composition of the earth essay

Short Essay on Our Planet Earth [100, 200, 400 words] With PDF

Earth is the only planet that sustains life and ecosystems. In this lesson, you will learn to write essays in three different sets on the planet earth to help you in preparing for your upcoming examinations.

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Short Essay on Our Planet Earth in 100 Words

Earth is a rare planet since it is the only one that can support life. On Earth, life is possible for various reasons, the most essential of which are the availability of water and the presence of oxygen. Earth is a member of the Solar System. The Earth, along with the other seven planets, orbits the Sun.

One spin takes approximately twenty-four hours, and one revolution takes 365 days and four hours. Day and night, as well as the changing of seasons, occurs due to rotation and revolution. However, we have jeopardized our planet by our sheer ignorance and negligence. We must practise conservation of resources and look after mother earth while we have time.

Short Essay on Our Planet Earth in 200 Words

Earth is a blue planet that is special from the rest of the planets because it is the only one to sustain life. The availability of water and oxygen are two of the most crucial factors that make life possible on Earth. The Earth rotates around the Sun, along with seven other planets in the solar system. It takes 24 hours to complete one rotation, and approximately 365 days and 4 hours to complete one revolution. Day and night, as well as changing seasons, are all conceivable due to these two movements.

However, we are wasting and taking advantage of the natural resources that have been bestowed upon us. Overuse and exploitation of all-natural resources produce pollution to such an alarming degree that life on Earth is on the verge of extinction. The depletion of the ozone layer has resulted in global warming. The melting of glaciers has resulted in rising temperatures.

Many animals have become extinct or are endangered. To protect the environment, we must work together. Conversation, resource reduction, reuse, and recycling will take us a long way toward restoring the natural ecosystem. We are as unique as our home planet. We have superior intelligence, which we must employ for the benefit of all living beings. The Earth is our natural home, and we must create a place that is as good as, if not better than, paradise.

Short Essay on Our Planet Earth in 400 Words

Earth is a unique planet as it is the only planet that sustains life. Life is possible on Earth because of many reasons, and the most important among them is the availability of water and oxygen. Earth is a part of the family of the Sun. It belongs to the Solar System.

Earth, along with seven other planets, revolves around the Sun. It takes roughly twenty-four hours to complete one rotation and 365 days and 4 hours to complete one revolution. Rotation and revolution make day and night and change of seasons simultaneously possible. The five seasons we experience in one revolution are Spring, Summer, Monsoon, Autumn, and Winter.

However, we are misusing resources and exploiting the natural gifts that have been so heavily endowed upon us. Overuse and misuse of all the natural resources are causing pollution to such an extent that it has become alarming to the point of destruction. The most common form of pollution caused upon the earth by us is Air Pollution, Land Pollution, Water Pollution, and Noise Pollution.

This, in turn, had resulted in Ozone Layer Depletion and Global Warming. Due to ozone layer depletion, there harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun are reaching the earth. It, in turn, is melting glaciers and causing a rise in temperature every year. Many animals have either extinct or are endangered due to human activities.

Some extinct animals worldwide are Sabre-toothed Cat, Woolly Mammoth, Dodo, Great Auk, Stellers Sea Cow, Tasmanian Tiger, Passenger Pigeon, Pyrenean Ibex. The extinct animals in the Indian subcontinent are the Indian Cheetah, pink-headed duck, northern Sumatran rhinoceros, and Sunderban dwarf rhinoceros.

The endangered animals that are in need of our immediate attention in India are Royal Bengal Tiger, Snow leopard, Red panda, Indian rhinoceros, Nilgiri tahr, Asiatic lion, Ganges river dolphin, Gharial and Hangul, among others. We have exploited fossil fuels to such an extent that now we run the risk of using them completely. We must switch to alternative sources of energy that are nature friendly. Solar power, windmills, hydra power should be used more often, and deforestation must be made illegal worldwide.

We must come together to preserve the natural environment. Conversation, reduction, reuse and recycling of the resources will take us a long way in rebuilding the natural habitat. We are as unique as our planet earth. We have higher intelligence, and we must use it for the well-being of all living organisms. The Earth is our natural abode, and we must make a place as close to Paradise, if not better.

Hopefully, after going through this lesson, you have a holistic idea about our planet Earth. I have tried to cover every aspect that makes it unique and the reasons to practise conversation of natural resources. If you still have any doubts regarding this session, kindly let me know through the comment section below. To read more such essays on many important topics, keep browsing our website.

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Layers of the Earth

The Earth, like an onion, consists of several concentric layers, each with its own unique set of properties and characteristics. The four primary layers are the crust, the mantle, the outer core, and the inner core. However, geologists subdivide these layers into a complex structure that better describes the Earth’s intricate composition and behavior. Let’s start with the basic four-layer model before delving into greater detail.

The 4 Basic Layers of the Earth

The crust is the Earth’s outermost layer and it’s where we live. It has an irregular thickness, varying from about 5 km beneath the oceans (oceanic crust) to about 30 km beneath the continents (continental crust). The crust mainly consists of lighter rocks , such as basalt in the oceanic crust and granite in the continental crust.

The Mohorovičić discontinuity, often referred to as the Moho, is the boundary between the Earth’s crust and the mantle. Named after the Croatian seismologist Andrija Mohorovičić who discovered it in 1909, the Moho occurs from 5 to 10 kilometers beneath the ocean floor to about 20 to 70 kilometers beneath continental interiors.

The significance of the Moho discontinuity lies in the change in seismic wave velocities that it represents. Seismic waves from earthquakes travel at different speeds depending on the material they move through. Mohorovičić noted that seismic waves speed up abruptly below certain depths. This observation led him to conclude that Earth has a layered structure. The Moho represents the transition from the relatively low- density crust to the higher-density mantle.

Beneath the crust lies the mantle, extending to a depth of about 2,900 km. It contains silicate rocks that are rich in iron and magnesium . There are two sections of the mantle: the upper mantle, which is more rigid and behaves elastically on short time scales, and the lower mantle, which is solid but flows on geological timescales.

The Outer Core

The outer core extends from 2,900 km to about 5,150 km beneath the Earth’s surface. It mainly consists of liquid iron and nickel . The motion within this layer generates the Earth’s magnetic field.

The Inner Core

The inner core is the central part of the Earth. It extends from a depth of about 5,150 km to the Earth’s center at about 6,371 km. Although it is very hot, the inner core is solid due to the immense pressure at this depth. It’s composed primarily of iron, with minor amounts of nickel and other lighter elements.

Detailed Layer Model of the Earth

For a more intricate understanding of the Earth’s structure, geologists divide the layers of the Earth a bit differently, based on their physical and chemical properties.

1. The Lithosphere

The lithosphere, about 10 to 200 km thick, includes the uppermost mantle and the crust. It’s rigid and breaks under stress, which is why it’s broken up into tectonic plates . The lithosphere varies in thickness, being thinner at oceanic ridges and thicker beneath older oceanic and continental regions.

2. The Asthenosphere

Beneath the lithosphere, from about 100 to 350 km, lies the asthenosphere. The asthenosphere is the part of the upper mantle that exhibits plastic (or ductile) behavior. The tectonic plates slide around on top of this layer. It’s composed of similar material to the rest of the upper mantle – mainly peridotite, a rock rich in silicate minerals.

3. The Mesosphere

Below the asthenosphere and extending to about 2,900 km is the mesosphere or lower mantle. The mesosphere is a region of strong, rigid rocks that deform slowly under the intense heat and pressure. It’s composed of silicate minerals that change in structure with depth due to increasing pressure.

4. The Outer Core

The outer core spans from 2,900 to about 5,150 km deep. The convection currents within this liquid layer create the Earth’s magnetosphere through a dynamo effect.

5. The Inner Core

The inner core extends from 5,150 km to the center of the Earth at about 6,371 km. In recent years, it has been suggested that the inner core itself may have an inner-inner core with distinct physical properties, but this remains an area of active research.

Physical Properties of the Earth’s Layers

Each of these layers has unique physical properties, including temperature, pressure, density, and composition. The crust and uppermost mantle (lithosphere) are cool and rigid, while the asthenosphere is partially molten and plastic. Deeper in the Earth, temperatures and pressures rise dramatically. The core, for example, has temperatures similar to the Sun’s surface and pressures more than 3 million times atmospheric pressure.

The Earth’s density also increases with depth, from around 2.2 g/cm³ in the crust to over 13 g/cm³ in the core. This density gradient is due to both increasing pressure and changes in composition.

In terms of composition, the crust is mostly silicate rocks and oxygen, while the core is largely iron and nickel. The mantle, which comprises the majority of Earth’s volume, is predominantly composed of silicate minerals rich in iron and magnesium.

10 Facts About the Layers of the Earth

Now, let’s explore ten interesting facts about the layers of the Earth:

Thickest Layer: The mantle is the thickest layer of the Earth, accounting for about 84% of the Earth’s volume. It extends approximately 2,900 kilometers beneath the crust, which makes it nearly twice the thickness of the Earth’s outer and inner cores combined.
Pressure: The pressure of the inner core at the Earth’s center is extreme. Estimates place it at over 3.5 million times greater than the pressure at sea level.
Temperature: The temperature of the core is similar to that of the Sun’s surface, around 5,500 degrees Celsius.
Dynamo Effect: The Earth’s magnetic field results from the convection of liquid iron and nickel in the outer core, a phenomenon known as the dynamo effect.
Oceanic vs. Continental Crust: Oceanic crust is thinner and denser than continental crust. The average thickness of oceanic crust is 5 km, while continental crust averages around 35 km.
Crust Composition: The crust is primarily composed of silicate rocks. The oceanic crust is mainly basalt, and the continental crust is primarily granite.
Tectonic Plates: The Earth’s lithosphere is broken into variously sized “tectonic plates.” It’s the movement of these plates that causes earthquakes, volcanic activity, and the creation of mountain ranges.
Asthenosphere Behavior: Despite being solid, the asthenosphere flows over geologic time scales, which assists the movement of the tectonic plates of the lithosphere.
Core Composition: The core is primarily composed of iron, with smaller amounts of nickel and other lighter elements. It’s also believed that there might be “oceans” of liquid iron in the core.
Inner Core Anomaly: Recent studies suggest that the inner core itself may have an “inner inner core” with distinctive physical properties, although this is still a topic of ongoing research.

Layers of the Earth Worksheet

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Engdahl, E.R.; Flinn, E.A.; Massé, R.P. (1974). “Differential PKiKP travel times and the radius of the inner core”. Geophysical Journal International . 39 (3): 457–463. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb05467.x
Harris, P. (1972). “ The Composition of the Earth “. In Gass, I. G.; et al. (eds.). Understanding the Earth: A Reader in the Earth Sciences . Horsham: Artemis Press for the Open University Press. ISBN 978-0-85141-308-2.
Haynes, William M.; David R., Lide; Bruno, Thomas J., eds. (2017). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (97th ed.). Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4987-5429-3.
O’Reilly, Suzanne Y.; Griffin, W.L. (December 2013). “Moho vs crust–mantle boundary: Evolution of an idea”. Tectonophysics . 609: 535–546. doi: 10.1016/j.tecto.2012.12.031
Rogers, N., ed. (2008). An Introduction to Our Dynamic Planet . Cambridge University Press and The Open University. ISBN 978-0-521-49424-3.

ENCYCLOPEDIC ENTRY

Earth is the planet we live on, the third of eight planets in our solar system and the only known place in the universe to support life.

Earth Science, Astronomy, Geology, Geography, Physical Geography

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The active outer shell of Earth is dominated by tectonic plates, whose interactions result in volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and geysers. Click to visit MapMaker Interactive's layer on Earth's tectonic plates.

Earth is the planet we live on, one of eight planets in our solar system and the only known place in the universe to support life.

Earth is the third planet from the sun , after Mercury and Venus, and before Mars. It is about 150 million kilometers (about 93 million miles) from the sun. This distance, called an astronomical unit (AU), is a standard unit of measurement in astronomy . Earth is one AU from the sun. The planet Jupiter is about 5.2 AU from the sun—about 778 million kilometers (483.5 million miles).

Earth is the largest and most massive of the rocky inner planets , although it is dwarfed by the gas giants beyond the Asteroid Belt . Its diameter is about 12,700 kilometers (7,900 miles), and its mass is about 5.97×1024 kilograms (6.58×1021 tons). In contrast, Jupiter, the largest planet in the solar system, has a diameter of 143,000 kilometers (88,850 miles), and its mass is about 1,898×1024 kilograms (2093×1021 tons).

Earth is an oblate spheroid . This means it is spherical in shape, but not perfectly round. It has a slightly greater radius at the Equator , the imaginary line running horizontally around the middle of the planet. In addition to bulging in the middle, Earth’s poles are slightly flattened. The geoid describes the model shape of Earth, and is used to calculate precise surface locations.

Earth has one natural satellite , the moon . Earth is the only planet in the solar system to have one moon. Venus and Mercury do not have any moons, for example, while Jupiter and Saturn each have more than a dozen.

Planet Earth

Earth’s interior is a complex structure of superheated rocks. Most geologists recognize three major layers: the dense core , the bulky mantle , and the brittle crust . No one has ever ventured below Earth’s crust.

Earth’s core is mostly made of iron and nickel . It consists of a solid center surrounded by an outer layer of liquid . The core is found about 2,900 kilometers (1,802 miles) below Earth’s surface, and has a radius of about 3,485 kilometers (2,165 miles).

A mantle of heavy rock (mostly silicates ) surrounds the core. The mantle is about 2,900 kilometers (1,802 miles) thick, and makes up a whopping 84 percent of Earth’s total volume . Parts of the mantle are molten , meaning they are composed of partly melted rock. The mantle’s molten rock is constantly in motion. It is forced to the surface during volcanic eruptions and at mid-ocean ridges .

Earth’s crust is the planet’s thinnest layer, accounting for just one percent of Earth’s mass. There are two kinds of crust: thin, dense oceanic crust and thick, less-dense continental crust . Oceanic crust extends about five to 10 kilometers (three to six miles) beneath the ocean floor. Continental crust is about 35 to 70 kilometers (22 to 44 miles) thick.

Exterior: Tectonic Activity

The crust is covered by a series of constantly moving tectonic plates . New crust is created along mid-ocean ridges and rift valleys , where plates pull apart from each other in a process called rifting . Plates slide above and below each other in a process called subduction . They crash against each other in a process called faulting .

Tectonic activity such as subduction and faulting has shaped the crust into a variety of landscapes . Earth’s highest point is Mount Everest, Nepal, which soars 8,850 kilometers (29,035 feet) in the Himalaya Mountains in Asia. Mount Everest continues to grow every year, as subduction drives the Indo-Australian tectonic plate below the Eurasian tectonic plate. Subduction also creates Earth’s deepest point, the Mariana Trench, about 11 kilometers (6.9 miles) below the surface of the Pacific Ocean. The heavy Pacific plate is being subducted beneath the small Mariana plate.

Plate tectonics are also responsible for landforms such as geysers , earthquakes , and volcanoes . Tectonic activity around the Pacific plate, for instance, creates the Ring of Fire . This tectonically active area includes volcanoes such as Mount Fuji, Japan, and earthquake-prone fault zones such as the west coast of the United States.

Revolution and Rotation

Earth is a rocky body constantly moving around the sun in a path called an orbit . Earth and the moon follow a slightly oval-shaped orbit around the sun every year.

Each journey around the sun, a trip of about 940 million kilometers (584 million miles), is called a revolution. A year on Earth is the time it takes to complete one revolution, about 365.25 days. Earth orbits the sun at a speedy rate of about 30 kilometers per second (18.5 miles per second).

At the same time that it revolves around the sun, Earth rotates on its own axis . Rotation is when an object, such as a planet, turns around an invisible line running down its center. Earth’s axis is vertical, running from the North Pole to the South Pole. Earth makes one complete rotation about every 24 hours. Earth rotates unevenly, spinning faster at the Equator than at the poles. At the Equator, Earth rotates at about 1,670 kilometers per hour (1,040 miles per hour), while at 45° north, for example, (the approximate latitude of Green Bay, Wisconsin, United States) Earth rotates at 1,180 kilometers per hour (733 miles per hour).

Earth’s rotation causes the periods of light and darkness we call day and night. The part of Earth facing the sun is in daylight; the part facing away from the sun is in darkness. If Earth did not rotate, one-half of Earth would always be too hot to support life, and the other half would be frozen. Earth rotates from west to east, so the sun appears to rise in the east and set in the west.

In addition to Earth’s revolution and rotation periods, we experience light and darkness due to Earth’s axis not being straight up-and-down. Earth’s axis of rotation is tilted 23.5°. This tilt influences temperature changes and other weather patterns from season to season.

The Spheres

Earth’s physical environment is often described in terms of spheres: the magnetosphere , the atmosphere , the hydrosphere , and the lithosphere . Parts of these spheres make up the biosphere , the area of Earth where life exists.

Magnetosphere

Earth’s magnetosphere describes the pocket of space surrounding our planet where charged particles are controlled by Earth’s magnetic field .

The charged particles that int eract with Earth’s magnetosphere are called the solar wind . The pressure of the solar wind compresses the magnetosphere on the “dayside” of Earth to about 10 Earth radii. The long tail of the magnetosphere on the “nightside” of Earth stretches to hundreds of Earth radii. The most well-known aspect of the magnetosphere are the charged particles that sometimes interact over its poles—the auroras , or Northern and Southern Lights.

Earth’s atmosphere is a blanket of gases enveloping Earth and retained by our planet’s gravity . Atmospheric gases include nitrogen, water vapor , oxygen , and carbon dioxide .

The atmosphere is responsible for temperature and other weather patterns on Earth. It blocks most of the sun’s ultraviolet radiation (UV), conducts solar radiation and precipitation through constantly moving air masses , and keeps our planet’s average surface temperature to about 15° Celsius (59° Fahrenheit).

The atmosphere has a layered structure. From the ground toward the sky, the layers are the troposphere , stratosphere , mesosphere , thermosphere , and exosphere . Up to 75 percent of the total mass of the atmosphere is in the troposphere, where most weather occurs. The boundaries between the layers are not clearly defined, and change depending on latitude and season.

Hydrosphere

The hydrosphere is composed of all the water on Earth. Nearly three-fourths of Earth is covered in water, most of it in the ocean. Less than three percent of the hydrosphere is made up of freshwater . Most freshwater is frozen in ice sheets and glaciers in Antarctica, the North American island of Greenland, and the Arctic. Freshwater can also be found underground, in chambers called aquifers , as well as rivers , lakes , and springs .

Water also circulates around the world as vapor. Water vapor can condense into clouds and fall back to Earth as precipitation.

The hydrosphere helps regulate Earth’s temperature and climate . The ocean absorbs heat from the sun and interacts with the atmosphere to move it around Earth in air currents .

Lithosphere

The lithosphere is Earth’s solid shell. The crust and the upper portion of the mantle form the lithosphere. It extends from Earth’s surface to between 50 and 280 kilometers (31 to 174 miles) below it. The difference in thickness accounts for both thin oceanic and thicker continental crust.

The rocks and minerals in Earth’s lithosphere are made of many elements . Rocks with oxygen and silicon , the most abundant elements in the lithosphere, are called silicates. Quartz is the most common silicate in the lithosphere—and the most common type of rock on Earth.

Cycles on Earth

Almost all materials on Earth are constantly being recycled . The three most common cycles are the water cycle , the carbon cycle , and the rock cycle .

Water Cycle

The water cycle involves three main phases, related to the three states of water: solid, liquid, and gas. Ice , or solid water, is most common near the poles and at high altitudes . Ice sheets and glaciers hold the most solid water.

Ice sheets and glaciers melt, transforming into liquid water. The most abundant liquid water on the planet is in the ocean, although lakes, rivers, and underground aquifers also hold liquid water. Life on Earth is dependent on a supply of liquid water. Most organisms, in fact, are made up mostly of liquid water, called body water . The human body is about 50 percent to 60 percent body water. In addition to survival and hygiene , people use liquid water for energy and transportation .

The third phase of the water cycle occurs as liquid water evaporates. Evaporation is the process of a liquid turning into a gas, or vapor. Water vapor is invisible and makes up part of the atmosphere. As water vapor condenses, or turns back into liquid, pockets of vapor become visible as clouds and fog . Eventually, clouds and fog become saturated , or full of liquid water. This liquid water falls to Earth as precipitation. It can then enter a body of water, such as an ocean or lake, or freeze and become part of a glacier or ice sheet. The water cycle starts again.

Carbon Cycle

The carbon cycle involves the exchange of the element carbon through Earth’s atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere. Carbon, essential for all life on Earth, enters the biosphere many ways. Carbon is one of the gases that make up the atmosphere. It is also ejected during the eruption of volcanoes and ocean vents .

All living or once-living materials contain carbon. These materials are organic . Plants and other autotrophs depend on carbon dioxide to create nutrients in a process called photosynthesis . These nutrients contain carbon. Animals and other organisms that consume autotrophs obtain carbon. Fossil fuels , the remains of ancient plants and animals, contain very high amounts of carbon.

As organisms die and decompose , they release carbon into the ocean, soil , or atmosphere. Plants and other autotrophs use this carbon for photosynthesis, starting the carbon cycle again.

The rock cycle is a process that explains the relationship between the three main types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Unlike water in the water cycle and or carbon in the carbon cycle, not all rocks are recycled in different forms. There are some rocks that have been in their present form since soon after Earth cooled. These stable rock formations are called cratons .

Igneous rocks are formed as lava hardens. Lava is molten rock ejected by volcanoes during eruptions. Granite and basalt are common types of igneous rocks. Igneous rocks can be broken apart by the forces of erosion and weathering . Winds or ocean currents may then transport these tiny rocks ( sand and dust ) to a different location.

Sedimentary rocks are created from millions of tiny particles slowly building up over time. Igneous rocks can become sedimentary by collecting with other rocks into layers. Sedimentary rocks include sandstone and limestone .

Metamorphic rocks are formed when rocks are subjected to intense heat and pressure. The rocks change (undergo metamorphosis ) to become a new type of rock. Marble , for example, is a metamorphic rock created from rock that was once limestone, a sedimentary rock.

Earth’s Evolution

Earth and the rest of the solar system formed about 4.6 billion years ago from a huge, spinning cloud of gas and dust.

Over a period of about 10 million years, the dense center of the cloud grew very hot. This massive center became the sun. The rest of the particles and objects continued to revolve around the sun, colliding with each other in clumps. Eventually, these clumps compressed into planets, asteroids , and moons. This process generated a lot of heat.

Eventually, Earth began to cool and its materials began to separate. Lighter materials floated upward and formed a thin crust. Heavier materials sank toward Earth’s center. Eventually, three main layers formed: the core, the mantle, and the crust.

As Earth’s internal structure developed, gases released from the interior mixed together, forming a thick, steamy atmosphere around the planet. Water vapor condensed, and was augmented by water from asteroids and comets that continued to crash to Earth. Rain began to fall and liquid water slowly filled basins in Earth’s crust, forming a primitive ocean that covered most of the planet. Today, ocean waters continue to cover nearly three-quarters of our planet.

The end of Earth will come with the end of the sun. In a few billion years, the sun will no longer be able to sustain the nuclear reactions that keep its mass and luminosity consistent . First, the sun will lose more than a quarter of its mass, which will loosen its gravitational hold on Earth. Earth’s orbit will widen to about 1.7 AU. But the sun will also gain volume, expanding to about 250 times its current size. The sun in this red giant phase will drag Earth into its own fiery atmosphere, destroying the planet.

Eras on Earth

Paleontologists , geologists, and other scientists divide Earth’s history into time periods. The largest time period is the supereon , and only applies to one unit of time, the Precambrian . Eons , eras, and periods are smaller units of geologic time.

Most of Earth’s history took place in the Pre cambrian , which began when Earth was cooling and ended about 542 million years ago. Life began in the Precambrian, in the forms of bacteria and other single-celled organisms. Fossils from the Precambrian are rare and difficult to study. The Precambrian supereon is usually broken into three eons: the Hadean , the Archaean , and the Proterozoic .

We are currently living in the Phanerozoic eon.

The first major era of the Phanerozoic is called the Paleozoic, and the Cambrian is the first period of the Paleozoic era . “The Cambrian Explosion of Life ” was the rapid appearance of almost all forms of life. Paleontologists and geologists have studied fossils of archaea , bacteria, algae , fungi , plants, and animals that lived during the Cambrian period. The Cambrian was followed by the Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, and Permian periods.

The Mesozoic era began about 251 million years ago. This was the era when dinosaurs flourished . The Mezozoic has three periods: the Triassic, the Jurassic, and the Cretaceous.

We currently live in the Cenozoic era, which began about 65 million years ago. The Cenozoic is generally marked by three periods: the Paleogene, the Neogene, and the Quaternary . We live in the Quaternary period, which began about 2.5 million years ago. All ancestors of Homo sapiens (modern humans) evolved during the Quaternary.

Earth by the Numbers

Surface Gravity: 1 (one kilogram on Earth)

Orbital Period: 365.256 days

Satellites: 1 (the Moon)

Atmosphere: nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), argon, carbon dioxide, neon

Average Temperature: 15° Celsius (77 Kelvin, 59° Fahrenheit)

Ingredients for Life Scientists have gathered enough information about other planets in our solar system to know that none can support life as we know it. Life is not possible without a stable atmosphere containing the right chemical ingredients for living organisms: hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon. These ingredients must be balanced—not too thick or too thin. Life also depends on the presence of water. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune all have atmospheres made mostly of hydrogen and helium. These planets are called gas giants, because they are mostly made of gas and do not have a solid outer crust. Mercury and Mars have some of the right ingredients, but their atmospheres are far too thin to support life. The atmosphere of Venus is too thick—the planet's surface temperature is more than 460 degrees Celsius (860 degrees Fahrenheit). Jupiter's moon Europa has a thin atmosphere rich with oxygen. It is likely covered by a huge ocean of liquid water. Some astrobiologists think that if life exists elsewhere in the solar system, it will be near vents at the bottom of Europa's ocean.

Earth to Earth Earth is the only planet in the solar system not named for a Greek or Roman deity. "Earth" originally meant the soil and land of our planet. (This is still what it means when the word is lowercase.) Eventually, Earth came to mean the planet itself.

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Related Resources

Earth’s Structure and Formation Expository Essay

Question 1: advances in determining the age of the earth and the importance of radioactivity.

There are several technological advances that may be used to determine the age of the earth. First, radioactive decay can act as a valuable process in establishing the age of rocks. Following the discovery of radioactive decay, several other age dating techniques emerged, which enabled scientists to position absolute ages against the geological scale of time.

Radioactivity discovery and the knowledge that the quantities of neutrons in an element may diverge to form isotopes, facilitated in establishing two key tools that are useful in understanding geosphere (Fried, 2000). Radiometric age dating, which is the first tool, becomes founded on the fact that some isotopes have predictable decay rates, on top of being unstable.

Hence, knowledge of the isotope that was present during the formation of the rock and the rate at which the unstable isotope changes can be used to establish the age of the rock depending on the current isotopic composition of the rock. The second tool utilizes stable isotopes, whereby the relative quantity of isotopes in an organic compound or rock may aid in establishing its origin.

There exist other technologies that can be used to study geology, besides, isotopic geology. For instance, laboratory technologies, which include the use of new tools to find out the composition of organic compounds and rocks, can also be used to study geology (Fried, 2000).

There is also, advancement in the ability to determine magnetic features of materials as well as understanding magnetism. In addition, paleomagnetism enables geologists to establish the age of rocks and the latitude of the rock during the cooling process. Paleomagnetism has enabled geologists to trace past positions of continents.

Lastly, advances in laboratory tools of analysis become steered by development in field techniques. The majority of such techniques are remote sensing in nature. Some remote sensing tools include seismology and sonar.

Question 2: What makes the Earth a Habitable Place?

The earth is habitable as it gets positioned at a distance from the sun which allows water to exist in all its forms, including the liquid form. Besides, the earth has an atmosphere and a magnetic field that obstructs detrimental radiation from the sun. Also, the earth has vigorous tectonic processes, which stimulate an exchange between external and internal layers of the planet, in order to reuse biological and geological substances.

However, the earth was not habitable from the start. In the early stages of formation, the earth was not habitable, due to the bombardment by planetesimals, during the Big bang theory. A few seconds after the Big bang neutrons and protons began to form nuclei of elements such as Helium and Hydrogen. In the first hundred thousand years after the bang, no matter of the state, that is common, existed.

Rather, the earth became dominated by radiation. Following radiation, nuclei joined with free electrons, to form atoms and matter grew dominant over energy, gradually. 200 Million years later, galaxies began to form out of condensed gas, and the solar system emerged.

Question 3: Alfred Wegener, Skepticism and Proof of the Continental Drift Hypotheses

Wegener suggested the theory of the continental drift. However, Wegener’s work became viewed with skepticism. Some scientists argued that Wegener’s idea of continents drifting on the earth’s surface was illogical. This was because Wegener did not explain where the energy to drive the movement would originate. Also, a physicist demonstrated that continental drifting over the surface of the earth, would make all continents drift to the equator (Monroe, 2012).

This was a key source of disprove for Wegener’s theory, since not all continents are around the equator, billion of years later. However, the acquisition of new data supported Wegener’s hypothesis. The discovery of regular reversals from magnetization of bordering strips of the ocean floor supported the idea of seafloor spreading (Monroe, 2012).

Wegener supported his theory by use of disciplines including biology, geography and geology. He inquired how coal deposits became sited near the North Pole and how African plains demonstrated glaciations. Besides, Wegener demonstrated areas that fossils of identical prehistoric species became dispersed.

Question 4: Seismic Tomography

Seismic tomography employs seismic waves in order to visualize all the three sides of the mantle (Iyer, 1993). Scientists then form images of individual slices in the interior of the earth, which can be used to explain geology and the composition of the earth’s interior.

Seismic tomography shows magnetic variances from the floor of the ocean, which confirms the occurrence of the sea floor spreading. Also, scientists can see aspects like the Indian ridge systems and the East-pacific rise, as well as volcanoes near the Pacific Rim, which confirm the presence of plate tectonics (Iyer, 1993).

Question 5: The Laws of Thermodynamics

The laws of thermodynamics determine the motions that result in the formation of mountains and oceans. The first law of thermodynamics states that energy can not be destroyed, although, it may be converted from one state to another. The second law proposes that energy tends to disband from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration. In order to explain the motions that result in the formation of mountains and oceans, we shall focus on the second law.

During the formation of the solar system, a thin stream of Helium and Hydrogen dispersed to space. Thus, heavier elements became formed from lighter ones, including stars and planetary systems. In the process, the planet developed surface features such as oceans and mountains.

Fried, B. (2000). Rocks and minerals . Portland, Me: Weston Walch.

Iyer, H.M. (1993). Seismic tomography: Theory and practice . New York: Chapman & Hall.

Monroe, J. (2012). The changing earth: Exploring geology and evolution . Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.

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9: Earth Materials and Structure

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Michael E. Ritter
University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point via The Physical Environment

Learning Outcomes

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

Diagram a cross section of the Earth's interior and describe each layer.
Diagram the rock cycle
Define what a mineral is and describe the major mineral families that make up most rocks.
Describe the origin and characteristics of sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous rocks.
Create a diagram of intrusive igneous rock bodies.
Compare and contrast the orders of relief.
9.1: The Earth's Interior
9.2: Forces that Shape the Surface of the Earth
9.3: Orders of Relief The topography of the Earth is a product of endogenic and exogenic processes. Relief is simply the difference in elevation between two points. When the surface is relatively flat we say it has low relief. Conversely, mountainous regions have high relief. The relief features of the earth are be divided into three orders based on what created them and their size.
9.4: Minerals A mineral is a naturally occurring inorganic substance with a unique crystal structure. The physical and chemical composition of a mineral is consistent between samples. There are nearly 3000 minerals, only 20 are common, and 10 make up 90% of the minerals of the crust.
9.5.1: Rocks and the Rock Cycle
9.5.2: Igneous Rocks
9.5.3: Sedimentary Rocks
9.5.4: Metamorphic Rocks
9.6: Review and Additional Resources

Thumbnail: Columnar Basalt Flows. Titon Valley, Yakima County, Washington (Courtesy USGS)

Home — Essay Samples — Science — Earth Science — Earth’s Layers

The Layers of The Earth and Their Function

Categories: Earth Earth Science

About this sample

Words: 362 |

Published: Jan 15, 2019

Words: 362 | Page: 1 | 2 min read

Works Cited

Aldridge, M. (2015). Inside planet Earth. National Geographic Kids.
Anderson, D. L. (2015). The interior of the Earth: an interdisciplinary perspective. Cambridge University Press.
Bowring, S. A., Williams, I. S., & Compston, W. (1989). 238U–235U systematics in terrestrial uranium-bearing minerals. Science, 246(4934), 962-970.
Christensen, U. R. (1996). The Earth's mantle: composition, structure, and evolution. Cambridge University Press.
Duffy, T. S., Anderson, O. L., & Goncharov, A. F. (2001). Thermodynamics of mantle minerals—II. Phase equilibria. Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry, 43(1), 65-124.
Foulger, G. R. (2010). Plates vs. plumes: A geological controversy. Wiley-Blackwell.
Jacobsen, S. B., & Garnero, E. J. (2010). A layered mantle transition zone in the northwest Pacific. Nature, 466(7307), 1062-1065.
Riffenburgh, B. (2013). Encyclopedia of the Antarctic. Routledge.
Rolf, T., & Snieder, R. (2013). The Earth's mantle: from seismic tomography to mineral physics. Cambridge University Press.
Tanimoto, T., & Lay, T. (2000). The Earth's mantle. Nature, 405(6782), 633-634.

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Essay On Earth | Our Earth Essay For Children & Students

Essay On Earth | Our Beautiful Mother Earth Essay For Students

Earth is the only planet which has all the necessities required for the survival of living beings. Millions of species survive on this planet. It is the third planet of solar system after mercury and Venus. It is one of the eight planets that revolve around the sun.

Origin of Earth

Earth was formed 4.5 years ago. It came into existence as a solidified cloud and other gases that were left from the creation of sun. Initially, the interior of Earth stayed cool for so long. However, the continuous energy released through radioactive decay gradually heated Earth.

As a result of this, iron started melting and it reached the center and began to accumulate. This resulted in exploding volcanoes and flowing lava covered everything. Finally, the iron accumulated in the center as core.

>>>>>> Related Post: Essay on Environmental Protection For Students

There were depressions in the crust in which water got collected. This Water raised from the interior parts of planet due to volcanic eruptions. This collection of water lead to the formation of oceans. Now, the surface of Earth has changed greatly since its first formation.

Features of Earth

It revolves around the Earth at a distance of 93 million miles. It appears bright blue if observed from the outer space. It has a perfect intensity of temperatures. It is neither too cold nor too warm which makes it a perfect habitat for survival of different species.

Shape of Earth

The shape of the Earth is oblate sphere and not a true sphere which mean that it is squashed from top and bottom just like an orange.

Layers of Earth

Earth is made up of four layers; inner core, outer core, mantle and crust. The part of the Earth that is in the form of land is called crust. It includes oceans, rocks and mountains.

It is Earth’s thin, cold and rocky layer as compared to what lies beneath it. We live on this crust. It is made up of silicon, iron, calcium potassium and magnesium.

Mantle is Earth’s thickest layer and approximately 3000km in depth. It lies below the crust and surrounds the core. Since the temperature in this part is very high so the mineral matter is still in molten condition.

The outer core lies above the inner core. It is made from iron and nickel but it is a liquid layer which is responsible for Earth’s magnetic field.

This magnetic field acts as a protective shield around the Earth. The inner core also contains nickel and iron. It is too hot, around 5000 degree Celsius which is similar to the surface of sun.

Composition of Earth

The atmosphere of Earth is composed of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and trace amounts of other gases. This atmosphere gets thinner when the distance from surface increases. Almost 75 percent of Earth is covered with water, 97% of which is saline in nature and just 3% is actually clean.

We use this 3% clean water for our basic needs. There are many natural resources on Earth like stone, sand, natural gases, metals oil and coal.

Rotation of Earth

Earth takes 365 days to complete its round around sun. It also rotates around its own axis and completes its rotation in 24 hours. In this rotation, we experience day when the earth faces sun and we experience night when it gets away from sun.

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Earth is the habitat of millions of species. It is the only planet which has everything in balance required for the survival of living beings. It is our home and that is why we should not ruin its beauty and natural resources.

Essay on Earth, Our Earth Essay For Students

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Essay On Earth – 10 Lines, Short And Long Essay For Kids

Key Points To Remember When Writing An Essay On Earth For Lower Primary Classes
5 Lines On The Earth For Children
10 Lines On The Earth For Kids
A Paragraph On Earth For Children
Short Essay On Earth In English For Kids
Long Essay On Earth In English For Children

Amazing Facts About Earth For Kids

What Will Your Child Learn From The Essay On Earth?

The Earth plays a vital role in our lives. It provides us with habitat, water, food, etc. The Earth came into existence millions of years ago, and there have been billions of animals and humans that have walked the same Earth as we do now. The Earth is home to over 5 million species of plants and animals, most of which have still not been identified or recorded. Essay on Earth in English is a common subject in schools as it is an important topic for children to think about and discuss. The Earth can be studied and written about in many different ways; you can write about it in terms of climate change, species, land formation, water composition and even the formation of the solar system and Earth’s position in it. The possibilities are endless! Here, we will discuss essay on Earth for class 1, 2 & 3 for kids.

Key Points To Remember When Writing An Essay On Earth For Lower Primary Classes

Essay writing is an important skill that children must excel at as it helps them in life. Making their foundations strong helps to develop their skills and focus on improving the content of their essays. While writing essays, there are a few key points that one must remember –

The language must be simple and comprehensible.
Teach words and sentences that your child understands and will be able to write when not assisted.
Focus on the very basics, as this is for a lower primary class; children aren’t expected to write in detail.
A good place to start would be what the Earth means to us as humans. What the Earth provides us with.
Take care of the format of the essay. If in paragraph form, ensure that each paragraph is neither too short nor too long.
Be clear about the direction of the essay in the beginning to ensure consistency.
Keeping track of the word limit is key.

5 Lines On The Earth For Children

For young children, we will stick to the very basics in this form of the essay. We will note down five basic points about the Earth we live on. We will progressively increase the intensity.

The Earth orbits the Sun, which is the centre of our Solar System.
Earth is the 3rd planet in our Solar System out of eight in total.
It is the only planet which supports life.
It has both land and water bodies.
It has rivers, valleys, mountains, hills, forests, oceans, plains and beaches.

10 Lines On The Earth For Kids

Now that we have some basics laid down, we can start adding more details. If we closely observe the essay lines above, we can see the flow of information. We start off with the position of the Earth in the Solar System and then come down to the geographical features of the Earth. Now, we can go into more detail for an essay for class 1 and 2.

Here’s how to describe Earth in a few lines –

Our Earth is located in the Milky Way galaxy.
The Sun is the centre of the Solar System, with eight planets revolving around it.
Earth is the 3rd planet from the Sun, and it has one Moon.
It is the only planet in our Solar System which is suitable for sustaining life.
The composition of the Earth’s surface is 70% water and only 30% land.
Water bodies such as oceans, rivers, lakes, glaciers and seas make up 70% of the water content on Earth.
Landforms such as mountains, hills, plateaus and plains are the four major types of land we see on Earth.
The water bodies are home to aquatic animals such as fishes of different species and mammals, crustaceans, reptiles and more.
Landforms are home to plants, vertebrates, and invertebrates such as lizards, elephants, eagles, sunflowers, and of course, us humans!
The Earth provides land and aquatic animals with food, water and shelter. We would not have existed without the Earth!

A Paragraph On Earth For Children

Now that we are comfortable with writing essays (information) in a numeric form, we can move along to writing essays in paragraph form. Below is a short paragraph on Earth.

Millions of years ago, the Earth was formed in one small corner of the galaxy named the Milky Way. The Big Bang caused the formation of the Sun, eight planets, their moons, and other bodies, such as dwarf planets (Pluto!). The Earth is the only planet in our Solar System which could sustain life. This is due to its strategic position; it is not too close to the Sun, nor is it too far away from the Sun. This, coupled with the right elements, allowed landforms and water bodies to form. This, in turn, supported the evolution of life on Earth. Indeed, the Earth is one of a kind!

Short Essay On Earth In English For Kids

Moving on to a slightly longer form of essay, we can start adding in more information and maybe even add paragraphs. Since you have limited words, be choosy about what you wish to write and what you wish to omit. Below is an essay for class 1, 2 and 3 on Earth.

The Milky Way galaxy is home to many stars, planets and planetary systems. One such planetary system is our Solar System. Our Solar System has eight planets, of which Earth is the fourth. The Earth rotates on its axis, which causes days and nights. It also revolves around the Sun in a fixed orbit, which causes the change in seasons.

The strategic position and movement of the Earth support the millions of species of plants and animals that inhabit it. The right elements and external forces allowed the formation of land and water bodies which provide homes and nutrients to the millions of species on the planet.

Water bodies such as oceans, rivers and lakes are homes to aquatic animals like fishes, whales and sea horses. Landforms are home to plants, animals and insects. However, in more recent times, we humans have been overusing our resources as well as polluting the environment, which is negatively affecting the planet and our co-habitants. We must strive to save the planet now before it is too late.

Long Essay On Earth In English For Children

Lastly, we will discuss and look at long-form essay for class 3. Since we have more words to play with, we can start going in-depth and look at specific topics. We can also add sub-heads and paragraph breaks. We will first start with an introduction, followed by the subheads.

The Earth is unique. It is indeed one of a kind. When the Big Bang occurred, the right elements, temperature and pressure (among other factors) created the Earth. Subsequently, the topography and the organisms emerged. Years of evolution have brought us to today, where we can study and understand not only the Earth but also other planets and galaxies.

What Is Earth?

The word ‘Earth’ is a Germanic word which simply means “the ground.” Earth is the only planet known that homes and nurtures living organisms such as ourselves. It is the fifth largest planet in our Solar System. It is also the only planet which has water on its surface. About 71% of the Earth’s surface is water, while the remaining 29% is land. It has one natural satellite, the Moon.

Origin Of The Planet Earth

The beginning of our Universe was the Big Bang. It was too hot, but it slowly cooled down. Different particles started bumping into each other, eventually forming common elements. Our solar system was formed roughly 8.7 years after the Big Bang. All solar systems begin in the same way – from Nebulas. Collapsing of dust and gas molecules within the nebulae causes the formation of planets and stars. The gravitational pull comes into action here and pulls the gas molecules and dust particles together. As these particles increase in size, the attraction between the molecules increases. This eventually forms a planet. However, the planet was still too hot to sustain life. Eventually, the planet began cooling down. The oceans are where the origin of life occurred. Slowly, evolution caused organisms to move onto land too. Over millions of years, the Earth has gone through many cycles of heating up and cooling down. This has resulted in mass extinctions and the wipeout of civilizations and organisms. However, planet Earth has managed to give birth to new organisms and help them evolve every single time.

Different Layers Of The Earth

The Earth is made up of three layers – The Crust, The Mantle and The Core

1. The Crust

This is the outer-most part of the Earth. It is mostly made up of solid rock and minerals. It is about 40km in thickness and is only 1% of the Earth’s mass. However, this part of the Earth harbours all known life in the Universe.

2. The Mantle

This is the middle part of the Earth. It is about 2900kms in thickness, and it consists of hot, dense, iron and magnesium-rich solid rock. The Crust and the Mantle make up the lithosphere, which is broken into plates, both large and small.

3. The Core

The core is the innermost part of the Earth. It is further divided into two parts – the liquid outer core and the solid inner core. The temperatures here can rise upwards of 50,000 C.

Motion Of The Earth

The Earth has mainly two motions – Rotation and Revolution.

1. Rotation

The Earth rotates on its axis in a clockwise motion. It takes the Earth 23.9 hours to complete one rotation on its axis. The rotation of the Earth causes the change in day and night.

2. Revolution

The Earth revolves around the Sun in a fixed orbit in an anticlockwise direction. It takes the Earth 365 days, 6 hours, and 9 minutes to complete one rotation around the Sun. The revolution of the Earth causes the change in seasons.

How Can We Protect The Mother Earth?

There are many ways we can protect our Earth. Some ways are:

Be conscious about overusing and overexploiting resources.
Conserve energy, both fuel and electricity.
Do not pollute your surroundings, especially with plastic.
Remember the 3Rs – Reuse, Recycle and Reduce.
Strive to conserve your local flora and fauna.

Below are something amazing facts about our Earth for kids:

The name ‘Earth’ comes from the old English and Germanic words that mean ‘the ground’.
The Earth orbits around the sun at a whopping speed of 30 kilometres per second!
The Earth’s diameter is 12,800 kilometres, making it the 5 th largest planet in our solar system.
The Earth is the only planet known to support life. The availability of abundant oxygen and water makes this possible.
Due to the Moon slowing down Earth’s rotation, the days on Earth are, in fact, getting longer!

What Will Your Child Learn From The Essay On Earth?

Your child will learn a lot about our planet, its origins, its movements, etc. The essay on planet earth will also help your child learn how to write a good composition with perfect techniques. This article takes you through essay writing in a step-by-step manner.

1. Why Planet Earth Is Called A Blue Planet?

Planet Earth is called the Blue Planet because 71% of its surface is covered with water.

2. When Is World Earth Day Celebrated?

World Earth Day is celebrated on 22nd April every year.

Essay On The Sun for Kids Save The Earth Essay for Lower Primary Class Children 10 Lines, Short and Long Essay on Environment for Kids

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Earth's heat balance is and extremely important factor in what makes the Earth livable. The fact that the Earth can respond to slight changes in the amount of incoming radiation to maintain a fairly stable temperature is a result of Earth's energy budget . This phenomenon is also closely connected to flows on the Earth , and the Solar energy to the Earth . Essentially all of the energy the Earth receives is in radiant energy that originates from the Sun . The temperature of the Earth is a balancing act, with greenhouse gases in the atmosphere contributing to a planet that is inhabitable. This balance of temperature is maintained through several different mechanisms.

Origin of the Energy

The Earth receives a large amount of energy from the Sun, over 1.7 x 10 17 joules every second (or 1.7 x 10 17 Watts ), and it is this energy that results in a warm, livable planet. [1] However, only a certain amount of this energy is absorbed by the atmosphere and used to heat the Earth. About 70% is absorbed by the planet, and the remaining 30% is reflected back to space by various surfaces such as clouds, ice, and deserts. [2] This is the source of energy for Earth's climate and biosphere. An in-depth look at where all this incident energy goes can be seen in Figure 1 below.

Balancing Act

If all that contributed to the temperature of the Earth was the incoming, absorbed sunlight then the temperature of the Earth would rise nearly 1 million degrees Celsius over a billion years. [4] Thus, it is critical that planets have a means to lose some energy to outer space. Since Earth is surrounded by the vacuum of outer space, it cannot lose energy through conduction or convection . Instead, the only way the Earth loses energy to space is by electromagnetic radiation . At typical planetary temperatures, this energy being shed to space is in the infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum. In fact, all objects with a temperature emit some form of radiation, and the infrared emission to space results from contributions by the planetary surface and atmosphere .

How Does this Balancing Work?

The temperature of an object dictates how quickly they will lose energy to their surroundings. Hotter objects emit more radiation than colder objects, and thus a hotter planet will shed more energy to space than a colder planet. This means that there must be some temperature where the rate of infrared emission to space equals the rate at which energy is being absorbed from the Sun. If, for whatever reason the planet were made hotter, the energy out would simply become greater until the planet had cooled to its equilibrium temperature. Similarly, if the planet were suddenly made colder, it would lose energy more slowly and thus warm up until the energies balanced. [4]

This balancing act of solar and terrestrial energy flows defines the energy balance (and equilibrium temperature) of a planet. [4] This balance is the basic constraint on a planet's climate, and the dependence of outgoing infrared energy on temperatures is a basic type of stabilizing feedback that allows planets to remain in equilibrium (in addition to not easily exhibiting very wild climate swings of hundreds or millions of Kelvin ).

Since radiative equilibrium is the cornerstone of climate physics, it follows that climate scientists are very interested in the concept of energy balance. When climate changes, such as through the burning of fossil fuels and the increased atmospheric CO 2 concentration it is imperative to understand how the incoming and outgoing energy flows are disrupted and what temperature changes are demanded in order for the whole planet to be in energy balance.

What if there is an Imbalance?

Changes in the composition of the Earth's atmosphere can change what temperature the Earth balances at, and thus effects the temperature of the Earth. Changes in the composition of Earth's atmosphere changes the values of energy absorbed and reflected by the atmosphere, shown in Figure 1. Changing factors such as these result in a very small, but significant energy imbalance on the Earth. This energy imbalance continues to grow as a result of human activities, and the energy imbalance amounts to approximately [math]2.3 \frac{W}{m^2}[/math] more energy incoming than is leaving the Earth. [5]

For more on how this imbalance affects Earth, click here .

↑ ITACA. (July 27, 2015). The Sun as a Source of Energy [Online]. Available: http://www.itacanet.org/the-sun-as-a-source-of-energy/part-2-solar-energy-reaching-the-earths-surface/
↑ Oklahoma Climatological Survey. (July 27, 2015). Earth's Energy Budget [Online]. Available: http://okfirst.mesonet.org/train/meteorology/EnergyBudget.html
↑ Created internally by a member of the Energy Education team. Adapted from: R. Wolfson, Figure 12.5 in Energy, Environment and Climate , 2nd ed. New York, U.S.A.: Norton, 2012, pp. 331
↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 R. Wolfson, Figure 12.5 in Energy, Environment and Climate, 2nd ed. New York, U.S.A.: Norton, 2012
↑ Radiative forcing is complicated. The IPCC states that the total anthropogenic forcing is between 1.1 and 3.3 W/m2. See for example: IPCC WG1 AGR5. (Accessed July 29th, 2015) Anthropogenic and Natural Radiative Forcing [Online] Available: https://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg1/WG1AR5_Chapter08_FINAL.pdf

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Save Earth Essay

Earth is the only known planet with life in the universe. As a result, we must cherish and preserve whatever we obtain from our mother planet. We must protect Mother Earth so that future generations can live in a safe environment. Here are a few sample essays on the topic “Save the Earth”.

100 Words Essay On Save Earth

Apart from Earth, there is no other known planet where life is feasible. It is the only known planet with the combination of the essential natural resources, oxygen, water, and gravity, allowing for a successful life. We must protect the planet by implementing numerous practical steps to leave a healthy world for future generations. People should plant more trees to ensure adequate oxygen levels and to mitigate the effects of air pollution and global warming.

We must stop destroying rainforests, which are vital to our way of life, the atmosphere, and the habitats of numerous animals. To rescue the environment from global warming, people should reduce their use of power and use less fossil fuel. To avoid damaging the planet, they should promote the usage of solar lights and wind energy. The 3R rule (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle) is quite helpful in conserving our planet.

200 Words Essay On Save Earth

Earth is the most valuable thing to its inhabitants because it contains oxygen and water, both of which are necessary for life. The earth's natural resources are deteriorating day by day as a result of different human activities. It endangers life on Earth. Several woodland animals have become extinct due to a lack of a suitable environment.

Pollution, global warming, and other environmental challenges are becoming more prevalent daily. It is critical to end all bad practices to mitigate their detrimental impacts. Every year on April 22nd, Earth Day is observed to raise awareness among people all around the world. It is marked annually to recognise people's efforts to preserve the earth's natural environment.

Our earth requires us to take care of it and leave it in a better condition that we found it. It is necessary to continue healthy life on Earth. We are not the only ones living on Earth; several unknown living species exist.

So, instead of being selfish, we should consider the well being all living species on the planet. We should safeguard our planet and ecology by lowering the amount of garbage, such as plastic, paper, and wood. To reduce waste, we should practice reusing and recycling items such as clothing, toys, furniture, books, and documents. We must reduce all those activities contributing to increased pollution and global warming.

500 Words Essay On Save Earth

Earth and its resources enable life to exist on it. It would be impossible to envision our life without these resources because life cannot exist without sunlight, air, vegetation, and water. However, this will soon become our reality if we do not save the planet today.

The resources that the earth supplies are limited. They are blessings that we do not recognise. Humans have become selfish and are rapidly depleting the earth's resources. We must safeguard them to preserve our own life. This is because man and all living species rely on the planet for sustenance.

It Is The Need Of The Hour

To argue that safeguarding the environment is urgent would be an understatement. Human actions motivated by greed and selfishness have wreaked havoc on the environment. It has been damaged beyond repair. Because of these activities, almost all natural resources are now poisoned.

When all of these resources are threatened, the lives of all living organisms are in jeopardy. This is why we must save the planet at any cost. All other concerns are secondary, with the primary priority preserving the environment. Because when the world ceases to exist, all other difficulties will vanish.

Earth is the only planet capable of supporting life. We need a planet B to which we can travel. This heightens the urgency of saving the planet and our life. We will lose the opportunity to watch our future generations thrive if we do not take extreme action today. Everyone must band together for the exact causes because we are first and foremost inhabitants of this planet.

How To Save The Earth

Humans only need to take action to conserve the earth and its resources because all human activities impact the existence of other organisms. Everyone will benefit from a little extra effort. Every action will have an effect. For example, if one person decides to quit drinking bottled water, thousands of pounds of plastic can be avoided.

Furthermore, we should begin by planting more trees to compensate for the tremendous deforestation. We can restore ecological balance and improve people's quality of life by planting more trees.

Similarly, we must reduce water waste. Individually, this will have a significant influence on water conservation. We must not contaminate our bodies of water by putting rubbish into them. It is critical to conserve water, especially when rapidly running short.

We can conserve the planet by preserving trees, vegetation, water, natural resources, and power. We must firmly adhere to all available measures to control pollution and global warming. Everyone should plant more trees in their neighbourhoods to help reduce pollution and the effects of global warming. Afforestation, reforestation, recycling of used paper and other natural products, and conservation of natural resources, power, water, and the environment should be supported and promoted.

To summarise, the government and individuals must work together to save the planet. We can educate people about the repercussions of not saving the earth. They can be taught how and what they can do to help save the planet. We can save our world and make it brighter if we all work together.

Explore Career Options (By Industry)

Construction
Entertainment
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Information Technology

Bio Medical Engineer

The field of biomedical engineering opens up a universe of expert chances. An Individual in the biomedical engineering career path work in the field of engineering as well as medicine, in order to find out solutions to common problems of the two fields. The biomedical engineering job opportunities are to collaborate with doctors and researchers to develop medical systems, equipment, or devices that can solve clinical problems. Here we will be discussing jobs after biomedical engineering, how to get a job in biomedical engineering, biomedical engineering scope, and salary.

Data Administrator

Database professionals use software to store and organise data such as financial information, and customer shipping records. Individuals who opt for a career as data administrators ensure that data is available for users and secured from unauthorised sales. DB administrators may work in various types of industries. It may involve computer systems design, service firms, insurance companies, banks and hospitals.

Ethical Hacker

A career as ethical hacker involves various challenges and provides lucrative opportunities in the digital era where every giant business and startup owns its cyberspace on the world wide web. Individuals in the ethical hacker career path try to find the vulnerabilities in the cyber system to get its authority. If he or she succeeds in it then he or she gets its illegal authority. Individuals in the ethical hacker career path then steal information or delete the file that could affect the business, functioning, or services of the organization.

Data Analyst

The invention of the database has given fresh breath to the people involved in the data analytics career path. Analysis refers to splitting up a whole into its individual components for individual analysis. Data analysis is a method through which raw data are processed and transformed into information that would be beneficial for user strategic thinking.

Data are collected and examined to respond to questions, evaluate hypotheses or contradict theories. It is a tool for analyzing, transforming, modeling, and arranging data with useful knowledge, to assist in decision-making and methods, encompassing various strategies, and is used in different fields of business, research, and social science.

Geothermal Engineer

Individuals who opt for a career as geothermal engineers are the professionals involved in the processing of geothermal energy. The responsibilities of geothermal engineers may vary depending on the workplace location. Those who work in fields design facilities to process and distribute geothermal energy. They oversee the functioning of machinery used in the field.

Remote Sensing Technician

Individuals who opt for a career as a remote sensing technician possess unique personalities. Remote sensing analysts seem to be rational human beings, they are strong, independent, persistent, sincere, realistic and resourceful. Some of them are analytical as well, which means they are intelligent, introspective and inquisitive.

Remote sensing scientists use remote sensing technology to support scientists in fields such as community planning, flight planning or the management of natural resources. Analysing data collected from aircraft, satellites or ground-based platforms using statistical analysis software, image analysis software or Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is a significant part of their work. Do you want to learn how to become remote sensing technician? There's no need to be concerned; we've devised a simple remote sensing technician career path for you. Scroll through the pages and read.

Geotechnical engineer

The role of geotechnical engineer starts with reviewing the projects needed to define the required material properties. The work responsibilities are followed by a site investigation of rock, soil, fault distribution and bedrock properties on and below an area of interest. The investigation is aimed to improve the ground engineering design and determine their engineering properties that include how they will interact with, on or in a proposed construction.

The role of geotechnical engineer in mining includes designing and determining the type of foundations, earthworks, and or pavement subgrades required for the intended man-made structures to be made. Geotechnical engineering jobs are involved in earthen and concrete dam construction projects, working under a range of normal and extreme loading conditions.

Cartographer

How fascinating it is to represent the whole world on just a piece of paper or a sphere. With the help of maps, we are able to represent the real world on a much smaller scale. Individuals who opt for a career as a cartographer are those who make maps. But, cartography is not just limited to maps, it is about a mixture of art , science , and technology. As a cartographer, not only you will create maps but use various geodetic surveys and remote sensing systems to measure, analyse, and create different maps for political, cultural or educational purposes.

Budget Analyst

Budget analysis, in a nutshell, entails thoroughly analyzing the details of a financial budget. The budget analysis aims to better understand and manage revenue. Budget analysts assist in the achievement of financial targets, the preservation of profitability, and the pursuit of long-term growth for a business. Budget analysts generally have a bachelor's degree in accounting, finance, economics, or a closely related field. Knowledge of Financial Management is of prime importance in this career.

Product Manager

A Product Manager is a professional responsible for product planning and marketing. He or she manages the product throughout the Product Life Cycle, gathering and prioritising the product. A product manager job description includes defining the product vision and working closely with team members of other departments to deliver winning products.

Underwriter

An underwriter is a person who assesses and evaluates the risk of insurance in his or her field like mortgage, loan, health policy, investment, and so on and so forth. The underwriter career path does involve risks as analysing the risks means finding out if there is a way for the insurance underwriter jobs to recover the money from its clients. If the risk turns out to be too much for the company then in the future it is an underwriter who will be held accountable for it. Therefore, one must carry out his or her job with a lot of attention and diligence.

Finance Executive

Operations manager.

Individuals in the operations manager jobs are responsible for ensuring the efficiency of each department to acquire its optimal goal. They plan the use of resources and distribution of materials. The operations manager's job description includes managing budgets, negotiating contracts, and performing administrative tasks.

Bank Probationary Officer (PO)

Investment director.

An investment director is a person who helps corporations and individuals manage their finances. They can help them develop a strategy to achieve their goals, including paying off debts and investing in the future. In addition, he or she can help individuals make informed decisions.

Welding Engineer

Welding Engineer Job Description: A Welding Engineer work involves managing welding projects and supervising welding teams. He or she is responsible for reviewing welding procedures, processes and documentation. A career as Welding Engineer involves conducting failure analyses and causes on welding issues.

Transportation Planner

A career as Transportation Planner requires technical application of science and technology in engineering, particularly the concepts, equipment and technologies involved in the production of products and services. In fields like land use, infrastructure review, ecological standards and street design, he or she considers issues of health, environment and performance. A Transportation Planner assigns resources for implementing and designing programmes. He or she is responsible for assessing needs, preparing plans and forecasts and compliance with regulations.

An expert in plumbing is aware of building regulations and safety standards and works to make sure these standards are upheld. Testing pipes for leakage using air pressure and other gauges, and also the ability to construct new pipe systems by cutting, fitting, measuring and threading pipes are some of the other more involved aspects of plumbing. Individuals in the plumber career path are self-employed or work for a small business employing less than ten people, though some might find working for larger entities or the government more desirable.

Construction Manager

Individuals who opt for a career as construction managers have a senior-level management role offered in construction firms. Responsibilities in the construction management career path are assigning tasks to workers, inspecting their work, and coordinating with other professionals including architects, subcontractors, and building services engineers.

Urban Planner

Urban Planning careers revolve around the idea of developing a plan to use the land optimally, without affecting the environment. Urban planning jobs are offered to those candidates who are skilled in making the right use of land to distribute the growing population, to create various communities.

Urban planning careers come with the opportunity to make changes to the existing cities and towns. They identify various community needs and make short and long-term plans accordingly.

Highway Engineer

Highway Engineer Job Description: A Highway Engineer is a civil engineer who specialises in planning and building thousands of miles of roads that support connectivity and allow transportation across the country. He or she ensures that traffic management schemes are effectively planned concerning economic sustainability and successful implementation.

Environmental Engineer

Individuals who opt for a career as an environmental engineer are construction professionals who utilise the skills and knowledge of biology, soil science, chemistry and the concept of engineering to design and develop projects that serve as solutions to various environmental problems.

Naval Architect

A Naval Architect is a professional who designs, produces and repairs safe and sea-worthy surfaces or underwater structures. A Naval Architect stays involved in creating and designing ships, ferries, submarines and yachts with implementation of various principles such as gravity, ideal hull form, buoyancy and stability.

Orthotist and Prosthetist

Orthotists and Prosthetists are professionals who provide aid to patients with disabilities. They fix them to artificial limbs (prosthetics) and help them to regain stability. There are times when people lose their limbs in an accident. In some other occasions, they are born without a limb or orthopaedic impairment. Orthotists and prosthetists play a crucial role in their lives with fixing them to assistive devices and provide mobility.

Veterinary Doctor

Pathologist.

A career in pathology in India is filled with several responsibilities as it is a medical branch and affects human lives. The demand for pathologists has been increasing over the past few years as people are getting more aware of different diseases. Not only that, but an increase in population and lifestyle changes have also contributed to the increase in a pathologist’s demand. The pathology careers provide an extremely huge number of opportunities and if you want to be a part of the medical field you can consider being a pathologist. If you want to know more about a career in pathology in India then continue reading this article.

Speech Therapist

Gynaecologist.

Gynaecology can be defined as the study of the female body. The job outlook for gynaecology is excellent since there is evergreen demand for one because of their responsibility of dealing with not only women’s health but also fertility and pregnancy issues. Although most women prefer to have a women obstetrician gynaecologist as their doctor, men also explore a career as a gynaecologist and there are ample amounts of male doctors in the field who are gynaecologists and aid women during delivery and childbirth.

An oncologist is a specialised doctor responsible for providing medical care to patients diagnosed with cancer. He or she uses several therapies to control the cancer and its effect on the human body such as chemotherapy, immunotherapy, radiation therapy and biopsy. An oncologist designs a treatment plan based on a pathology report after diagnosing the type of cancer and where it is spreading inside the body.

Audiologist

The audiologist career involves audiology professionals who are responsible to treat hearing loss and proactively preventing the relevant damage. Individuals who opt for a career as an audiologist use various testing strategies with the aim to determine if someone has a normal sensitivity to sounds or not. After the identification of hearing loss, a hearing doctor is required to determine which sections of the hearing are affected, to what extent they are affected, and where the wound causing the hearing loss is found. As soon as the hearing loss is identified, the patients are provided with recommendations for interventions and rehabilitation such as hearing aids, cochlear implants, and appropriate medical referrals. While audiology is a branch of science that studies and researches hearing, balance, and related disorders.

Hospital Administrator

The hospital Administrator is in charge of organising and supervising the daily operations of medical services and facilities. This organising includes managing of organisation’s staff and its members in service, budgets, service reports, departmental reporting and taking reminders of patient care and services.

For an individual who opts for a career as an actor, the primary responsibility is to completely speak to the character he or she is playing and to persuade the crowd that the character is genuine by connecting with them and bringing them into the story. This applies to significant roles and littler parts, as all roles join to make an effective creation. Here in this article, we will discuss how to become an actor in India, actor exams, actor salary in India, and actor jobs.

Individuals who opt for a career as acrobats create and direct original routines for themselves, in addition to developing interpretations of existing routines. The work of circus acrobats can be seen in a variety of performance settings, including circus, reality shows, sports events like the Olympics, movies and commercials. Individuals who opt for a career as acrobats must be prepared to face rejections and intermittent periods of work. The creativity of acrobats may extend to other aspects of the performance. For example, acrobats in the circus may work with gym trainers, celebrities or collaborate with other professionals to enhance such performance elements as costume and or maybe at the teaching end of the career.

Video Game Designer

Career as a video game designer is filled with excitement as well as responsibilities. A video game designer is someone who is involved in the process of creating a game from day one. He or she is responsible for fulfilling duties like designing the character of the game, the several levels involved, plot, art and similar other elements. Individuals who opt for a career as a video game designer may also write the codes for the game using different programming languages.

Depending on the video game designer job description and experience they may also have to lead a team and do the early testing of the game in order to suggest changes and find loopholes.

Radio Jockey

Radio Jockey is an exciting, promising career and a great challenge for music lovers. If you are really interested in a career as radio jockey, then it is very important for an RJ to have an automatic, fun, and friendly personality. If you want to get a job done in this field, a strong command of the language and a good voice are always good things. Apart from this, in order to be a good radio jockey, you will also listen to good radio jockeys so that you can understand their style and later make your own by practicing.

A career as radio jockey has a lot to offer to deserving candidates. If you want to know more about a career as radio jockey, and how to become a radio jockey then continue reading the article.

Choreographer

The word “choreography" actually comes from Greek words that mean “dance writing." Individuals who opt for a career as a choreographer create and direct original dances, in addition to developing interpretations of existing dances. A Choreographer dances and utilises his or her creativity in other aspects of dance performance. For example, he or she may work with the music director to select music or collaborate with other famous choreographers to enhance such performance elements as lighting, costume and set design.

Videographer

Multimedia specialist.

A multimedia specialist is a media professional who creates, audio, videos, graphic image files, computer animations for multimedia applications. He or she is responsible for planning, producing, and maintaining websites and applications.

Social Media Manager

A career as social media manager involves implementing the company’s or brand’s marketing plan across all social media channels. Social media managers help in building or improving a brand’s or a company’s website traffic, build brand awareness, create and implement marketing and brand strategy. Social media managers are key to important social communication as well.

Copy Writer

In a career as a copywriter, one has to consult with the client and understand the brief well. A career as a copywriter has a lot to offer to deserving candidates. Several new mediums of advertising are opening therefore making it a lucrative career choice. Students can pursue various copywriter courses such as Journalism , Advertising , Marketing Management . Here, we have discussed how to become a freelance copywriter, copywriter career path, how to become a copywriter in India, and copywriting career outlook.

Careers in journalism are filled with excitement as well as responsibilities. One cannot afford to miss out on the details. As it is the small details that provide insights into a story. Depending on those insights a journalist goes about writing a news article. A journalism career can be stressful at times but if you are someone who is passionate about it then it is the right choice for you. If you want to know more about the media field and journalist career then continue reading this article.

For publishing books, newspapers, magazines and digital material, editorial and commercial strategies are set by publishers. Individuals in publishing career paths make choices about the markets their businesses will reach and the type of content that their audience will be served. Individuals in book publisher careers collaborate with editorial staff, designers, authors, and freelance contributors who develop and manage the creation of content.

In a career as a vlogger, one generally works for himself or herself. However, once an individual has gained viewership there are several brands and companies that approach them for paid collaboration. It is one of those fields where an individual can earn well while following his or her passion.

Ever since internet costs got reduced the viewership for these types of content has increased on a large scale. Therefore, a career as a vlogger has a lot to offer. If you want to know more about the Vlogger eligibility, roles and responsibilities then continue reading the article.

Individuals in the editor career path is an unsung hero of the news industry who polishes the language of the news stories provided by stringers, reporters, copywriters and content writers and also news agencies. Individuals who opt for a career as an editor make it more persuasive, concise and clear for readers. In this article, we will discuss the details of the editor's career path such as how to become an editor in India, editor salary in India and editor skills and qualities.

Linguistic meaning is related to language or Linguistics which is the study of languages. A career as a linguistic meaning, a profession that is based on the scientific study of language, and it's a very broad field with many specialities. Famous linguists work in academia, researching and teaching different areas of language, such as phonetics (sounds), syntax (word order) and semantics (meaning).

Other researchers focus on specialities like computational linguistics, which seeks to better match human and computer language capacities, or applied linguistics, which is concerned with improving language education. Still, others work as language experts for the government, advertising companies, dictionary publishers and various other private enterprises. Some might work from home as freelance linguists. Philologist, phonologist, and dialectician are some of Linguist synonym. Linguists can study French , German , Italian .

Public Relation Executive

Travel journalist.

The career of a travel journalist is full of passion, excitement and responsibility. Journalism as a career could be challenging at times, but if you're someone who has been genuinely enthusiastic about all this, then it is the best decision for you. Travel journalism jobs are all about insightful, artfully written, informative narratives designed to cover the travel industry. Travel Journalist is someone who explores, gathers and presents information as a news article.

Quality Controller

A quality controller plays a crucial role in an organisation. He or she is responsible for performing quality checks on manufactured products. He or she identifies the defects in a product and rejects the product.

A quality controller records detailed information about products with defects and sends it to the supervisor or plant manager to take necessary actions to improve the production process.

Production Manager

Merchandiser.

A QA Lead is in charge of the QA Team. The role of QA Lead comes with the responsibility of assessing services and products in order to determine that he or she meets the quality standards. He or she develops, implements and manages test plans.

Metallurgical Engineer

A metallurgical engineer is a professional who studies and produces materials that bring power to our world. He or she extracts metals from ores and rocks and transforms them into alloys, high-purity metals and other materials used in developing infrastructure, transportation and healthcare equipment.

Azure Administrator

An Azure Administrator is a professional responsible for implementing, monitoring, and maintaining Azure Solutions. He or she manages cloud infrastructure service instances and various cloud servers as well as sets up public and private cloud systems.

AWS Solution Architect

An AWS Solution Architect is someone who specializes in developing and implementing cloud computing systems. He or she has a good understanding of the various aspects of cloud computing and can confidently deploy and manage their systems. He or she troubleshoots the issues and evaluates the risk from the third party.

Computer Programmer

Careers in computer programming primarily refer to the systematic act of writing code and moreover include wider computer science areas. The word 'programmer' or 'coder' has entered into practice with the growing number of newly self-taught tech enthusiasts. Computer programming careers involve the use of designs created by software developers and engineers and transforming them into commands that can be implemented by computers. These commands result in regular usage of social media sites, word-processing applications and browsers.

ITSM Manager

Information security manager.

Individuals in the information security manager career path involves in overseeing and controlling all aspects of computer security. The IT security manager job description includes planning and carrying out security measures to protect the business data and information from corruption, theft, unauthorised access, and deliberate attack

Business Intelligence Developer

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Climate Change Essay for Students and Children

500+ words climate change essay.

Climate change refers to the change in the environmental conditions of the earth. This happens due to many internal and external factors. The climatic change has become a global concern over the last few decades. Besides, these climatic changes affect life on the earth in various ways. These climatic changes are having various impacts on the ecosystem and ecology. Due to these changes, a number of species of plants and animals have gone extinct.

When Did it Start?

The climate started changing a long time ago due to human activities but we came to know about it in the last century. During the last century, we started noticing the climatic change and its effect on human life. We started researching on climate change and came to know that the earth temperature is rising due to a phenomenon called the greenhouse effect. The warming up of earth surface causes many ozone depletion, affect our agriculture , water supply, transportation, and several other problems.

Reason Of Climate Change

Although there are hundreds of reason for the climatic change we are only going to discuss the natural and manmade (human) reasons.

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Natural Reasons

These include volcanic eruption , solar radiation, tectonic plate movement, orbital variations. Due to these activities, the geographical condition of an area become quite harmful for life to survive. Also, these activities raise the temperature of the earth to a great extent causing an imbalance in nature.

Human Reasons

Man due to his need and greed has done many activities that not only harm the environment but himself too. Many plant and animal species go extinct due to human activity. Human activities that harm the climate include deforestation, using fossil fuel , industrial waste , a different type of pollution and many more. All these things damage the climate and ecosystem very badly. And many species of animals and birds got extinct or on a verge of extinction due to hunting.

Effects Of Climatic Change

These climatic changes have a negative impact on the environment. The ocean level is rising, glaciers are melting, CO2 in the air is increasing, forest and wildlife are declining, and water life is also getting disturbed due to climatic changes. Apart from that, it is calculated that if this change keeps on going then many species of plants and animals will get extinct. And there will be a heavy loss to the environment.

What will be Future?

If we do not do anything and things continue to go on like right now then a day in future will come when humans will become extinct from the surface of the earth. But instead of neglecting these problems we start acting on then we can save the earth and our future.

Although humans mistake has caused great damage to the climate and ecosystem. But, it is not late to start again and try to undo what we have done until now to damage the environment. And if every human start contributing to the environment then we can be sure of our existence in the future.

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The Hidden Figures Who Spread the Gospel

In “God’s Ghostwriters,” the historian Candida Moss explores the many people who penned the Scriptures.

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The image portrays a colorful 15th century illustration of a seated, robed figure writing at a lectern while two standing men look on. A bearded, haoeld figure surrounded by light descends from the sky.

By Timothy Farrington

Timothy Farrington is a former editor at Harper’s Magazine and The Wall Street Journal.

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GOD’S GHOSTWRITERS: Enslaved Christians and the Making of the Bible , by Candida Moss

Near the end of the Epistle to the Galatians, the Apostle Paul adds a comment on his clumsy penmanship: “Look at what big letters I have written to you with in my own hand.”

Rhetorically, it’s a stamp of authenticity. Forged texts were common in the flux of early Christianity, so here is proof that Paul (who was possibly nearsighted) endorsed this message. It’s also an arresting reminder that the Epistle really was a letter, and that the Bible really is a biblion — a papyrus-and-ink book, transcribed (at a minimum) by individual human hands.

In “God’s Ghostwriters: Enslaved Christians and the Making of the Bible,” Candida Moss stresses the further implications of Paul’s remark, ones that have often been overlooked. Like most writers in the Roman world, she points out, Paul mostly didn’t write. The force of his aside comes from the fact that he didn’t often take up a pen; he was making a special effort as a sign of his conviction. Instead, he dictated, to skilled aides, who — though euphemized as “secretaries” or “amanuenses” — were quite likely enslaved.

Such workers, argues Moss, a professor of theology at the University of Birmingham, were more than mouthpieces but “co-authors, meaning-makers, missionaries and apostles in their own right.”

Slavery was everywhere at Rome. Around the time of Christ, something like a quarter of the population of Italy was enslaved. In the countryside, enslaved people workedincreasingly consolidated large farms. In the city, they filled innumerable roles created by the Romans’ love of luxury, thirst for status and sinister genius for hierarchical classification: cook, wet nurse, bookkeeper, colorator (furniture polisher), a tabulis (keeper of pictures), ab argento (keeper of silver), nomenclator (rememberer of guests’ names) and dozens more. Among them were the scribes, readers and messengers who are Moss’s main subjects.

Tantalizingly, one appears by name in Paul’s Epistle to the Romans: “I, Tertius, who wrote this epistle, greet you in the Lord.” “Tertius” has the utilitarian ring of a servile name, Moss notes: It means “Third.” But we get nothing beyond this glimpse, itself a rarity. In Roman society, slaves were non-people, living in what the historian Keith Bradley has described as a kind of death suspended at their enslaver’s whim.

Direct evidence for how such workers shaped the Gospel and its reception is accordingly scanty, so Moss’s account is necessarily, and admittedly, speculative. But she grounds her imaginative interpretations in close reading of secular and religious texts and the appalling facts of ancient slavery in general.

Enslaved workers copied Christian manuscripts, cataloged them in libraries and helped compile cross-references, indexes and other aids for reading. They silently corrected faults in texts and chased down quotations in unwieldy scrolls.

Even when taking dictation, Moss argues, they could play a meaningful part in composition. She cites another passage written by Paul, Romans 5:1, where some manuscripts have “we have peace in God” and others have “let us have peace in God.” The difference rests on a single character in Greek — omega versus omicron. The thing is, as Moss observes, the two letters, formerly distinct, had come to be pronounced the same by the time Romans was transcribed. “Whichever reading was the ‘original’ written text, it would have been a decision on the part of Paul’s secretary,” an unacknowledged bit of “collaboration” between the named author and his enslaved scribe.

More speculatively, she notes the “pervasive bookish language” of Galatians, where enslaved people are twice referred to with a word that can also mean letters of the alphabet. This might be a way for Paul’s scribe of “inserting themself into the letter,” she suggests, a kind of in-joke. “Perhaps they let slip a wry smile as they inscribed the words.”

Enslaved people helped spread the Gospel as well as formulate it. Specialist lectores read — performed — biblical passages to Christians assembled for study and worship. Skillful improvisation by a lector might even explain the alternative ending to the Gospel of Mark recorded in some manuscripts, Moss suggests.

Couriers carried word from apostles to keep distant communities of nascent Christians on the same page, biblically speaking. Like ministers in the pulpit, Moss writes, these messengers were “interpretive guides,” ad hoc apostles who used gesture and intonation to supplement and explicate the text they carried.

Artisans, women and enslaved people also spread the Christian message through casual chatter; not for nothing did pagans denigrate Christianity as a “superstition of ‘women and slaves.’” Moss goes on to cite a scene from Acts where the imagery of the Holy Spirit sweeping down on the apostles recalls classical tropes of gossip spreading like uncontrollable wind.

Passages like that aren’t a fluke, she writes, but reflect the “consistent rooting of early Christian identity in the structures of slavery.” To be a faithful Christian was to be a “slave of Christ” like the Apostle Paul. Even biblical visions of hell, in Moss’s reading, are influenced by the brutal working conditions for enslaved laborers in mines.

Above all, “slavish” aspects can be seen in Jesus, from his habit of speaking in parables (a lowly literary form resembling the fables of the enslaved Aesop) to his ambiguous parentage (much emphasized by Mark, who himself was sometimes cast as enslaved). Philippians goes further, outright describing Jesus as “taking the form of a slave” at birth. Moss shows how Christians have applied such rhetoric selectively ever since, sanitizing servitude into a metaphor.

Moss’s points about the disquieting ease with which some people use phrases like “faithful servant,” heedless of the ideological tangle of Christianity and slavery that underlies them, are well put. But occasionally she can be too eager to yoke past and present. She declares at the outset that she’s not worried about anachronism, on the ground that “disinterested history is sometimes also morally negligent.”

Even so, her injections of modern rhetoric (“essential workers,” “emotional labor,” “precarity”) feel less subtle than the analysis that surrounds them. “God’s Ghostwriters” is also less a cumulative argument than a string of case studies.

But it brings the world of ancient slavery to grim life, and connects larger issues of collaboration and credit to the material facts of ancient work, making it impossible to ignore the labor between the lines.

GOD’S GHOSTWRITERS : Enslaved Christians and the Making of the Bible | By Candida Moss | Little, Brown | 336 pp. | $30

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Earth
Earth, third planet from the Sun and the fifth largest planet in the solar system in terms of size and mass. Its single most outstanding feature is that its near-surface environments are the only places in the universe known to harbor life. Learn more about development and composition of Earth in this article.
Essay on Earth for Students and Children
500 Words Essay On Earth. The earth is the planet that we live on and it is the fifth-largest planet. It is positioned in third place from the Sun. This essay on earth will help you learn all about it in detail. Our earth is the only planet that can sustain humans and other living species. The vital substances such as air, water, and land make ...
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The structure of the earth is divided into four major components: the crust, the mantle, the outer core, and the inner core. Each layer has a unique chemical composition, physical state, and can impact life on Earth's surface. Movement in the mantle caused by variations in heat from the core, cause the plates to shift, which can cause earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
Short Essay on Our Planet Earth [100, 200, 400 words] With PDF
Earth is a unique planet as it is the only planet that sustains life. Life is possible on Earth because of many reasons, and the most important among them is the availability of water and oxygen. Earth is a part of the family of the Sun. It belongs to the Solar System. Earth, along with seven other planets, revolves around the Sun.
5.3: The Composition and Structure of Earth
Crust and Lithosphere. Mantle. Core. Core, mantle, and crust are divisions based on composition. The crust makes up less than 1 percent of Earth by mass, consisting of oceanic crust and continental crust is often more felsic rock. The mantle is hot and represents about 68 percent of Earth's mass. Finally, the core is mostly iron metal.
Formation of Earth
noun. an opening in the Earth's crust, through which lava, ash, and gases erupt, and also the cone built by eruptions. Our planet began as part of a cloud of dust and gas. It has evolved into our home, which has an abundance of rocky landscapes, an atmosphere that supports life, and oceans filled with mysteries.
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The Earth's density also increases with depth, from around 2.2 g/cm³ in the crust to over 13 g/cm³ in the core. This density gradient is due to both increasing pressure and changes in composition. In terms of composition, the crust is mostly silicate rocks and oxygen, while the core is largely iron and nickel.
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Earth is the planet we live on, one of eight planets in our solar system and the only known place in the universe to support life.. Earth is the third planet from the sun, after Mercury and Venus, and before Mars.It is about 150 million kilometers (about 93 million miles) from the sun. This distance, called an astronomical unit (AU), is a standard unit of measurement in astronomy.
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Question 1: Advances in Determining the Age of the Earth and the Importance of Radioactivity. There are several technological advances that may be used to determine the age of the earth. First, radioactive decay can act as a valuable process in establishing the age of rocks. Following the discovery of radioactive decay, several other age dating ...
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Essay # 2. Composition of the Earth: The outer envelopes of the gaseous material surrounding the earth are called atmosphere. Under the atmosphere is our earth on which we live. That part of the earth, which is in the form of a land, is known as the earth's crust. It also includes the highest peaks of mountains and floors of the oceans.
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500+ Words Essay on Save Earth. Earth and the resources of earth make life possible on it. If we were to imagine our lives without these resources, that would not be possible. As life cannot function without sunshine, air, vegetation, and water. However, this is soon going to be our reality if we do not save the earth now.
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At the very surface of the Earth is the crust, the topmost layer, made mostly out of solid rocks. It also is made up of iron, oxygen, silicon, magnesium and aluminium. It is the thinnest layer out of all the layers. The crust is the deepest in areas where there are mountains. It can be 43 miles thick in those areas.
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You can think of the Earth as being made up of a number of layers, sort of like an onion. These layers get more and more dense the closer to the center of the earth you get. See the picture below to see the four main layers of the earth: the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core. Crust. The crust is the thin outer later of the Earth where ...
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Essay on Earth in English is a common subject in schools as it is an important topic for children to think about and discuss. The Earth can be studied and written about in many different ways; you can write about it in terms of climate change, species, land formation, water composition and even the formation of the solar system and Earth's ...
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In Earth sciences: Earth history according to Werner and James Hutton. His Theory of the Earth, published as an essay in 1788, was expanded to a two-volume work in 1795.John Playfair, a professor of natural philosophy, defended Hutton against the counterattacks of the Neptunists, and his Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory (1802) is the clearest contemporary…
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Save Earth Essay Introduction 100 words: Planet Earth is where humans and animals reside. Writing an essay on saving the Earth is going to help spread awareness about what's happening to the planet. Life wouldn't function without the necessities that the Earth provides for us. The Earth offers every primary obligation that we need to survive.
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Essay # 2. Composition of Atmosphere: The proportion of gases changes in the higher layers of the atmosphere in such a way that oxygen will be almost negligible at the height of 120 km. Similarly, carbon dioxide and water vapour are found only up to 90 km from the earth's surface. ... Essay # 9. Solar Radiation: The earth's surface receives ...
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The composition also included quartz, cristobalite, mullite, fayalite, and wüstite. Notably, some slags contained augite, a calcium-rich mineral. High-temperature indicator minerals, such as cristobalite, suggest that the smelting process occurred at temperatures exceeding 1200 °C. Augite, with its high calcium content, likely acted as a flux ...