Miriam Ngidi experiences the disappearance of her husband during his participation in a bus boycott—and although the novel does not explicitly state this fact, major bus boycotts in apartheid South Africa were often protests by the Black population against segregation and economic exploitation of Black workers, which exposed protesters like Miriam’s husband to retaliatory racial violence. And Tsotsi’s fellow gang member Boston becomes a criminal after he forges an employment history for an acquaintance who will go to jail due to racist apartheid laws unless he can prove he has a previous employer. Thus, Tsotsi represents how a racist legal and economic structure like apartheid can harm oppressed people independent of and in addition to the interpersonal prejudice they experience. 

Apartheid and Racism ThemeTracker

Apartheid and Racism Quotes in Tsotsi

The knife was not only his weapon, but also a fetish, a talisman that conjured away bad spirits and established him securely in his life.

He didn’t see the man, he saw the type.

Gumboot had been allocated a plot near the centre. He was buried by the Reverend Henry Ransome of the Church of Christ the Redeemer in the township. The minister went through the ritual with uncertainty. He was disturbed, and he knew it and that made it worse. If only he had known the name of the man he was burying. This man, O Lord! What man? This one, fashioned in your likeness.

[Morris] looked at the street and the big cars with their white passengers warm inside like wonderful presents in bright boxes, and the carefree, ugly crowds of the pavement, seeing them all with baleful feelings.

It is for your gold that I had to dig. That is what destroyed me. You are walking on stolen legs. All of you.

Even in this there was no satisfaction. As if knowing his thoughts, they stretched their thin, unsightly lips into bigger smiles while the crude sounds of their language and laughter seemed even louder. A few of them, after buying a newspaper, dropped pennies in front of him. He looked the other way when he pocketed them.

Are his hands soft? he would ask himself, and then shake his head in anger and desperation at the futility of the question. But no sooner did he stop asking it than another would occur. Has he got a mother? This question was persistent. Hasn’t he got a mother? Didn’t she love him? Didn’t she sing him songs? He was really asking how do men come to be what they become. For all he knew others might have asked the same question about himself. There were times when he didn’t feel human. He knew he didn’t look it.

So she carried on, outwardly adjusting the pattern of her life as best she could, like taking in washing, doing odd cleaning jobs in the nearby white suburb. Inwardly she had fallen into something like a possessive sleep where the same dream is dreamt over and over again. She seldom smiled now, kept to herself and her baby, asked no favours and gave none, hoarding as it were the moments and things in her life.

On she came, until a foot or so away the chain stopped her, and although she pulled at this with her teeth until her breathing was tense and rattled she could go no further, so she lay down there, twisting her body so that the hindquarters fell apart and, like that, fighting all the time, her ribs heaving, she gave birth to the stillborn litter, and then died beside them.

Petah turned to David. ‘Willie no good. You not Willie. What is your name? Talk! Trust me, man. I help you.’

David’s eyes grew round and vacant, stared at the darkness. A tiny sound, a thin squeaking voice, struggled out: ‘David…’ it said, ‘David! But no more! He dead! He dead too, like Willie, like Joji.’

So he went out with them the next day and scavenged. The same day an Indian chased him away from his shop door, shouting and calling him a tsotsi. When they went back to the river that night, they started again, trying names on him: Sam, Willie, and now Simon, until he stopped them.

‘My name,’ he said, ‘is Tsotsi.’

The baby and David, himself that is, at first confused, had now merged into one and the same person. The police raid, the river, and Petah, the spider spinning his web, the grey day and the smell of damp newspapers were a future awaiting the baby. It was outside itself. He could sympathize with it in its defencelessness against the terrible events awaiting it.

‘What are you going to do with him?’

‘Keep him.’

He threw back his head, and she saw the shine of desperation on his forehead as he struggled with that mighty word. Why, why was he? No more revenge. No more hate. The riddle of the yellow bitch was solved—all of this in a few days and in as short a time the hold on his life by the blind, black, minute hands had grown tighter. Why?

‘Because I must find out,’ he said.

To an incredible extent a peaceful existence was dependent upon knowing just when to say no or yes to the white man.

It was a new day and what he had thought out last night was still there, inside him. Only one thing was important to him now. ‘Come back,’ the woman had said. ‘Come back, Tsotsi.’

I must correct her, he thought. ‘My name is David Madondo.’

He said it aloud in the almost empty street, and laughed. The man delivering milk heard him, and looking up said, ‘Peace my brother.’

‘Peace be with you’, David Madondo replied and carried on his way.

The slum clearance had entered a second and decisive stage. The white township had grown impatient. The ruins, they said, were being built up again and as many were still coming in as they carried off in lorries to the new locations or in vans to the jails. So they had sent in the bulldozers to raze the buildings completely to the ground.

They unearthed him minutes later. All agreed that his smile was beautiful, and strange for a tsotsi, and that when he lay there on his back in the sun, before someone had fetched a blanket, they agreed that it was hard to believe what the back of his head looked like when you saw the smile.

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Apartheid South Africa 1940s to 1960s Essay for Grade 11

On this page, we guide grade 11 student on how to write “Apartheid South Africa 1940s to 1960s Essay”.

Table of Contents

Apartheid in South Africa was a system of institutionalised racial segregation and discrimination that existed from the late 1940s until the early 1990s. This period in South African history is marked by the enforcement of legal policies and practices aimed at separating the races and maintaining white dominance in all aspects of life. The years between the 1940s and the 1960s were critical in laying the foundations and entrenching the policies that would define this era. This essay will explore the implementation of apartheid laws , resistance movements , and international reactions to apartheid from the 1940s to the 1960s.

Implementation of Apartheid Laws

The formal introduction of apartheid can be traced back to the National Party’s victory in the 1948 elections . The party, which represented the Afrikaner nationalist interest, institutionalised apartheid as a means of securing white dominance. Key legislation enacted during this period included:

• The Population Registration Act (1950): This act classified all South Africans into racial groups – ‘white’, ‘black’, ‘coloured’, and ‘Indian’. This classification was a prerequisite for the implementation of other apartheid laws.
• The Group Areas Act (1950): This law geographically segregated South Africans by race , determining where different racial groups could live, work, and own property.
• The Suppression of Communism Act (1950): Though ostensibly aimed at combating communism , this act was frequently used to silence critics of apartheid, including non-communists.

Resistance Movements

Resistance against apartheid came from various quarters, including political parties, trade unions, and individual activists. The most prominent of these movements included:

• The African National Congress (ANC): Initially adopting a policy of peaceful protest, the ANC organised strikes, boycotts, and civil disobedience campaigns. Following the Sharpeville Massacre in 1960, the ANC shifted to a strategy of armed struggle .
• The Pan Africanist Congress (PAC): A breakaway from the ANC, the PAC also played a significant role in organising protests against apartheid, notably the anti-Pass Laws protest that led to the Sharpeville Massacre.
• Sharpeville Massacre (1960): A turning point in the resistance against apartheid, where a peaceful protest against pass laws in Sharpeville turned deadly, with police opening fire on demonstrators, resulting in 69 deaths.

International Reactions to Apartheid

The international community’s response to apartheid was initially muted, but as the realities of apartheid became more widely known, international condemnation grew. Significant aspects of the international reaction included:

• United Nations Condemnation: The UN General Assembly adopted a resolution in 1962 calling for sanctions against South Africa, urging member states to cease military and economic relations with the apartheid regime.
• Isolation in Sports: South Africa was banned from the Olympic Games and other international sporting events, highlighting the growing international isolation of the apartheid government.

Student Guide

When writing an essay on Apartheid in South Africa from the 1940s to the 1960s, focusing on clarity, depth, and evidence-based arguments is crucial. Here are some useful tips to enhance your essay writing:

• Start with a Strong Thesis Statement:
• Clearly state your essay’s main argument or analysis point at the end of your introduction. This sets the direction and tone of your essay. For example, “This essay argues that the apartheid laws enacted between the 1940s and 1960s not only institutionalised racial segregation but also laid the foundation for the resistance movements that eventually led to apartheid’s downfall.”
• Organise Your Essay Logically:
• Use subheadings to divide your essay into manageable sections, such as the implementation of apartheid laws, resistance movements, and international reactions. This helps readers follow your argument more easily.
• Use Evidence to Support Your Points:
• Incorporate specific examples and quotes from primary and secondary sources to back up your statements. For instance, reference the Population Registration Act when discussing racial classification or cite international condemnation from United Nations resolutions.
• Analyse, Don’t Just Describe:
• Go beyond simply describing events by analysing their impact and significance . For example, when discussing the Sharpeville Massacre, explore its effect on both the apartheid government’s policies and the tactics of resistance movements.
• Acknowledge Different Perspectives:
• While focusing on the factual history of apartheid, also acknowledge the various perspectives on apartheid policies and resistance efforts, including those of the government, opposition movements, and international bodies.
• Conclude Effectively:
• Summarise the main points of your essay and reiterate your thesis in the context of the information discussed. Offer a concluding thought that encourages further reflection, such as the legacy of apartheid in contemporary South Africa.
• Reference Accurately:
• Ensure all sources are accurately cited in your essay to avoid plagiarism and to lend credibility to your arguments. Follow the specific referencing style required by your teacher or educational institution.
• Proofread and Revise:
• Check your essay for spelling, grammar, and punctuation errors. Also, ensure that your argument flows logically and that each section supports your thesis statement.
• Seek Feedback:
• Before final submission, consider getting feedback from teachers, peers, or tutors. Fresh eyes can offer valuable insights and identify areas for improvement.

By incorporating these tips, you can create a well-argued, informative, and engaging essay on Apartheid in South Africa that meets the expectations of a Grade 11 history assignment.

The period from the 1940s to the 1960s was pivotal in the establishment and consolidation of the apartheid system in South Africa. Through the enactment of draconian laws, the apartheid government institutionalised racial discrimination, which led to widespread resistance within the country and condemnation from the international community. This era laid the groundwork for the struggles and transformations that would eventually lead to the end of apartheid.

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Student Protester Is Suspended After Anti-Zionist Video

Khymani James, a Columbia University student, was barred from campus after his January video resurfaced online last week.

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By Katherine Rosman

Columbia University officials are now weighing what final disciplinary action to take against a student leader of the pro-Palestinian movement after an inflammatory video resurfaced in which the student said “Zionists don’t deserve to live.”

The university said last week that it was banning the student, Khymani James, from campus, after intense criticism and uproar over the video. According to a notification the university sent to Mr. James that was examined by The New York Times, he was placed under an “interim suspension.”

That means that Mr. James could potentially return to class, despite the remarks that have been widely condemned. Or he could be expelled.

The sequence of events has brought scrutiny and questions about the school’s disciplinary approach to Mr. James, given that at least some administrators have been aware of the remarks for several months. This weekend a Columbia spokesman sought to make clear that it is taking the matter seriously.

“We initiated disciplinary proceedings which encompass this and additional potential violations of university policies,” the spokesman said, indicating the investigation continues.

This comes nearly two weeks after Nemat Shafik, the university president, testified before a congressional committee that she was taking decisive action to combat antisemitism on campus.

“Violations of our policies will have consequences,” Dr. Shafik told Congress.

Mr. James, 20, a junior from Boston, emerged last week as one of the leaders of CUAD, Columbia University Apartheid Divest, the coalition group that is organizing the school’s pro-Palestinian encampment.

Mr. James filmed the video in January, during a disciplinary hearing with Columbia officials, which was held because of earlier comments he had posted online. In response to antagonizing messages directed at him on the internet, he posted about Zionists, “I don’t fight to injure or for there to be a winner or a loser, I fight to kill.”

A Columbia administrator asked, “Do you see why that is problematic in any way?”

Mr. James replied, “No.”

Mr. James videotaped himself during the hearing as he made further comments to the Columbia administrator about Zionists, including, “Taking someone’s life in certain case scenarios is necessary and better for the overall world.”

On Friday, he posted a statement on social media addressing his comments. “What I said was wrong,” he wrote. He noted that he made the comments before becoming involved with the protest movement.

Mr. James posted the video on social media in January. But he was only banned from campus and placed under suspension once the video went viral, after a right-wing media outlet brought it to light last week.

“When leadership learned of the video, it took immediate steps to ban James from campus,” a Columbia spokesman said this weekend.

The spokesman said decisions to ban individuals from campus are “a step taken by the university out of concern for campus safety and to protect our community from discrimination and harassment.”

It is not clear whether the Columbia administrator conducting the disciplinary hearing alerted a superior or public safety official to Mr. James’s remarks — or whether Columbia policy dictated that the administrator should have.

A spokesman for the university declined to comment further.

Among the student protesters’ demands of the university is amnesty for students and faculty disciplined by the university for their pro-Palestinian activism. It is unclear if they will press for amnesty for Mr. James.

The CUAD organization on Friday posted a statement on Instagram that said, “Khymani’s words in January do not reflect his view, our values, nor the encampment’s community agreements.” The statement added, “In the same way some of us were once Zionists and are now anti-Zionists, we believe unlearning is always possible.”

Katherine Rosman covers newsmakers, power players and individuals making an imprint on New York City. More about Katherine Rosman

Our Coverage of the U.S. Campus Protests

U.C.L.A.:  Administrators at the University of California, Los Angeles, called in law enforcement officers  after violent clashes broke out between pro-Palestinian demonstrators and counterprotesters.

Columbia:  Dozens of pro-Palestinian demonstrators were arrested as police officers entered Columbia’s main campus and cleared Hamilton Hall of a group who had occupied the building .

Brown:  In a rare deal, demonstrators dismantled their encampment at Brown after university leaders agreed to discuss divesting funds from companies connected to the Israeli military .

Portland State:  With wood pallets piled at the entrance, dozens of pro-Palestinian activists have been holed up in the university’s library. Here’s a look inside the makeshift fortress .

U.N.C.:  Pro-Palestinian demonstrations at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill turned chaotic  after dozens of students were detained for refusing to leave an encampment.

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‘Do not bow’: ex-Black Panther praises pro-Palestinian student protesters from prison

Mumia Abu-Jamal tells New York City students they’re on the right side of history by deciding ‘not to be silent and to speak out’

In a powerful and rousing live address to students at the City University of New York (Cuny) on Friday night, the incarcerated Black political activist Mumia Abu-Jamal praised the pro-Palestinian movement growing at US colleges as being on the right side of history.

“It is a wonderful thing that you have decided not to be silent and decided to speak out against the repression that you see with your own eyes,” Abu-Jamal , a former Black Panther, said while calling from Pennsylvania’s Mahanoy state prison. “You are part of something massive, and you are part of something that is on the right side of history.

“You’re against a colonial regime that steals the land from the people who are Indigenous to that area. I urge you to speak out against the terrorism that is afflicted upon Gaza with all of your might, all of your will and all of your strength. Do not bow to those who want you to be silent.”

As hundreds of students and supporters at the Cuny encampment in Harlem cheered, he continued, “This is the moment to be heard and shake the earth so that the people of Gaza, the people of Rafah, the people of the West Bank, the people of Palestine can feel your solidarity with them.”

Abu-Jamal was a founding member of the Philadelphia chapter of the Black Panther party and went on to become a radio journalist as well as president of the Philadelphia chapter of the Black Association of Journalists. In 1982, he was convicted and sentenced to death in 1982 for the murder of police officer Daniel Faulkner in Philadelphia in 1981.

Abu-Jamal spent almost three decades in solitary confinement on death row before his death sentence was overturned by a federal court, citing irregularities in the original sentencing process.

A prolific writer on Black struggle and critic of the US criminal justice system, Abu-Jamal is serving life without parole, and his supporters regard him as a political prisoner.

Student protests calling for divestment in Israel have spread across the US in the past 10 days – in solidarity with the Palestinian liberation cause as well as the Columbia University students who were arrested and suspended after administrators allowed the NYPD on to campus.

Cuny is the largest public urban college in the US, with a large working-class Black and brown student and teaching body, with 25 campuses across the city’s five boroughs.

The mood on Friday night in Harlem was buoyant despite the cold. Students wrapped up in donated blankets amid Shabbat rituals, Muslim community prayers, lectures and the screening of documentaries about the history of student protests, the South African apartheid regime and the Palestinian struggle.

Nationwide, students – and a growing number of faculty – are demanding administrators disclose and divest from funds and corporations doing business with Israel in it. Those include Amazon and Google, which are part of a $1.2bn cloud-computing contract with Israel’s government, as well as manufacturers of weapons and other military equipment.

Police have responded with brutality on some campuses, such as at Emory University in Atlanta, provoking international condemnation – and, in turn, more student protests.

Joe Biden and many lawmakers have criticized the protesters as “antisemitic” despite the fact that Jewish students who reject Zionism are organizing many of the college protests.

In response to the 7 October Hamas attack that killed about 1,200 Israelis and resulted in the kidnappings of more than 200 others, Israel has killed at least 34,000 Palestinians in Gaza, with thousands more buried under the rubble and presumed dead.

Deaths from starvation and extreme heat are rising, according to UN agencies, amid ongoing Israeli attacks and blockades stopping the delivery of humanitarian aid that some US officials acknowledge could be a violation of international law.

As the Israeli military appears to be preparing to launch an attack on Rafah in southern Gaza, where a million Palestinians have been displaced, Abu-Jamal urged students to expand protests.

“The people of Gaza are fighting to be free from generations of occupation so it is not enough, brothers and sisters, it is not enough to demand a ceasefire,” he said. “Make your demand cease occupation, cease occupation, and let that be your battle cry because that is the call of history of which all of you are part.

“You are part of something magnanimous, magnificent and soul changing, and history changing. Do not let go of this moment, make it bigger, make it more massive, make it more powerful, make it echo up into the stars. I am thrilled by your work – I love you.”

The students erupted into chants of “brick by brick, wall by wall, free Mumia Abu-Jamal”.

Abu-Jamal has a track record of supporting student movements and has been invited as a commencement speaker by numerous colleges. He participates in those commencements through recordings.

He has published dozens of essays and several books – including 2017’s Have Black Lives Ever Mattered? – about his time on death row and the history of the Black Panthers.

Cuny voted to divest from South Africa in 1984 by cutting ties with companies supporting the apartheid regime. Columbia was the first Ivy League university to sever financial links with the apartheid regime.

• Israel-Gaza war
• US universities
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• US campus protests

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