canadian indigenous essay topics

110 Indigenous People Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best indigenous people topic ideas & essay examples, ✅ simple & easy indigenous people essay titles, 📌 good essay topics on indigenous people, ⭐ most interesting indigenous people topics to write about, ❓ research questions about indigenous people.

• The Impact of Globalization on Indigenous People One of the effects of globalization on indigenous peoples of Canada could be identified as signing of land surrender treaties. British government dispossessed most First Nations of their land and heritage during war invasions and […]
• The History of Indigenous People in Canada Rich and varied contacts between various peoples, thriving trade, and the provision of resources are just a few examples of the Indigenous peoples’ contributions to Canada that date long before the advent of European immigrants. We will write a custom essay specifically for you by our professional experts 808 writers online Learn More
• Effects of Silver Mining on Indigenous People in Mexico Silver mining in Mexico affects the sovereignty of the indigenous people since it denies them the right to manage and control their lands. Silver mining leads to displacement and relocation of the indigenous people.
• Climate Change and Its Effects on Indigenous Peoples For the last three decades, the indigenous people of the North have observed several changes on the environmental changes and climatic patterns in the region.
• Social Justice and the Australian Indigenous People The main idea behind the formation of the social justice commission was to give the indigenous Australian people choice by empowering them to stand up for their rights.
• Indigenous Peoples’ Experiences in South America The first thing that struck me in the readings was the complexity of Indigenous cultures in Latin America prior to the arrival of Europeans.
• Astonishing Fifth for Legal Rights of Indigenous People Despite the economic dependence of the two nations, the connections were built upon the distribution of the balance of forces on the frontier in which Native groups remained unconquered.
• Connecting Indigenous People to Their Land Through learning circles with the practice of planting and harvesting, this project will empower Indigenous people to speak to power by exposing the complexity and negativity of patriarchy, colonialism, white supremacy, and capitalism.
• Media Coverage of Indigenous People In addition, the article is a news story, where the author reports new information to the audience, which is the government’s support of the Native language.
• The Historical and Modern-Day Colonialism of Indigenous People in North America With the declaration of independence in the United States of America, leaders of the United States and other top government officials began their superiority over the Indigenous people with various attempts to ensure that the […]
• Indigenous People and Midterm Voting The elections are ongoing and people are going to the ballot to choose the leaders who will represent them as all the seats in the House of Representatives and those in the Senate are being […]
• Indigenous Peoples of Canada in Mainstream Media This lady is part of the Kaska community and talks about the problematic situation in the community and what her husband is in.
• Mental Health Management in Indigenous People For this reason, the concept of tribal mental health must be actively introduced into the relevant healthcare practices and the associated health policies.
• Indigenous Peoples’ Traumatic Experiences Knowledge of the world of children comes mainly from the experience of the behavior of their environment, primarily parents. When the children of the stolen generation start their own families today, the impact of their […]
• Indigenous People’s Representation in Media Web3 allows the indigenous people to be the owners of their data, to monetize it, and not be a victim of digital stealing.
• History of the Indigenous People of Cherokee Andrew Jackson and his forces chose to continue the Trail of Tears and arbitrarily, cruelly, and violently remove the Cherokee inhabitants while destroying their magnificent people and culture even after they were presented as a […]
• Oral Care for Indigenous People in the US Due to the shortage of indigenous people among doctors in Florida providing dental services, this segment of the population suffers from dental problems. In addition, the goal is also to take adequate preventive measures to […]
• The Women’s Rights Movement and Indigenous People In this article, the author addresses the differences between the Euro-American and Native American societies and the role of women in them.
• The Americans and Indigenous People Relationships The history of conflict between Native Americans and the United States might explain the worth of indigenous symbols in the cultural heritage of the country.
• Promoting Indigenous People’s Welfare The research questions for this study include a raft of enquiries as follows: Are the current policies relating to aboriginals effective in promoting the rights of these indigenous groups in the US?
• Education of Indigenous People Such boarding schools functioned from the end of the 19th century to the seventies of the 20th. Only by keeping the memory of the cruel and devastating events of the past is it possible to […]
• The Blackfoot Indigenous People: Pre-Colonial, Colonial, and Current Situations The traditional residency of the Blackfoot people was in Alberta and Saskatchewan in Canada and in the northern parts of Montana in the United States.
• Indigenous People Shown in Social Media Through the theory of identifying the key unit, the unit of analysis, in this case, is the reputation of Aboriginal people.
• Ethical Principles when Conducting Research Studies About Indigenous People The importance of the integration of indigenous knowledge and teaching into the classroom is explained by the need for knowledge sharing, which may bring peace between indigenous and non-indigenous people.
• Misery and Strengths of Indigenous People in Campbell’s “Halfbreed” Campbell’s Halfbreed is a narrative that reveals the power of poverty, discrimination, and injustice in relation to Metis families and women in particular and the way of how misery and strengths shape human life.
• Studying the History of Indigenous Peoples As a field of knowledge about the past, history is the foundation of the social sciences and, together with the other sciences, forms the human worldview.
• The Impact and Implications of COVID-19 on Indigenous People Thus, the outbreak of the COVID-19 virus has significantly affected the lives of indigenous population groups in different countries of the world, as these individuals are frequently discriminated against in terms of business, society, and […]
• How Does Cultural Continuity Play a Role in Youth Suicide Rates Among Indigenous People in Canada? In conclusion, it is possible to mention that there is a direct connection between youth suicide rates among Indigenous people in Canada and cultural continuity.
• Accessibility of Dental Care Services Among Indigenous People of Australi The oral health of Aboriginals of Australia is poor in comparison to that of non-Indigenous populations. The main problem is that most Aboriginals do not have access to dental healthcare services because of costs and […]
• Lateral Violence in the Indigenous Peoples The historical realities of the Indigenous population are contributing factors to the lateral violence exhibited by these peoples. Another way of preventing lateral violence is by sensitizing other members in my workplace on the issue.
• The Influence of Autonomy and Self-Determination on Indigenous People’s Health Most importantly, allowing individuals to implement traditional knowledge in solving medical problems is essential for enhancing autonomy and self-determination in indigenous’ people’s health.
• Health, Poverty, and Social Equity: Indigenous Peoples of Canada Another problem that much of northern Canada’s Indigenous Peoples face is the availability of healthcare services and people’s inability to access medical help.
• Great Buffalo Hunt and Its Impact on Australian Indigenous People The persistence of Indigenous people has provoked considerable interest among scientists in the impact of buffalo hunting on the development of the Australian tribes.
• Existing Indigenous Peoples and Their Accomplishments Some of the well known and whose existence has extensively been documented over the years include the Aborigines in Australia, the Maori from New Zealand, the Red Indians in the United States, as well as […]
• The Columbian Exchange: Interaction Between Whites and Indigenous People The provided reading material, in regards to interaction between Whites and indigenous people, during the course of Exploration era, provides us with the insight on many aspects of this process that have been previously overlooked.
• Australian Indigenous People’s Health Factors The long history of existence in conditions of political, economic, social, and cultural disturbance has caused severe damage to the health of indigenous peoples. Educational institutions had to close for the time of war, and […]
• Studies of History of Indigenous People in Canada In the last few weeks, history studies have served as a reminder of the painful history of the indigenous American People. The involvement of churches in the operation of residential schools challenges the notion of […]
• Indigenous Peoples’ Rights and Dakota Access Pipeline Although it is indicated that the pipeline meets the required environmental and safety standards, the agreeable truth is that it is a major threat to the moral rights of the affected people.
• Indigenous Peoples and Protected Areas: Rights, Principles and Practice The author revisits the colonial conservation history in America to support the significance of indigenous people in conservation of protected areas.
• Culture, Diversity and Health Experiences of Indigenous People in Australia This case will include an analysis of the factors that affect the health of the members of the Aboriginal Australian community members in relation to their health; this will include the historical factors that impact […]
• Essentialism and Identity of Australian Indigenous People For instance, Clapping sticks were a prominent musical instrument among the Australian Aboriginal people and they were used to control and maintain the rhythm of a song.
• Tourism and Indigenous People in Marketing in General Secondly, tourism is one of the sectors that benefit the indigenous people through the provision of revenue and employment, especially to the local people around the tourist destinations.
• The Movement of Indigenous People Away from City Centers, and in Saudi Arabia in Particular The history and the indigenous people possess knowledge that is very specific to the area and which can be used to an advantage.
• History of Indigenous People in Australia Prior to the arrival of the Europeans in the Australian continent in the 19th century, the land was inhabited by a group of people who are today referred to as the Aborigines.
• Indigenous People – Yanomamo People of South America The remote characteristic of this region resulted into lack of interaction between the Yanomamo people with other communities until the beginning of the 20th Century.
• Adivasis: The World’s Largest Population of Indigenous People
• Latin America: Central Information About Indigenous People
• Antidepressants and Its Impact on Indigenous People’s
• Are Residential Schools Harmful or Beneficial? The Indigenous People of Australia
• Policies Directed Towards the Indigenous People of Latin America During the Twentieth Century
• Balancing Economic Considerations and the Rights of Indigenous People
• Benefit-Sharing Arrangements Between Oil Companies and Indigenous People in Russian Northern Regions
• Reasons for Migration of the Indigenous People to Jamaica and the Wider Caribbean
• Conflict Between Indigenous People and Subsistence Farmers
• Colonization and Crimes Against Indigenous People
• Criminal Law and Indigenous People in Australia
• Differences Between Indigenous and Non-indigenous People
• Disadvantages Indigenous People Continuously Experience in Education
• Protecting and Sustaining Indigenous People’s Traditional Environmental Knowledge and Cultural Practice
• Environmental Justice: Black Mesa Indigenous People
• Family Health Care Health Issues and Australian Indigenous People
• Treatment of Indigenous People in the Colonial Period Differed According to Colonist Origin
• Fanon’s Three Stages Related to the Indigenous People of Chiapas
• Federalism and Economic Empowerment of Indigenous People in Gambella
• Forest Policy and Indigenous People in Colonial and Post Colonial Period
• Forging New and Improved Relationships With Indigenous People of Canada York University
• Colonization and Languages of Indigenous People in Canada
• Health Care Interventions for Indigenous People
• Historical Injustice Against Indigenous People
• Life of Indigenous People During the Colonial Time
• Indigenous People and Their Contact With Imperialists or Explorers
• Labour Market Discrimination Against Indigenous People in Peru
• Indigenous People and Tourism: Australia and New Zealand
• Many Court Cases Within Canada Regarding Indigenous People
• Indigenous People Have Rich and Diverse Heritages
• Native Americans and the Rights of Indigenous People
• Racial and Cultural Bias Towards Indigenous People
• Reconciliation With the Indigenous People of Australia
• Security for the Indigenous People in the Community
• Social Inequalities and Disadvantages of Indigenous People
• Spanish Colonialism and the Indigenous People of Bolivia
• Reactions of African Indigenous People to the European Scramble for Africa
• The Cultural and Racial Unity of All Indigenous People
• The European Expansion and Its Impact on Indigenous People
• Human Rights Problem Faced by the Indigenous People All Around the World
• Has Australian Law Adequately Protect the Health of Indigenous People?
• What Does the Anniversary of Australia Mean to the Indigenous People?
• How Have Indigenous People Been Impacted by Technology?
• What Explains Child Malnutrition of Indigenous People of Northeast India?
• How Vulnerable Are Bangladesh’s Indigenous People to Climate Change?
• What Positive Impact Does Tourism Have on Indigenous People?
• How Can Cultural Tourism Empower Indigenous Peoples?
• What Were the Negative Effects of Colonization on the Indigenous People?
• Do Indigenous People Have Benefits From Ecotourism?
• What Are the Problems Faced by the Indigenous People?
• How Did Indigenous People First Come to America?
• What Is the Importance of Indigenous People in Our Culture?
• How Did the Arrival of the Explorers and Settlers Affect the Indigenous Population?
• What Are the Social Values of Indigenous People?
• Why Do We Need to Protect Indigenous Peoples?
• Are Indigenous People Among the Most Disadvantaged in Society?
• What Can Be Done to Improve the Social Conditions of Indigenous People?
• How Were the Indigenous People of the Americas Affected by the European Arrival?
• What Happened to Indigenous People When Colonizers Arrived in the Americas?
• How Did the Spaniards Treat the Indigenous People in the Americas?
• What Happened to the Indigenous People of New Zealand?
• How Did Bolivian Indigenous Peoples Mobilize History for Social Change?
• What Was the Major Impact on the Indigenous People During the Time of Exploration and the Columbian Exchange?
• Why Is It Important to Indigenous People to Care for Country?
• How Can We Prevent Discrimination of Indigenous People?
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2024, February 25). 110 Indigenous People Essay Topic Ideas & Examples. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/indigenous-people-essay-topics/

"110 Indigenous People Essay Topic Ideas & Examples." IvyPanda , 25 Feb. 2024, ivypanda.com/essays/topic/indigenous-people-essay-topics/.

IvyPanda . (2024) '110 Indigenous People Essay Topic Ideas & Examples'. 25 February.

IvyPanda . 2024. "110 Indigenous People Essay Topic Ideas & Examples." February 25, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/indigenous-people-essay-topics/.

1. IvyPanda . "110 Indigenous People Essay Topic Ideas & Examples." February 25, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/indigenous-people-essay-topics/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "110 Indigenous People Essay Topic Ideas & Examples." February 25, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/indigenous-people-essay-topics/.

• Native American Questions
• Globalization Essay Topics
• Colonization Essay Ideas
• Mesoamerican Questions
• Canadian History Topics
• Superstition Essay Ideas
• African Diaspora Ideas
• Hispanics Questions
• Immigration Titles
• Demographics Topics
• California History Essay Titles
• Israeli-Palestinian Conflict Research Topics
• Cultural Identity Research Topics
• Immigration Reform Topics
• Trail Of Tears Essay Ideas

Indigenous Research Guide

• Journal Articles
• Language Learning
• News & Media
• Organizations & Associations
• Online Video & DVDs
• Featured Topics

Jordan's Principle, the Sixties Scoop and Indigenous Foster Care in Canada

Land back and indigenous sovereignty, missing and murdered indigenous women and girls, the truth and reconciliation commission and the residential school system.

• Citing Indigenous Knowledge
• Humber's Indigenous Education and Engagement Centre This link opens in a new window

The contents of this guide were added or created by Aliya Dalfen and Joseph Chan in collaboration with  Indigenous Education and Engagement at Humber College.

Below are some selected topics related to the past and present of indigenous peoples living in Canada; featuring books, videos, news articles and other selected resources from the internet and the Humber Libraries catalogue. For additional resources, check the Books  and Journal Articles  sections of this guide.

To jump to a particular topic, select from the Table of Contents below or click the associated box in the sidebar.

Table of Contents :

Jordan's Principle, the Sixties Scoop and Indigenous Foster Care in Canada

• Jordan's Principle
• The Sixties Scoop and Child Foster Care

What is Jordan's Principle?

"Jordan’s Principle is a legal requirement resulting from the Orders of the Canadian Human Rights Tribunal (CHRT) and is not a policy or program.

Jordan’s Principle is a child-first principle that aims to eliminate service inequities and delays for First Nations children. Jordan’s Principle states that any public service ordinarily available to all other children must be made available to First Nations children without delay or denial.

Jordan’s Principle is named in honour of Jordan River Anderson, a young First Nations boy from Norway House Cree Nation in northern Manitoba, who spent his entire life in hospital while caught in a jurisdictional dispute between the governments of Canada and Manitoba, which both refused to pay for the in-home medical care necessary for Jordan to live in his home and community." - Assembly of First Nations

"Jordan's Principle provides that where a government service is available to all other children, but a jurisdictional dispute regarding services to a First Nations child arises between Canada, a province, a territory, or between government departments, the government department of first contact pays for the service and can seek reimbursement from the other government or department after the child has received the service. It is a child-first principle meant to prevent First Nations children from being denied essential public services or experiencing delays in receiving them. On December 12, 2007, the House of Commons unanimously passed a motion that the government should immediately adopt a child-first principle, based on Jordan's Principle, to resolve jurisdictional disputes involving the care of First Nations children." - Government of Canada

Have the Provincial and Federal Governments Upheld Jordan's Principle?

"On January 26, 2016, the Canadian Human Rights Tribunal (Tribunal) issued its decision regarding a complaint filed in February 2007 by the First Nations Child and Family Caring Society (Caring Society) and the Assembly of First Nations (AFN), alleging that the Department of Indian and Northern Affairs’ (INAC) provision of First Nations Child and Family Services (FNCFS) and implementation of Jordan’s Principle is flawed, inequitable and thus discriminatory under the Canadian Human Rights Act.

The Tribunal found that the FNCFS Program denied services to many First Nations children and families living on-reserve and resulted in adverse impacts for them because it was based on flawed assumptions about First Nations communities that did not reflect the actual needs of those communities. The Tribunal also found that the FNCFS Program’s two main funding mechanisms incentivized removing First Nations’ children from their families.

The Tribunal also found that INAC’s narrow interpretation and implementation of Jordan’s Principle results in service gaps, delays or denials, and overall adverse impacts on First Nations children and families on-reserve. Jordan’s principle is a child-first principle that provides that, in the matter of public services available to all other children, where jurisdictional disputes arise between Canada and a province/territory, or between government departments in the same government, the government or department of first contact pays for the service, and can seek reimbursement from another government or department after the fact." - First Nations Child and Family Caring Society

"The Canadian Human Rights Tribunal ruled in January 2016 that Ottawa discriminated against First Nation children by underfunding on-reserve child welfare services and by failing to apply  Jordan's Principle , which places the needs of First Nations children ahead of jurisdictional disputes between governments.

The tribunal ordered Ottawa to immediately increase child welfare funding, overhaul the child welfare system and apply Jordan's Principle on all publicly delivered services, including health and education, for children.

At the time of the ruling, Health Canada's data showed on-reserve First Nation children faced a massive gap in health services compared with what was available provincially, according to the internal correspondence obtained by NDP MP Charlie Angus through the Access to Information Act.

The correspondence said Health Canada wasn't equipped to assess children with special needs, and faced gaps in mental health services and health support for children in care. " - CBC News

• Jordan's Principle Infographic - First Nations Child & Family Caring Society
• What is Jordan's Principle - Assembly of First Nations
• Definition of Jordan's Principle from the Canadian Human Rights Tribunal
• Jordan's Principle - Government of Canada

• Bringing Reconciliation to Healthcare in Canada: Wise Practices For Healthcare Leaders This HealthCareCAN Report discusses critical issues facing Indigenous Peoples in Canada, and the role that Canadian health leaders play in helping to close the health gap. It also presents wise practices for health leaders and organizations to address the health-related Calls to Action of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada (TRC) based on a literature review, interviews with key stakeholders, and case studies of several health care organizations. The term “wise practices” is widely used in Indigenous contexts to describe locally appropriate Indigenous actions that contribute to sustainable and equitable conditions.
• First Peoples, Second Class Treatment - The role of racism in the health and well-being of Indigenous peoples in Canada
• Canadian Human Rights Tribunal Finds Discrimination Against First Nations Children Living On-Reserve, 2016
• Pre-Tribunal Timeline: History of First Nations Child and Family Services Funding - First Nations Child & Family Caring Society
• I am a Witness: Tribunal Timeline and Documents - First Nations Child & Family Caring Society

What is the Sixties Scoop?

"The Sixties Scoop is the catch-all name for a series of policies enacted by provincial child welfare authorities starting in the mid-1950s, which saw thousands of Indigenous children taken from their homes and families, placed in foster homes, and eventually adopted out to white families from across Canada and the United States. These children lost their names, their languages, and a connection to their heritage. Sadly, many were also abused and made to feel ashamed of who they were." - CBC Docs

"The term  Sixties Scoop  was coined by Patrick Johnston, author of the 1983 report  Native Children and the Child Welfare System . It refers to the mass removal of Aboriginal children from their families into the child welfare system, in most cases without the consent of their families or bands. Professor Raven Sinclair recounts that Johnston told her that a B.C. social worker provided the phrase when she told him “…with tears in her eyes—that it was common practice in B.C. in the mid-sixties to ‘scoop’ from their mothers on reserves almost all newly born children. She was crying because she realized—20 years later—what a mistake that had been.” 1  The Sixties Scoop refers to a particular phase of a larger history, and not to an explicit government policy.  Although the practice of removing Aboriginal children from their families and into state care existed before the 1960s (with the  residential school system , for example), the drastic overrepresentation of Aboriginal children in the child welfare system accelerated in the 1960s, when Aboriginal children were seized and taken from their homes and placed, in most cases, into middle-class Euro-Canadian families.  This overrepresentation continues today." - University of British Columbia

• Sixties Scoop - University of British Columbia
• The Sixties Scoop Explained - CBC Docs POV
• Sixties Scoop - Canadian Encyclopedia
• Health Canada knew of massive gaps in First Nations child health care, documents show - CBC News

What is Land Back?

" LANDBACK  is a movement that has existed for generations with a long legacy of organizing and sacrifice to get Indigenous Lands back into Indigenous hands. Currently, there are  LANDBACK  battles being fought all across Turtle Island, to the north and the South. 

As NDN Collective, we are stepping into this legacy with the launch of the  LANDBACK Campaign  as a mechanism to connect, coordinate, resource and amplify this movement and the communities that are fighting for  LANDBACK . The closure of Mount Rushmore, return of that land and all public lands in the Black Hills, South Dakota is our cornerstone battle, from which we will build out this campaign. Not only does Mount Rushmore sit in the heart of the sacred Black Hills, but it is an international symbol of white supremacy and colonization. To truly dismantle white supremacy and systems of oppression, we have to go back to the roots. Which, for us, is putting Indigneous Lands back in Indigenous hands.

In addition,  LANDBACK  is more than just a campaign. It is a meta narrative that allows us to deepen our relationships across the field of organizing movements working towards true collective liberation. It allows us to envision a world where Black, Indigenous & POC liberation co-exists.  It is our political, organizing and narrative framework from which we do the work.  " - Landback.org's Manifesto

"Land Back. Those two words lay out with stark clarity the goal of centuries of Indigenous struggle. The Land Back movement comes up from the most grassroots land defenders across the country, who now see their local battles as part of a larger mobilization to reassert Indigenous control over their traditional territories. The leaders of this resurgent movement want nothing to do with the establishment Indigenous organizations that have been willing to negotiate further land surrenders in exchange for one-off payments and promises of marginally improved services. "Land Back" means precisely what it sounds like: taking land back under Indigenous control and protection that was never legally ceded in the first place."  Kanahus Manuel and Naomi Klein (Globe and Mail Opinion)

• Land Back A Yellowhead Institute Red Paper The project of land back is about reclaiming Indigenous jurisdiction: breathing life into rights and responsibilities. This Red Paper is about how Canada dispossesses Indigenous peoples from the land, and in turn, what communities are doing to get it back.
• Haggle no more: The push to reclaim Indigenous territory: OPINION
• University of British Columbia's Treaty Research Guide
• APTN In Focus, Questioning the Usefulness of Land Acknowledgements Land acknowledgements have been growing in popularity in the past 10 years to the point they’re now at most events or gatherings. But while they’re common, some question if they’re useful in reconciliation or simply superficial platitudes meant to give the illusion of honour and respect for indigenous land and nations. Watch this news report to learn more about the ins and outs of land acknowledgements, including the importance of land acknowledgements that are meaningful and heartfelt: "It’s giving them language but it’s not meant to be set language,” said Shana Dion “It’s built to be fluid enough so it resonates within yourself when your saying it, so that its not just words you’re reading from a script, but that it comes more from the heart.”

What is the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls?

"The National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls is a public inquiry established under  Part I of the federal  Inquiries Act . The inquiry has also been established under respective provincial and territorial inquiries' legislation through Orders-in-Council. This gives the inquiry the ability to look into federal, provincial and territorial jurisdictions as a part of the inquiry.

The inquiry has the authority to determine how best to accomplish its mandate and make recommendations.

The  Inquiries Act  gives the commissioners powers to conduct the inquiry independently. The commissioners will have the power to:

• call any witnesses
• require witnesses to give evidence
• require the production of any document or item that they need relevant to their investigation" - Government of Canada

"The National Inquiry must look into and report on the systemic causes of all forms of violence against Indigenous women and girls, including sexual violence. We must examine the underlying social, economic, cultural, institutional, and historical causes that contribute to the ongoing violence and particular vulnerabilities of Indigenous women and girls in Canada. The mandate also directs us to look into and report on existing institutional policies and practices to address violence, including those that are effective in reducing violence and increasing safety.

While the formal name of the Inquiry is “the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls,” our mandate covers all forms of violence. This makes our mandate very broad. By not being limited to investigating only cases of Indigenous women who went missing or were murdered, we can include women and girls who died under suspicious circumstances.

It also means we can address issues such as sexual assault, child abuse, domestic violence, bullying and harassment, suicide, and self-harm. This violence is interconnected, and can have equally devastating effects. Expanding the mandate beyond missing and murdered also creates space for more survivors to share their stories. They can help us look to the future from a place of experience, resilience, and hope." - National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls

• Marginalization of Aboriginal Women - University of British Columbia
• Final Report of the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls
• Calls for Justice - National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls

• The Treaty Relationship
• The Indigenous Land Of Tkaronto
• Treaty Areas
• Two Row Wampum And Wampum Belts
• Honouring Treaty Relationships

" Understanding Treaty relationships and promises requires applying both Indigenous and non-Indigenous perspectives. The oral histories of Treaty negotiations have a place in the Treaty interpretation process. " -   Aimée Craft, Living well together: Understanding treaties as agreements we share .

Explore Canada’s colonial past: the  historical development of treaties , and  treaty relationships as perceived by settlers  and  voices from Indigenous knowledge holders and communities  – the original stewards of the land. Take a closer look at the history of treaties from an Anishinaabeg perspective in a beautifully illustrated video:  We are all Treaty People .

Explore further with these selected library resources:

Chapter 3: Treaties of Canada. In Truth and Reconciliation in Canadian schools  (eBook)

• This chapter provides an excellent entry point into teaching about Canadian treaties with a holistic and reconciliatory approach

From treaty peoples to treaty nation: A road map for all Canadians  (In Print)

• This book discusses past and present treaty relationships, and providing realistic steps Canada can take to ensure we are honouring and acting upon treaty responsibilities.

The right relationship: Reimagining the implementation of historical treaties  (eBook)

• Indigenous and non-indigenous scholars are asked, in this collection, to cast light on the magnitude of the challenges Canadians face in seeking a consensus on the nature of treaty partnership in the twenty-first century.

Keeping promises: The Royal Proclamation of 1763, Aboriginal rights, and treaties in Canada  (eBook)

• In this book, essays by historians, lawyers, treaty negotiators, and Indigenous leaders explore the execution of the Canadian treaties.

Trick or treaty?  (Streaming Video)

• Obomaswin’s film portrays one community’s attempt to enforce their treaty rights and protect their lands, while also revealing the complexities of contemporary treaty agreements.

The numbered treaties and the politics of incoherency  (Journal Article)

• This article explores the inconsistent ways in which treaties have been taken up within Canadian legal and political institutions, arguing that the incoherency surrounding treaties promulgates the notion that treaties are being implemented while simultaneously obscuring, distorting and minimizing the rights of Indigenous peoples in practice.

Explore the land Humber is built upon by following a virtual path through  Humber’s Indigenous Cultural Markers . Learn about  the Indigenous History of Tkaronto , and the  Toronto Purchase, Treaty Number 13 (1805) . View a beautifully personalized  land acknowledgement uncovering an oral history of Tkaronto  - with illustrations by Chief Lady Bird, or discover and download  First Story App , containing maps and walking tours related to Toronto’s Indigenous communities, both past and present.

No surrender: The land remains Indigenous  (eBook)

• The research in this book exposes how the Canadian government deceptively misled Indigenous nations during treaty negotiations.

The clay we are made of: Haudenosaunee land tenure on the Grand River  (eBook)

• This award winning book offers a retelling of the history of the Grand River Haudenosaunee from their Creation Story, through European contact, to contemporary land claims negotiations.

Looking after gdoo-naaganinaa: Precolonial Nishnaabeg diplomatic and treaty relationships  (Journal Article)

• This article articulates Nishnaabeg cultural perspectives on relationships with the land, the non-human world, and other Indigenous nations, relying on academic literature interpreted through an Nishnaabeg lense. This perspective exists in contrast to mainstream academic literature regarding treaties.

Tkaronto  (DVD, in Library Holdings)

• Tkaronto is a reflective and provoking exploration of two Indigenous 30-somethings, Ray and Jolene, who make an unexpected connection at the pinnacle of a common struggle: to stake claim to their urban Indigenous identity.

Law's Indigenous Ethics  (eBook)

• Organized around the seven Anishinaabe grandmother and grandfather teachings of love, truth, bravery, humility, wisdom, honesty, and respect, this book explores ethics in relation to Indigenous issues including title, treaties, legal education, and residential schools in Canada.

Lessons from the land: Peace through relationship. In standing with Standing Rock: Voices from the #NoDAPL movement  (eBook)

• Michelle Latimer reflects on her experience at Standing Rock, Toronto and her connection with the land.

Learn about treaty names and the land history of Ontario, Canada and beyond. Explore  Whose Land  or  Native Land  to learn about your location and the history of the land you are on. Look to  Humber’s Land Acknowledgement Best Practices , or resources like the  Native Governance Centre , for tips to writing your own, appropriate Indigenous land acknowledgement.

Children of the broken treaty: Canada's lost promise and one girl's dream  (eBook)

• In a movement inspired by Shannen Koostachin, a young Cree woman, Angus works to establish how Canada--through breaches of treaties, broken promises, and callous neglect--deliberately denied Indigenous children their basic human rights.

Why Indigenous literatures matter  (eBook)

• This book contemplates four key questions at the heart of Indigenous kinship traditions: How do we learn to be human? How do we become good relatives? How do we become good ancestors? How do we learn to live together?

Rethinking the practice and performance of Indigenous land acknowledgement  (Journal article)

• This article is based on a plenary panel of Indigenous scholars asked to consider land acknowledgements and questions such as: how might acknowledgement be ‘actioned’ differently by settler Canadians, ‘arrivants,’ immigrants, displaced peoples, and visitors?

Treaty #  (In Print)

• A book of poems, drawing upon Armand Ruffo’s Ojibwe heritage and his connection to place.

Arrows in a quiver: From contact to the courts in Indigenous-Canadian relations  (eBook)

• A comprehensive political and legal overview of Indigenous-settler relations in Canada, written at a level appropriate for both college and university students.

Explore the significance of Two Row Wampum and wampum belts. Listen to Rick Hill speak on the importance of  The Dish with One Spoon  and  The Two Row Wampum . Read about Nation-to-Nation relationships and the meaning of Wampum in  Our Stories , watch and listen to Alan Ojiig Corbiere discuss  The Underlying Importance of Wampum Belts , and read an  introduction the Two Row Wampum , one of the oldest treaty relationships made in 1613, between the Dutch and the Haudenosaunee peoples. Listen  to a beautiful poem by poet Lena Recollet , to acknowledge the history and territorial land of Tkaronto.

Two-row wampum reimagined: Understanding the hybrid digital lives of contemporary Kanien’kehá:Ka youth  (Journal Article)

• Jacobs uses the Two Row Wampum to describe her experience as Kanien’kehá:ka person. The article emphasizes the hybrid identity of contemporary Indigenous youth who not only reconcile traditional and contemporary identities, but also participate actively in several digital communities and life worlds.

Reading the wampum: Essays on hodinöhsö:Ni’ visual code and epistemological recovery  (eBook)

• Reading the Wampum, Kelsey provides the first academic consideration of the ways in which these sacred belts are reinterpreted into current Haudenosaunee tradition. While Kelsey explores the aesthetic appeal of the belts, she also provides insightful analysis of how readings of wampum belts can change our understanding of specific treaty rights and land exchanges.

The truth that wampum tells: My debwewin on the Algonquin land claims process  (In Print)

• The Truth that Wampum Tells offers readers a first-ever insider analysis of the contemporary land claims and self-government process in Canada.

The two row wampum-covenant chain tradition as a guide for Indigenous-university research partnerships  (Journal Article)

• This article examines the oldest known treaty between incoming Europeans and Indigenous North Americans to derive five basic principles to guide healthy, productive relationships between Indigenous community-based researchers and university-based ones.

Kayanerenkó:wa: the great law of peace  (In Print and eBook)

• In this book, Paul Williams, counsel to Indigenous nations for forty year, brings the sum of his experience and expertise to this analysis of Kayanerenkó:wa as a living, principled legal system. In doing so, he puts a powerful tool in the hands of Indigenous and settler communities.

Land claims, protests, occupations and blockades are currently happening across Canada. Learn about  land claims in process in Ontario . Read current news about the  long fight in Caledonia, the Six Nations Grand River land dispute , just 100 km west of Toronto; the  Wet'suwet'en Conflict , regarding pipelines in British Columbia; the ongoing dispute regarding  Mi’kmaw fishing rights  in Nova Scotia. Let  Wab Kinew  take you on an exploration of land claims and treaty rights protest across Canada, and in Attawapiskat, in his  8th Fire series . Or, listen to a podcast series,  Call Her Aunty  by Humber’s Quazance Boissoneau and Grace Francisci as they interview Regina Hartwick, Associate Dean of Indigenous Education and Engagement on Indigenous treaties, reconciliation and resurgence.

All our relations: Finding the path forward  (eBook)

• Talaga explores the legacy of cultural genocide against Indigenous peoples and how to move forward, in her CBC Massey Lecture.

Resurgence and reconciliation: Indigenous-settler relations and earth teachings  (eBook)

• By using “earth-teachings” to inform social practices, the editors and contributors offer a rich, innovative, and holistic way forward in response to the world’s most profound natural and social challenges. This timely volume shows how the complexities and interconnections of resurgence and reconciliation and the living earth are often overlooked in contemporary discourse and debate.

This place: 150 years retold  (In Print)

• This graphic novel explores the past 150 years through the eyes of Indigenous creators.

From where I stand: Rebuilding Indigenous nations for a stronger Canada  (In Print and eBook)

• Jody Wilson-Raybould reveals why true reconciliation will occur only when Canada moves beyond denial, recognizes Indigenous Rights, and replaces the Indian Act.

IdleNoMore: And the remaking of Canada  (eBook)

• Launched by four women in Saskatchewan in reaction to a federal omnibus budget bill, the protest became the most powerful demonstration of Aboriginal identity in Canadian history.

What are Residential Schools?

"The term  residential schools  refers to an extensive school system set up by the Canadian government and administered by churches that had the nominal objective of educating Indigenous children but also the more damaging and equally explicit objectives of indoctrinating them into Euro-Canadian and Christian ways of living and assimilating them into mainstream white Canadian society. The residential school system officially operated from the 1880s into the closing decades of the 20th century. The system forcibly separated children from their families for extended periods of time and forbade them to acknowledge their Indigenous heritage and culture or to speak their own languages. Children were severely punished if these, among other, strict rules were broken. Former students of residential schools have spoken of horrendous abuse at the hands of residential school staff: physical, sexual, emotional, and psychological. Residential schools provided Indigenous students with inappropriate education, often only up to lower grades, that focused mainly on prayer and manual labour in agriculture, light industry such as woodworking, and domestic work such as laundry work and sewing.

Residential schools systematically undermined Indigenous, First Nations, Métis and Inuit cultures across Canada and disrupted families for generations, severing the ties through which Indigenous culture is taught and sustained, and contributing to a general loss of language and culture. Because they were removed from their families, many students grew up without experiencing a nurturing family life and without the knowledge and skills to raise their own families. The devastating effects of the residential schools are far-reaching and continue to have a significant impact on Indigenous communities. The residential school system is widely considered a form of  genocide  because of the  purposeful attempt  from  the government and church  to  eradicate all aspects of Indigenous cultures  and lifeworlds." - University of British Columbia

What is the Truth and Reconciliation Commission?

"The Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada (TRC) was created through a legal settlement between Residential Schools Survivors, the Assembly of First Nations, Inuit representatives and the parties responsible for creation and operation of the schools: the federal government and the church bodies.

The TRC’s mandate was to inform all Canadians about what happened in residential schools. The TRC documented the truth of Survivors, their families, communities and anyone personally affected by the residential school experience. This included First Nations, Inuit and Métis former residential school students, their families, communities, the churches, former school employees, government officials and other Canadians.

The TRC concluded its mandate in 2015 and transferred its records to the safekeeping of National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation (NCTR)." -  National Center for Truth and Reconciliation

• The Canadian Residential Schools Database This database was created in the fall of 2021. There are 161 residential schools, 636 Indian Day Schools, and 31 Indian Hospitals listed in this database.
• Reconciliation isn’t dead. It never truly existed Opinion article by Anishinaabe author and journalist Tanya Talaga reflecting on the Trudeau government's words and actions since the Truth and Reconciliation Commissions.
• Reports - The Truth and Reconciliation Commission Includes Calls to Action (2015), Survivors Speak (2015) and Canada's Residential Schools, The History, Parts 1 & 2 (2015).
• Residential Schools in Canada - The Canadian Encyclopedia
• The Residential School System - University of British Columbia
• Where are the Children Buried? - Report from Lakehead University

• << Previous: Online Video & DVDs
• Next: Citing Indigenous Knowledge >>
• Last Updated: Jan 9, 2024 11:52 AM
• URL: https://libguides.humber.ca/Indigenous-Research-Guide

Indigenous Studies: More Topics

• Getting Started
• Finding Books
• Royal Proclamation of 1763 This link opens in a new window
• Indian Act This link opens in a new window
• Research Portals and Other Collections
• Statistics and Demographics
• Grey Literature
• Have a Heart
• Citing Elders and Knowledge Keepers

Popular Topics

Click here to see a list of popular search topics from the library catalogue that have links to relevant books, e-books, and audio-visual materials at the First Nations University of Canada and University of Regina.   Below are other popular subjects with additional information.

Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls

Information on the Government of Canada's National Inquiry to Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls

The RCMP's 2014 document Missing and Murdered Aboriginal Women: A National Operational Overview and the Missing and Murdered Aboriginal Women: 2015 Update to the National Operational Overview

Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women: Revealing the Numbers Game a public lecture by Senator Lilian Dyck October 25, 2015

Improving Education on Reserves: A First Nations Education Authority Act by Michael Mendelson, July 2008

The Aboriginal Healing Foundation has much information about residential schools.  The University of Regina Library and First Nations University of Canada Library also have many of the foundation's material available in paper that can be borrowed.  They are valuable resources relating to residential schools and First Nations issues.

The Report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples was published by the Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development in 1996.  The University of Regina Library owns all five volumes in Government Publications and the main circulating collection.   Volume 3, chapter 5 of the report discusses education .  Volume 1, part two, chapter 10 discusses the topic of residential schools . 

Some apologies about residential schools by the Catholic Church are available here .  A partial archive of material that was produced and distributed by the Anglican Church about residential schools is available here . 

The Canadian Human Rights Tribunal is expected to rule on the First Nations child welfare case in the Spring of 2015.  Details about the hearing and background documents are available here . 

The University Library's Indian History Film Project contains transcripts of hundreds interviews with First Nations elders across Canada.   Interviews were documented between the early 20th century to the mid 1980s and portray perspectives on various aspects of life from a First Nations' perspective. This primary research is searchable by keyword and browsable by date of the interview, subject, interviewer and interviewee name. 

The Report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples was published by the Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development in 1996.  The University of Regina Library owns all five volumes of the report in Government Publications and the main circulating collection.  Volume 4, chapter 3 of the report disucces elders .    

First Nations Child Welfare

First Nations Child & Family Caring Society of Canada (The Caring Society)

An independent, national organization that receives no government funding.  It supports First Nations children, youth, and families world-wide for equal opportunities to succeed.  It produces research including an online journal and is a portal to other related sources.   

Indigenous Religions

Information about Library holdings for Indigenous religions in North America is available  here . 

• << Previous: Finding Books
• Next: Royal Proclamation of 1763 >>
• Last Updated: Apr 23, 2024 9:16 AM
• URL: https://library.uregina.ca/Indigeneous_Studies_100

Institute for the Study of the Crown in Canada

Crown-Indigenous Relations

(Les relations Couronne-Peuples autochtones  : le français suit)

By Nathan Tidridge (Vice-President, Institute for the Study of the Crown in Canada)

Crown-Indigenous relationships are as diverse as the various nations that are part of the lands now known as Canada. There is no one definition that holds for the entire country.

Ever since Indigenous Nations first encountered Europeans on Turtle Island (North America) during the 15th century, they began incorporating them into their own long-established protocols for bilateral and multilateral relationships. These relationships, often expressed as Treaties, created the necessary diplomatic space in which very different societies could communicate and negotiate complex associations despite radically different world-views. For settlers, the Crown was a natural vehicle to enter into long-term relationships with their First Nations, Inuit and Métis partners.

The Royal Proclamation (1763) and Treaty of Niagara (1764)

The Royal Proclamation of 1763, issued in the name of King George III following the cession of New France to Britain, is often held up as the Indigenous “Magna Carta” because, after much negotiating, it recognized “Indian Nations” and placed them under the protection of the Crown. However, it was not until the Proclamation was ratified at the 1764 Council of Niagara using Indigenous diplomatic methods and protocols, binding the King in a kinship relationship using the Covenant Chain relationship (previously established with the Haudenosaunee Confederacy in the early 17th century), that his words had an effect in the Great Lakes Region and beyond.

While each nation’s association with the Crown is unique, the 1764 Treaty of Niagara is generally thought of as the foundation of the modern, rights-based, Treaty relationship that allowed Canada to develop. It was at Niagara that the nation-to-nation relationship inferred by the Royal Proclamation of 1763 was made explicit.

Treaty, like the institution of the monarchy, is an organic creation that evolves—or devolves—depending on those who are engaged with it. Treaties are meant to be the best reflections of their constituents. They also require personal relationships to be effective.

Attempted erosion of Treaty by Canadian Governments

However, a key aspect of Canada’s constitutional development that has muddied the waters we were meant to travel with our Treaty partners is the development of the convention of Responsible Government. Never articulated in Treaty discussions—indeed language contradicting responsible government was often employed—the development of the Westminster system of government since the 18th century has placed the exercise of political power in the hands of elected governments in Canada rather than the monarchs or their representatives.

For the Canadian State, Elizabeth II is Queen of Canada (an office distinct from her British incarnation since the 1931 Statute of Westminster ) and must take advice from the Canadian Prime Minister. The Prime Minister’s Office has thus become the gatekeeper of the ancient Treaty relationships of this land, restricting the access of Indigenous Peoples to the Queen (previous to Confederation such meetings happened regularly) [1] as well as controlling when senior members of the Royal Family can visit. The Office of Prime Minister, through the Department of Canadian Heritage, controls the timing, length of stay, events and guest lists of Royal Tours and interactions with Indigenous Peoples.

Indeed, a feature of Canada’s political development following Confederation has been the usurpation and erosion by Canadian elected officials of the Crown’s relationships with Indigenous Peoples. The constant reimagining by Canadian officials of the Crown in these lands without consulting, or seeking the consent of, the Nations that are in relationship with it has led to the creation of such things as the Indian Act and the negative impacts that continue to flow from it. Today, access to the Sovereign or the Prince of Wales by Indigenous Peoples requires the approval of the Government of Canada.

Despite this, many Indigenous People see their relationships remaining with the British Crown, with the Canadian Crown and its government considered as interlopers. However, the governor general and lieutenant governors are important figures because they represent the monarch regardless of their constitutional positions within the Canadian state. As the Confederacy of Treaty Six First Nations reminded the Queen in a 2021 letter regarding the selection of her federal representative: “The Governor-Generals were in place long before [the] creation of Canada by Imperial legislation in 1867… Our reference to the history of the Governor-General relates directly to our relationship created by Treaty making.” [2]

Keepers of Protocol and the Power to Convene

The Queen and her representatives remain the “keepers of protocols” for non-Indigenous Canada—at the apex of our national and provincial ceremonies—and are rediscovering their roles as natural conduits into Treaty and other Crown-Indigenous relationships. Pamela Klassen writes:

If the “true spirit” vested in the principal of treaty people is ever to be realized, the texts of the treaties will have to be animated by the protocols of and symbols not only of the Queen and her bodies, but also by those elders who have preserved the knowledge of the treaties in their languages, their ceremonies, and their stories of jurisdiction. [3]

The Crown’s powerful and apolitical ability to convene gatherings of people across society highlights an enduring aspect of the Treaty relationship. The power to convene is enhanced further when it is coupled with the traditional rights of the Queen and her representatives laid out by Walter Bagehot: to be consulted, to encourage, and to warn the government.

An example would be the 2022 Platinum Jubilee Garden Project undertaken by the country’s lieutenant governors and territorial commissioners. Sponsored by Saskatchewan’s Lieutenant Governor Russ Mirasty and Manitoba’s Lieutenant Governor Janice Filmon, the Platinum Jubilee Garden Project used the Platinum Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II to centre the critical Crown-Indigenous Relationships threaded across Turtle Island.

The project established spaces that naturally created community from their inception to the ongoing care required to maintain them. What each garden looks like depends on the relationships, treaty or otherwise, that exist with the Crown in that region—it was up to each viceregal representative to work with, and learn from, their partners to determine the location, plants/medicines and layout. The upkeep of these spaces will provide opportunities for future teachings, collaborations and the reinforcement of the Queen’s representative’s critical role in Treaty and other Crown-Indigenous relationships.

During their visit to Yellowknife in 2022, the Prince of Wales and Duchess of Cornwall dedicated the garden co-created by Northwest Territories Commissioner Margaret Thom (a member of the Dene Nation) and the Canadian Armed Forces (Joint Task Force North). Recalling her time with the Royal Couple, Commissioner Thom remarked that the Prince of Wales understood the importance of the garden as a space that honours the Crown’s relationship—his relationship—with Indigenous Peoples. It was a space meant to centre Indigenous teachings.

A common thread binding the Platinum Jubilee Garden’s together is that each viceregal representative was gifted Chapel Royal Tobacco Seeds to plant. Grown by the Queen’s Chapel Royal established in 2017 at Massey College, Toronto, this medicine has significance to many nations across the land and was used by some in gifting protocols established with the Crown.

During his historic address to the assembled Canadian representatives of the Queen at the 2019 Council at the Chapel Royal , Perry Bellegarde, National Chief of the Assembly of First Nations, imparted this teaching:

Properly understood, the Treaty relationship is not founded in rights denial or a colonial mentality but, rather, in the equality and sovereignty of peoples and our agreement to share the land without dominating one another… Each of you must be aware of this history and the significance of Treaty as part of your high office. While the government of the day has a role to operationalize the Treaty obligations held by the Crown, the Queen’s representatives are the caretakers and witnesses to this immutable relationship. [4]

Providing a further refinement to the role of the Crown in Canada, Mary Simon, Canada’s first Indigenous Governor General, used her installation address to pledge that she would use her position, “to hold together the tension of the past with the promise of the future, in a wise and thoughtful way.” [5]

The Crown, due to its history in this land, embodies that tension. It is this very tension that makes the Crown not only relevant, but indispensable to the future of Canada. During his address at the 2022 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM), the Prince of Wales reflected on reconciliation, including his role in that process:

In Canada recently, my wife and I were deeply touched to meet many of those engaged in the ongoing process of reconciliation – indigenous and non-indigenous peoples reflecting honestly and openly on one of the darkest aspects of history. As challenging as that conversation can be, people across Canada are approaching it with courage and unwavering commitment, determined to lay a foundation of respect and understanding upon which a better future can be built. [6]

Restored through ceremony by the Sovereign and her representatives, and made operational by governments acting in her name, the Honour of the Crown provides the path to reconciliation, but it also holds out the possibility of reconciliation through mutually respected symbols, recovered ceremonies, convening safer spaces and the creation of new protocols. [7]

[1] There are multiple documented meetings between Indigenous delegations and various monarchs, including Queen Anne, King George III, King William IV, Queen Victoria and Queen Elizabeth II.

[2] Okimaw (Chief) Vernon Watchmaker, Grand Chief Confederacy of Treaty Six, Letter “Governor General of Canada,” January 24, 2021.

[3] Pamela Klassen, “Spiritual Jurisdictions: Treaty People and the Queen of Canada,” in Ekklesia: Three Inquiries in Church and State (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2018), 114.

[4] Perry Bellegarde, Address at Historic Gathering of the Queen’s Representatives in Canada and First Nations Leaders, Massey College, Toronto, 12 June 2019.

[5] Right Hon. Mary Simon, Installation Speech as Governor General of Canada, July 2021.

[6] His Royal Highness, The Prince of Wales, “A speech by HRH The Prince of Wales at the CHOGM Opening Ceremony at Kigali Convention Centre, Rwanda,” 24 June 2022.

[7] In the Calls to Action published by the Truth and Reconciliation Commission , Call #45 asked for a “Royal Proclamation of Reconciliation,” and – recently adopted – Call #94 asked for a new oath of citizenship that retained the Queen while incorporating “Treaties with Indigenous Peoples.” Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, 2015.

Further reading

Michael Asch, John Burrows and Jim Tully, eds., Resurgence and Reconciliation: Responsibilities for Shared Futures. University of Toronto Press, 2018.

John Borrows, “Wampum at Niagara: The Royal Proclamation, Canadian Legal History, and Self-Government,” in Aboriginal and Treaty Rights in Canada: Essays on law, equity, and respect for difference , ed. Michael Asch. Vancouver: UBC Press, 1997.

Canada, Georges Erasmus, and René Dussault, Report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples . Ottawa: The Commission, 1996.

James Daschuk, Clearing the Plains: Disease, Politics of Starvation, and the Loss of Indigenous Life . University of Regina Press, 2019.

Bob Joseph, 21 Things You May Not Know About the Indian Act . Indigenous Relations Press, 2018.

Peter H. Russell, Canada’s Odyssey: A Country Based on Incomplete Conquests . University of Toronto Press, 2017.

Robert Talbot, Negotiating the Numbered Treaties: An Intellectual and Political History of Alexander Morris . Vancouver: UBC Press, 2009.

Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada: calls to action. Ottawa: The Commission, 2015.

Nathan Tidridge, The Queen at the Council Fire: The Treaty of Niagara, Reconciliation, and the Dignified Crown in Canada . Toronto: Dundurn, 2015.

Les peuples autochtones et la Couronne au Canada

Par Nathan Tidridge (vice-président, Institut d’études sur la Couronne au Canada)

Les relations entre la Couronne et les peuples autochtones sont aussi diverses que les différentes nations qui font partie des terres maintenant connues sous le nom de Canada. Il n’existe pas de définition unique valable pour l’ensemble du pays.

Depuis que les Nations autochtones ont rencontré des Européens sur l’île de la Tortue (Amérique du Nord) au cours du XV e siècle, elles ont commencé à les intégrer dans leurs propres protocoles de relations bilatérales et multilatérales établis de longue date. Ces relations, souvent exprimées sous forme de traités, ont créé l’espace diplomatique nécessaire pour que des sociétés très différentes puissent communiquer et négocier des associations complexes malgré des visions du monde radicalement différentes. Pour les colons, la Couronne était un véhicule naturel pour établir des relations à long terme avec leurs partenaires inuits, métis et des Premières Nations.

La Proclamation royale (1763) et le Traité de Niagara (1764)

La Proclamation royale de 1763, émise au nom du roi George III à la suite de la cession de la Nouvelle-France à la Grande-Bretagne, est souvent considérée comme la Magna Carta autochtone car, après de nombreuses négociations, elle reconnaissait les « nations indiennes » et les plaçait sous la protection de la Couronne. Cependant, ce n’est que lorsque la Proclamation a été ratifiée lors du Conseil de Niagara de 1764, en utilisant des méthodes et des protocoles diplomatiques autochtones, liant le roi dans une relation de parenté en utilisant la chaîne d’alliance (précédemment établie avec la Confédération Haudenosaunee au début du XVII e siècle), que ses paroles ont eu un effet dans la région des Grands Lacs et au-delà.

Bien que l’association de chaque Nation avec la Couronne soit unique, le Traité de Niagara de 1764 est généralement considéré comme le fondement de la relation moderne, fondée sur les droits, qui a permis au Canada de se développer. C’est à Niagara que la relation de nation à nation déduite de la Proclamation royale de 1763 a été rendue explicite.

Le traité, comme l’institution de la monarchie, est une création organique qui évolue – ou dévolue – en fonction de ceux qui s’en occupent. Les traités sont censés être le meilleur reflet de leurs mandants. Ils nécessitent également des relations personnelles pour être efficaces.

Tentative d’érosion du traité par les gouvernements canadiens

Toutefois, un aspect clé du développement constitutionnel du Canada qui a brouillé les pistes que nous étions censés suivre avec nos partenaires du traité est l’élaboration de la convention du gouvernement responsable. Jamais formulée dans les discussions sur les traités – en fait, un langage contredisant le gouvernement responsable a souvent été employé – l’élaboration du système de gouvernement de Westminster depuis le XVIII e siècle a placé l’exercice du pouvoir politique entre les mains de gouvernements élus au Canada plutôt que des monarques ou de leurs représentants.

Pour l’État canadien, Elizabeth II est la reine du Canada (une fonction distincte de son incarnation britannique depuis le Statut de Westminster de 1931) et doit prendre conseil auprès du premier ministre canadien. Le cabinet du premier ministre est donc devenu le gardien des anciens traités conclus sur ce territoire, limitant l’accès des peuples autochtones à la reine (avant la Confédération, de telles rencontres avaient lieu régulièrement) [1] et contrôlant les dates de visite des membres principaux de la famille royale. Le Cabinet du premier ministre, par l’entremise du ministère du Patrimoine canadien, contrôle le calendrier, la durée du séjour, les événements et les listes d’invités des visites royales et les interactions avec les peuples autochtones.

En effet, l’une des caractéristiques de l’évolution politique du Canada après la Confédération a été l’usurpation et l’érosion par les élus canadiens des relations de la Couronne avec les peuples autochtones. La réinterprétation constante de la Couronne sur ces terres par les représentants canadiens sans consulter les Nations qui sont en relation avec elle, ou sans chercher à obtenir leur consentement, a conduit à la création de textes tels que la Loi sur les Indiens et aux répercussions négatives qui continuent d’en découler. Aujourd’hui, l’accès des peuples autochtones au souverain ou au prince de Galles nécessite l’approbation du gouvernement du Canada.

Malgré cela, de nombreux peuples autochtones considèrent que leurs relations demeurent avec la Couronne britannique, la Couronne canadienne et son gouvernement étant considérés comme des intrus. Cependant, le gouverneur général et les lieutenants-gouverneurs sont des personnages importants car ils représentent le monarque, indépendamment de leur position constitutionnelle au sein de l’État canadien. Comme la Confédération des Premières Nations du Traité n o 6 l’a rappelé à la reine dans une lettre datant de 2021 concernant la sélection de son représentant fédéral : [ traduction ] « Les gouverneurs généraux étaient en place bien avant la création du Canada par une loi impériale en 1867… Notre référence à l’histoire du gouverneur général est directement liée à notre relation créée par la conclusion de traités [2]  ».

Les gardiens du protocole et le pouvoir de convocation

La reine et ses représentants restent les « gardiens du protocole » pour le Canada non autochtone – au sommet de nos cérémonies nationales et provinciales – et redécouvrent leur rôle d’intermédiaires naturels dans les relations entre la Couronne et les peuples autochtones, qu’il s’agisse de traités ou autres. Pamela Klassen écrit :

[ traduction ] Si l’on veut que le « véritable esprit » dévolu aux principaux peuples des traités soit jamais réalisé, les textes des traités devront être animés par les protocoles et les symboles non seulement de la reine et de ses organes, mais aussi des anciens qui ont préservé la connaissance des traités dans leurs langues, leurs cérémonies et leurs histoires territoriales [3] .

La capacité puissante et apolitique de la Couronne à convoquer des rassemblements de personnes de toute la société souligne un aspect durable de la relation de traité. Ce pouvoir de convocation est encore renforcé lorsqu’il est associé aux droits traditionnels de la reine et de ses représentants énoncés par Walter Bagehot : être consulté, encourager et avertir le gouvernement.

Un exemple serait le projet de jardins du jubilé de platine 2022 entrepris par les lieutenants-gouverneurs et les commissaires territoriaux du pays. Parrainé par le lieutenant-gouverneur de la Saskatchewan, Russ Mirasty, et la lieutenante-gouverneure du Manitoba, Janice Filmon, le projet veut profiter du jubilé de platine de la reine Elizabeth II pour mettre l’accent sur les relations cruciales entre la Couronne et les Autochtones qui se tissent sur l’île de la Tortue.

Le projet a permis d’établir des espaces qui ont naturellement créé une communauté depuis leur création jusqu’aux soins permanents nécessaires à leur entretien. L’aspect de chaque jardin dépend des relations – de traité et autres – qui existent avec la Couronne dans cette région; il revenait à chaque représentant vice-royal de travailler avec ses partenaires et d’apprendre d’eux pour déterminer l’emplacement, les plantes/médicaments et la disposition. L’entretien de ces espaces offrira des possibilités d’enseignements futurs, de collaborations et de renforcement du rôle essentiel du représentant de la reine dans les traités et autres relations entre la Couronne et les Autochtones.

Lors de leur visite à Yellowknife en 2022, le prince de Galles et la duchesse de Cornouailles ont inauguré le jardin créé conjointement par la commissaire des Territoires du Nord-Ouest, Margaret Thom (membre de la Nation dénée), et les Forces armées canadiennes (Force opérationnelle interarmées du Nord). Se souvenant du temps qu’elle a passé avec le couple royal, la commissaire Thom a fait remarquer que le prince de Galles avait compris l’importance du jardin en tant qu’espace qui honore la relation de la Couronne – sa relation – avec les peuples autochtones. C’est un espace destiné à accueillir les enseignements autochtones.

Le point commun entre les jardins du jubilé de platine est que chaque représentant vice-royal a reçu des graines de tabac de la chapelle royale à planter. Cultivé par la chapelle royale de la reine établie en 2017 au Massey College, à Toronto, ce médicament a une signification pour de nombreuses Nations au pays et a été utilisé par certains dans les protocoles de dons établis avec la Couronne.

Lors de son discours historique devant les représentants canadiens de la reine assemblés lors du Conseil de 2019 à la Chapelle royale, Perry Bellegarde, chef national de l’Assemblée des Premières Nations, a transmis cet enseignement :

[ traduction ] Correctement comprise, la relation de traité n’est pas fondée sur le déni des droits ou sur une mentalité coloniale, mais plutôt sur l’égalité et la souveraineté des peuples et sur le consentement de partager le territoire sans que l’un domine l’autre… Chacun d’entre vous doit être conscient de cette histoire et de l’importance des traités dans le cadre de vos hautes fonctions. Bien que le gouvernement en place ait un rôle à jouer dans l’exécution des obligations découlant des traités que détient la Couronne, les représentants de la reine sont les gardiens et les témoins de cette relation immuable [4] .

Mary Simon, première gouverneure générale autochtone du Canada, a profité de son discours d’investiture pour promettre qu’elle utiliserait son poste « pour concilier les tensions du passé et les promesses de l’avenir, de manière sage et réfléchie », ce qui a permis d’affiner le rôle de la Couronne au Canada [5] .

En raison de son histoire dans ce pays, la Couronne incarne cette tension. C’est cette tension même qui rend la Couronne non seulement pertinente, mais indispensable à l’avenir du Canada. Lors de son allocution à la Réunion des chefs de gouvernement du Commonwealth (RCGC) de 2022, le prince de Galles a réfléchi à la réconciliation, notamment à son rôle dans ce processus :

[ traduction ] Au Canada récemment, ma femme et moi avons été profondément touchés de rencontrer bon nombre de ceux qui sont engagés dans le processus de réconciliation en cours – des peuples autochtones et non autochtones réfléchissant honnêtement et ouvertement aux aspects les plus sombres de l’histoire. Aussi difficile que puisse être cette conversation, les gens de partout au Canada l’abordent avec courage et un engagement inébranlable, déterminés à jeter les bases du respect et de la compréhension sur lesquelles un avenir meilleur peut être construit [6] .

Rétabli par une cérémonie par la souveraine et ses représentants, et rendu opérationnel par les gouvernements agissant en son nom, l’honneur de la Couronne offre la voie de la réconciliation, mais il offre également la possibilité de se réconcilier grâce à des symboles mutuellement respectés, des cérémonies récupérées, la convocation d’espaces plus sécuritaires et la création de nouveaux protocoles [7] .

[1] De multiples rencontres entre des délégations autochtones et divers monarques, dont la reine Anne, le roi George III, le roi William IV, la reine Victoria et la reine Elizabeth II, sont documentées.

[2] Okimaw (Chef) Vernon Watchmaker, grand chef de la Confédération du Traité 6, Lettre « Gouverneur général du Canada », 24 janvier 2021.

[3] Pamela Klassen, « Spiritual Jurisdictions: Treaty People and the Queen of Canada », dans Ekklesia: Three Inquiries in Church and State. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2018, 114.

[4] Perry Bellegarde, discours prononcé lors du rassemblement historique des représentants de la reine au Canada et des dirigeants des Premières Nations, Massey College, Toronto, 12 juin 2019.

[5] La très honorable Mary Simon, discours d’investiture en tant que gouverneure générale du Canada, juillet 2021.

[6] Son Altesse Royale le Prince de Galles, « Discours de SAR le Prince de Galles lors de la cérémonie d’ouverture de la Réunion des chefs de gouvernement des pays du Commonwealth au Centre des congrès de Kigali, Rwanda », 24 juin 2022.

[7] Dans les appels à l’action publiés par la Commission de vérité et réconciliation , l’appel n° 45 demandait une « proclamation royale de réconciliation » et – récemment adopté – l’appel n° 94 demandait un nouveau serment de citoyenneté qui conservait la reine tout en intégrant les « traités conclus avec les peuples autochtones ». Commission de vérité et réconciliation du Canada, 2015.

Lectures supplémentaires

Michael Asch, John Burrows et Jim Tully, éds. Resurgence and reconciliation: Responsibilities for Shared Futures. University of Toronto Press, 2018.

John Borrows, « Wampum at Niagara: The Royal Proclamation, Canadian Legal History, and Self-Government », dans Aboriginal and Treaty Rights in Canada: Essays on law, equity, and respect for difference , Michael Asch (éd.). Vancouver : UBC Press, 1997.

Canada, Georges Erasmus et René Dussault, Rapport de la Commission royale sur les peuples autochtones . Ottawa : La Commission, 1996.

Peter H. Russell, Canada’s Odyssey: A Country Based on Incomplete Conquests . University of Toronto Press, 2017.

Robert Talbot, Negotiating the Numbered Treaties: An Intellectual and Political History of Alexander Morris . Vancouver : UBC Press, 2009.

Commission de vérité et réconciliation du Canada, Commission de vérité et réconciliation du Canada : Appels à l’action. Ottawa : La Commission, 2015.

Nathan Tidridge, The Queen at the Council Fire: The Treaty of Niagara, Reconciliation, and the Dignified Crown in Canada . Toronto : Dundurn, 2015.

• Emmanuel College Library
• Friends of the Library

E.J. Pratt Library

• Library Services
• Collections
• Research & Resources
• Reference Assistance
• Subject & Course Guides
• Writing Your First Paper
• Research & Writing Seminars
• Learning Series

TODAY’S HOURS

You are here

Canadian literature and poetry in english.

Indigenous Literatures

Indigenous Stories & Literatures: Anthologies, History & Criticism

• Major Scholarly Journals

reviewed & updated 5 February 2024 | compiled by Agatha Barc

Last updated: February 5, 2024

In this guide

• How to Use This Research Guide
• Reading & Writing About Poetry & Literature
• Black Canadian Literature & Poetry
• Book & Publishing History
• Children's Literature
• Early Canadiana
• Ethnic & Religious Minority Writers
• Indigenous Stories & Literatures
• Indigenous Poetry
• Indigenous Drama & Theatre
• Digital Collections
• Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender & Queer Literary and Poetic Culture
• Regional Literature
• Short Stories
• Women's Writing

Staff Login (library)

8 Key Issues for Indigenous Peoples in Canada

Bob Joseph December 05, 2022

Eight of the key issues of most significant concern for Indigenous Peoples in Canada are complex and inexorably intertwined - so much so that government, researchers, policymakers and Indigenous leaders seem hamstrung by the enormity. It is hard to isolate one issue as being the worst. The roots of these issues lie in the Indian Act and colonialism.

To better understand the root of these and many other issues for Indigenous Peoples, a closer look at the history and impacts of the Indian Act is needed. Our Working Effectively with Indigenous Peoples® training has helped thousands of individuals and organizations better understand Indigenous history, culture and how the Indian Act affects Indigenous Peoples today.

In 2015, we published this article outlining the eight key issues of primary concern for Indigenous Peoples in Canada. Since then, the article has been viewed over 730,000 times, making it the most-viewed article of the hundreds on our Working Effectively with Indigenous Peoples® blog. Due to the continuing high interest, we decided to take a deeper look at each of the eight issues. Each of the 8 key issues below has a link to the expanded article.

Watch our video of this blog article:

1) Poorer health

The World Health Organization's investigation into health determinants now recognizes European colonization as a common and fundamental underlying determinant of Indigenous health. There have been strides made on the part of many Indigenous communities to improve education around health issues. Still, despite these improvements, Indigenous people remain at higher risk for illness and earlier death than non-Indigenous people. Chronic diseases such as diabetes and heart disease are on the increase. There are definite links between income, social factors, and health. There is a higher rate of respiratory problems and other infectious diseases among Indigenous children than among non-Indigenous children - inadequate housing and crowded living conditions are contributing factors.

• Poorer Health - #1 of 8 Key Issues for Indigenous Peoples in Canada

2) Lower levels of education

While Canada has one of the highest levels of educational attainment in the world, the rate of graduation for Indigenous students remains far lower than that of non-Indigenous students. For Indigenous students living on reserve, the gap is vast. According to a C.D. Howe Institute study , only 48 percent of students living on reserve have completed high school, while 75 percent living off-reserve have completed high school.

• Lower Education - #2 of 8 Key Issues for Indigenous Peoples in Canada

3) Inadequate housing and crowded living conditions

Almost one in six Indigenous people (16.4%) lived in a dwelling needing major repairs in 2021, a rate nearly three times higher than the non-Indigenous population (5.7%). In 2021, 17.1% of Indigenous people lived in crowded housing—housing not considered suitable for the number of people living there, according to the National Occupancy Standard.

• Inadequate Housing and Crowded Living Conditions - #3 of 8 Key Issues

8 Things You Need to Know About On-Reserve Housing Issues

4) lower income levels.

The 2021 Census marked the first time low-income data were made available for all geographic regions in Canada, including reserves and northern areas. Of the 1.8 million Indigenous people in Canada in 2021, 18.8% lived in a low-income household, as defined using the low-income measure, after tax, compared with 10.7% of the non-Indigenous population. Among the three Indigenous groups, the low-income rate was highest among First Nations people (22.7%). It was exceptionally high among status First Nations people living on reserve, almost one in three (31.4%) of whom lived in a low-income household.

• Lower Income - #4 of 8 Key Issues for Indigenous Peoples in Canada

5) Higher rates of unemployment

Indigenous people have historically faced higher unemployment rates than non-Indigenous people. The higher rate of unemployment is connected to lower levels of education. Literacy and numeracy skills are the foundations for skills training and meeting the demands of an increasingly digital workforce. Other barriers include cultural differences, racism, discrimination/stereotypes, self-esteem, poverty and poor housing, no driving license, no transportation, and no child care.

• Higher Rates of Unemployment - #5 of 8 Key Issues for Indigenous Peoples in Canada

6) Higher levels of incarceration

32% of federal inmates identify as Indigenous, despite only making up around 5% of the total population in Canada. Indigenous women now account for almost half of the female inmate population in federally run prisons: “On April 28, 2022, the number of incarcerated Indigenous women reached 50% for the first time (298 Indigenous and 298 non-Indigenous women in federal custody) . . . this over-representation is largely the result of systemic bias and racism, including discriminatory risk assessment tools, ineffective case management, and bureaucratic delay and inertia.” [3]

• Higher Levels of Incarceration - #6 of 8 Key Issues

7) Higher rates of unintentional injuries and early deaths among children and youth

Unintentional injuries (accidents) are events in which there is no intent to harm. Accidents occur at disproportionately higher rates for Indigenous children and youth than for non-Indigenous youth and at a higher rate on reserves than in urban settings. Also, injured Indigenous children on remote reserves are much less likely to receive rehabilitation or other resources after being released from the hospital due to a shortage of healthcare resources in remote communities.

• Higher Rates of Death in Children - #7 of 8 Key Issues

8) Higher rates of suicide

Indigenous people in Canada have some of the highest suicide rates in the world. Suicide and self-inflicted injuries are the leading causes of death for First Nations youth and adults up to 44 years of age. For Inuit, the suicide rate is nine times the national rate; for First Nations, the suicide rate is three times the national average; and for Métis, the suicide rate is twice the national average. [4]

Higher Rates of Suicide - #8 of 8 Key Issues

This article was originally published in 2015.

[1] The Daily, Wednesday, September 21, 2022 [2] The Daily, Wednesday, September 21, 2022 [3] Office of the Correctional Investigator Annual Report 2021-2022 [4] Public Health Agency of Canada, 2016

• There are no suggestions because the search field is empty.

Subscribe to the Indigenous Relations Newsletter

Posts by tag.

• Indigenous Relations (90)
• Indigenous Awareness (77)
• History (75)
• Reconciliation (67)
• Arts and Culture (62)
• Indigenous Peoples (60)
• Indigenous Issues (51)
• Indigenous Consultation and Engagement (49)
• First Nations (36)
• Indian Act (34)
• Residential Schools (31)
• Education (28)
• Indigenous Rights (25)
• Health (23)
• Indigenous Economic Development (22)
• Famous Indigenous People (20)
• Environment (17)
• Videos (17)
• Government (16)
• Indigenous Recruitment and Retention (16)
• Terminology (16)
• Working Effectively with Indigenous Peoples (16)
• Allyship (15)
• Employment (15)
• Language (14)
• Business (13)
• Spiritual Beliefs (13)
• Traditional Knowledge (13)
• Indigenous Self-Government (12)
• Treaties (11)
• Indigenous Protocol (10)
• Indigenous Consultation (9)
• Customs (6)
• Mental Health (6)
• National Indigenous Peoples Day (6)
• Veterans (6)
• Contributors (5)
• Forestry (5)
• Land Acknowledgement (5)
• UN Declaration on The Rights of Indigenous Peoples (5)
• Cultural Appropriation (4)
• Repatriation (4)
• Healing (3)
• Tourism (3)
• Court Cases (2)
• Generational Wounds (2)
• Indigenous Engagement (2)
• Indigenous Organizations (2)
• Indigenous Procurement (1)
• Mothers (1)
• National Day of Truth & Reconciliation (1)
• TRC Calls-to-Action (1)

Higher Rates of Death in Children and Youth - #7 of 8 Key Issues

Unintentional injuries are the leading cause of death in Canadian Indigenous children and youth, occurring at rates three to four times the national...

The suicide rate among First Nations people was three times higher than in non-Indigenous populations between 2011 and 2016 in Canada. Among First...

Did you know that adequate housing was recognized in the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights? Did you know almost one in six Indigenous people...

Language selection

• Français fr

Indigenous Peoples and cultures

Learn about Canada’s 3 distinct groups of Indigenous peoples with unique histories, languages, cultural practices, and spiritual beliefs that are woven into the fabric of our country. More than 1.8 million people in Canada identify themselves as an Indigenous person.

• Canadian Heritage
• Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada

Most requested

• First Nations in Canada
• First Nations community profiles
• Indigenous art centre lending program

Services and information

First nations.

There are more than 600 First Nations communities in Canada, which represent more than 50 Nations and 50 Indigenous languages.

Learn about Canada’s Inuit living in Nunatsiavut (Labrador); Nunavik (Quebec); Nunavut; and the Inuvialuit Settlement Region of the Northwest Territories – an area covering one-third of Canada's land mass – as well as Inuit living in urban centres.

Find out more about Métis communities in Canada.

Reconciliation

Learn how the Government of Canada is building a renewed relationship with Indigenous peoples, based on recognition of rights, respect, cooperation and partnership.

Indigenous languages

Learn more about Indigenous languages as well as the tools and programs in place to help support the reclamation, revitalization, maintaining and strengthening of Indigenous languages in Canada.

Indigenous arts

Learn more about Indigenous arts in Canada and the Indigenous Art Centre, responsible for the development and preservation of more than 4,000 works of art.

Indigenous history

Learn about the history of Indigenous peoples in Canada, Indigenous contributions to the War of 1812, Reconciliation, the First Canadian Arctic Expedition and more.

Indigenous commemorative and awareness days

Discover the days, weeks and months that are celebrated in our country and around the world to commemorate and celebrate Indigenous peoples.

Learning resources about First Nations, Inuit, and Métis across Canada

Explore the history, languages, cultures, and experiences of Indigenous Peoples in Canada.

Learn more about funding programs designed to celebrate and strengthen the cultural distinctiveness of Indigenous peoples as an integral part of Canadian society.

Photo identification (Project Naming)

Share your knowledge! First Nations, Métis and Inuit communities are invited to enrich Canada’s historical records by engaging in the identification of photographs held at our National Archives.

Contributors

• Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada

Page details

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

19 Indigenous Women’s Literature: The Power and Truth of our Words

Jennifer brant.

Woman’s body found beaten beyond recognition.

You sip your coffee

Taking a drag of your smoke

Turning the page

Taking a bite of your toast

Just another day

Just another death

Just one more thing you easily forget

You and your soft, sheltered life

Just go on and on

For nobody special from your world is gone

(Sarah de Vries, shared in Maggie de Vries 2003, 233)

The above words are shared in “a poem that resonates with particular force now that [Sarah] is gone” (233). Missing Sarah: A memoir of loss honours the story of Sarah de Vries, one of the women who went missing from the downtown East side of Vancouver. Her sister wrote the memoir describing it as a “collaboration between two sisters, one living and one dead” (268). By drawing on Sarah’s journals, Maggie brings forth a powerful message; one that Sarah wanted people to hear. For as Maggie writes “throughout her journals, she addresses a readership. When she wrote, she imagined readers. She imagined you” (xv).

Sarah’s words express the lack of value placed on Indigenous women but also serve as a profound call for action. Indigenous women have been actively working to bring the issue of racialized and sexualized violence against Indigenous women and girls to the forefront. They have been doing so through creative acts of resistance such as poetry, literature, artwork, craft, and film. Their work not only raises awareness, demands action, and invokes compassion; it also serves as a counternarrative to the victim-blaming stories often presented about Indigenous women. Within a society that devalues Indigenous women, Sarah’s poem demands that Indigenous women and girls are valued. Her poem also addresses an important truth—that too many people turn a blind eye to this crisis.

This chapter prompts readers to delve into the Indigenous women’s literature that shares the hard truths expressed in Sarah de Vries’ poem. I will reflect on my own experiences teaching Indigenous women’s literature courses and offer a glimpse into the literatures that students are called on to theorize. My intent is to share the power and truth of Indigenous women’s words and call upon readers to consider the lessons that are embedded throughout their stories. As we work to put an end to the racialized and sexualized violence that threatens Indigenous women and girls, Indigenous literatures must become part of the informed national dialogue.

I first became aware of the extent and severity of Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls during my last year as an undergraduate student at Brock University in 2006. Later that same year, our community was planning a twenty-four- hour drum feast to bring awareness to Amnesty International’s Stolen Sisters: A Human Rights Response to the Discrimination and Violence against Indigenous Women in Canada and ultimately to honour our stolen sisters, their families, and promote community healing. Two years later, I began working for student services at the local college where I noticed a poster on the wall of a missing woman from Six Nations of the Grand River, my family’s home reserve. I did not know who Tashina General was at the time but coming from the small and close-knit community of Six Nations, I would soon learn that she was well known to family and friends from the Six Nations community.

I completed my master’s degree and became more involved in the Indigenous academic community and attending academic conferences. There are many differences between Indigenous and non-Indigenous conferences. For example, ceremony and the presence of Elders and Traditional Knowledge Holders tend to be prominent at Indigenous conferences and the events are opened in a traditional manner to bring attendees together, establish relationship building, and honour the good mind teachings that are important to a successful gathering. A common occurrence during these traditional openings is a moment of silence to honour a young woman or girl who is missing from the local community or the community of an attendee. In these moments, we stand in solidarity and offer our support for the families who have lost a loved one. This is a disheartening reminder of the violence surrounding Indigenous women and girls. The moment of silence is also a constant reminder of the racialized and sexualized violence that all Indigenous women in the room are faced with. The shared threat of violence became strikingly clear as I pursued my research on Indigenous women’s educational experiences.

My research involved revealing the barriers that Indigenous women face within university institutions and promoting both access and success. I learned general statistics on Indigenous women in education, and I quickly realized that the statistics I was using in my research mirrored the statistics of both Indigenous women in prison as outlined by the Canadian Association of Elizabeth Fry Societies as well as Indigenous women who are missing and murdered as documented by Amnesty International. As I did my research, I developed a statement that reflects my reality as an Indigenous woman in Canada.

As an Indigenous woman in Canada, I can anticipate a life-expectancy rate that is ten years less than that of other women in Canada (Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples 1996). Data from the Canadian Population Health Initiative tell me that I belong to the unhealthiest group in the country. As an Indigenous woman, I am likely to earn 30 percent less than non-Aboriginal women. I am three times more likely to contact HIV, and I am five times more likely to die as a result of violence (Amnesty International 2009).

In addition to the above statistics, I can reasonably expect to face racism from police officers, health care professionals, and the children’s aid society. In fact, it is reasonable to fear that family and children’s services will intervene in my life at some point; as a younger mom this fear was constant. The threat of state apprehension is common among Indigenous women regardless of our credentials as shared by the late Patricia Monture-Angus, lawyer and professor, in her work Thunder in my Soul: A Mohawk Woman Speaks (1995). In her book, Patricia shares her own experiences with the child welfare system, describing the time she took her infant son to the hospital for a broken arm, later found to be the result of a bone disorder. Noting that the doctors at the hospital “vigorously pursued the abuse allegation” and “laughed when they heard [her] professional credentials,” she described her experience as being “of layer upon layer of racist treatment” (208). Her son was taken from her for eight days. Monture-Angus notes the fear of taking her children to the doctors knowing how easy another allegation of abuse can occur. In a country where Indigenous women are flown into a hospital to have their babies delivered and leave with tubal litigations as a result of being coerced into a procedure following birth, often during moments of vulnerability, the connection between fear and ongoing violence in the places we should feel safe is clear. I understand this threat as an extension of settler colonial violence as I will describe later.

As I moved forward with my research, the continued examples of violence haunted me. I was completing my master’s thesis and in my first year as a sessional instructor teaching Indigenous women’s literature when I found out that Loretta Saunders, an Inuk woman, was missing. Loretta had been working on her undergraduate thesis on Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls when she went missing. Her disappearance brought a new lens to the issue of violence against Indigenous women and girls for the approximately twenty Indigenous and non-Indigenous students in my class. The class was delivered through a seminar style that allowed for engaged discussion and personal connections to course material.

The Indigenous women’s literature course highlights the connection between stereotypes in mainstream literature, media and film to the high rates of sexualized and racialized violence against Indigenous women and girls. Extending this, I share the work Indigenous women are doing by counteracting these stereotypes and presenting positive images of Indigenous womanhood. The stories highlight the bravery, the warriorship, and the resilience of our women who overcome extensive tragedy and are still standing tall and sharing beautiful stories of cultural transmission. I have now taught Indigenous women’s literature for seven years and other Indigenous-focused courses that cover the topic of violence against Indigenous women and girls. I teach to raise awareness and bring honour to the stories of the women and girls and their families and to position Indigenous women’s literature as a counternarrative to racialized, sexualized and colonial violence.

In my first five years of teaching, I would survey the class to find out how many students were aware of the topic. In most classes, only one or two students would raise their hand to indicate they were aware of the extent of the violence. The students who were aware were among the Indigenous students in my class. In my sixth year of teaching, this changed; half of the class, Indigenous and non-Indigenous students, raised their hands. For the most part this was because the launch of the National Public Inquiry had been all over the news. Finally a different kind of media coverage, or so I thought.

In August 2014, fifteen-year-old Tina Fontaine disappeared. Her body was later found in Winnipeg’s Red River while police were searching for a missing man whose disappearance was unrelated to Tina’s. I will not repeat all of the insensitive headlines of the news reports that were released when Tina’s body was found, but I would like to highlight the words of Winnipeg’s Police Sgt. John O’Donovan who declared, “She’s a child. This is a child that has been murdered . . . Society should be horrified” (National Post). Tina’s case became part of the push for immediate action as Indigenous women and allies across the country demanded action from the federal government of Canada. On December 8, 2015, the Government of Canada announced plans for the launch of an independent national inquiry into missing and murdered Indigenous women and girls. The government pledged $53.86 million over the course of two years for the inquiry and held a “pre-inquiry” to seek input from stakeholders across Canada.

In some ways, when I consider that over fifty reports with 700 recommendations have already been put forth, I am reluctant to put my faith in the inquiry. Moreover, we have seen a significant number of commissioners and other staff resign from the commission as it appears this is not the inquiry that Indigenous communities have asked for; Indigenous people and allies have a deep-layered understanding of why Indigenous women and girls remain the target of violence. Indigenous women’s narratives echo this understanding, and, through literature, have been calling for attention to the misrepresentations of Indigenous women and girls for well over a hundred years, as I will elaborate below.

The legacy of Tina Fontaine also highlights this deep-layered understanding. Tina was failed by a number of people leading up to her disappearance. For one, she was a child who was in the care of Winnipeg’s Family and Children’s Services and she was being housed in a hotel with minimal supervision. For a moment, consider the word ‘care’ and remember that she was, in fact, a child left alone in a hotel room by child protection services. As a mother of a fifteen-year-old, I am horrified and heartbroken when I think about the lack of care for her safety and well-being. Tina was in contact with hospital staff only hours before her disappearance and was a passenger in a vehicle that was pulled over by two officers who let the vehicle go after asking a few questions. The officers allowed this man to drive off with Tina even though she was listed as a missing person.

Earlier this year, the Globe and Mail released a victim-blaming report titled: “Toxicologist testifies Tina Fontaine had drugs, alcohol in system when she died.” T his report, published on January 30, 2018, is only one more insensitive and shameful response to the death of an Indigenous child. As the Assembly of Manitoba Chiefs noted, the article “helps shape the discourse on the bigger issue of missing and murdered Indigenous women and girls.” Moreover, as Grand Chief Arlen Dumas wrote, “it isn’t until the fourth paragraph that the reporter reveals that the alcohol and THC levels could be artificially high.” Further, Arlen Dumas pointed out that “most readers do not read that far into a story . . . . the public opinion has already been formed. It was formed with the headline” (Assembly of Manitoba Chiefs, Open Letter).

As an educator on these issues, I am far too familiar with the kind of public opinion that demonstrates the effects of victim-blaming headlines when it comes to issues of racialized and sexualized violence against Indigenous women and girls in Canada. Intertwined within the grand narratives that racialize and sexualize Indigenous women and girls are a slew of other ideas that manifest in the multiple stereotypes reflected in normalized experiences of racism. In #NotYourPrincess: Voices of Native American Women, stories of the effects of these stereotypes are expressed by Indigenous women. Co-editor Lisa Charleyboy dedicates the collection to “every Indigenous woman who has ever been called ‘Pocahontas. ’ ” I have personally been referenced by the name numerous times and, like the contributors of # NotYourPrincess , have been on the receiving end of seemingly harmless comments.

Similar stereotypes are initially held by students when they enter my courses. Now, with a distinct shift in the number of students who have heard of Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls, from one or two to nearly the entire class, I better understand the perceptions they hold about the reasons for violence against Indigenous women and girls in this country. One of the questions that I am often asked is why so many Indigenous women are involved in the sex trade. Yes, some women are involved in the sex trade at the time they go missing; this does not make their lives any less valuable than the lives of other women. The opening poem by Sarah de Vries makes this point clear. However, contrary to what media reporting has led the public to believe, only a percentage of Indigenous women are involved in the sex trade when they go missing. Others are children in state care and some are university students. Making assumptions that perpetuate victim-blaming narratives further removes settlers from the violence, which they believe exists in particular areas from which they are far removed. Perhaps this notion of being far removed allows others to remain untroubled and undisturbed; to completely ignore the violence and easily digest what is happening along with their morning toast as the opening poem by Sarah de Vries points out.

Surely such perceptions are, in part, informed by the prevalent victim-blaming headlines along with a long history of harmful stereotypes against Indigenous Peoples. Some students express their belief that Indigenous men are the perpetrators of the majority of violence against Indigenous women and make remarks about the consequences of the high-risk lifestyles that Indigenous people lead, akin to the “Indian Problem” narrative. Sarah Hunt articulates the connection between the media reports and the “Indian Problem” narrative by asking: “Why are we so hesitant to name white male violence as a root cause, yet so comfortable naming all the “risk factors” associated with the lives of Indigenous girls who have died? Why are we not looking more closely at the “risk factors” that lead to violence in the lives of the perpetrators?”

As a counternarrative to the “Indian Problem” narrative and the associated stereotypes, I draw on the stories presented within Indigenous women’s literature as a pedagogy of humanity and compassion. As Hillsburg (2015) expresses, Indigenous women writers have contributed to a particular kind of literature that brings “their experiences back into focus” while refuting “a long-standing pattern of policies and societal beliefs that naturalize racial segregation, reify the legacy of colonization and ultimately blame Aboriginal women for the violence they confront” (300). Moreover, as Hillsburg explains, settler responses to Indigenous women’s writing involves a recognition of the “invisible and unearned privilege that many Canadians enjoy.” Indeed, this recognition is certainly part of the counternarrative of Indigenous women’s literature.

The Power of Indigenous Women’s Words

I position Indigenous women’s literature as a counternarrative to the stereotypical representations that continue to be propagated about Indigenous women. I do, however, acknowledge that Indigenous women’s literature cannot simply be reduced to a counternarrative as it draws from something much deeper and exists as something much more powerful. Alongside themes of resistance and stories of survival are testimonies of resilience, cultural continuity, rebirth, and renewal. Some writings extend the Indigenous storytelling tradition. Moreover, the contemporary realities of Indigenous women, communities, and families shape Indigenous women’s writing in moving and profound ways. The racialization and sexualization and the violence experienced by Indigenous women and girls is expressed in numerous stories that bring back the honour and humanity that is dismissed by the insensitive victim blaming reports. As Lisa Charleyboy expresses in #NotYourPrincess: “Too often I’ve seen, we’ve all seen, those headlines that send shivers down spines, spin stereotypes to soaring heights, and ultimately shame Indigenous women. Yet when I look around me, I see so many bright, talented, ambitious Indigenous women and girls, full of light, laughter, and love (Foreword).

Other stories do not speak of this violence but present the beauty of Indigenous cultures and the “light, laughter, and love” noted above. Some share memoirs of motherhood, stories of the land, voices of resurgence, and present “a recognition of being” (Anderson 2000) and a strong sense of Indigenous identities that are significantly different from the words that have been written about Indigenous women by others. For Indigenous women, as the late Beth Brant (1994) says, literature becomes a source of power: “Pauline Johnson’s physical body died in 1913, but her spirit still communicates to us who are Native women writers. She walked the writing path clearing the brush for us to follow. And the road gets wider and clearer each time a Native woman picks up her pen and puts her mark on paper” (7–8).

The following quotations are from an Anthology titled Reinventing The Enemy’s Language: Contemporary Women’s Writings Of North America. I share them here to express the depth of Indigenous women’s literature and to highlight the shared realities that call Indigenous women to write; the anger, the passion, and the wisdom:

“The purpose of my writing has always been to tell a better story than is being told about us. To give that to the people and to the next generations. The voices of the grandmothers and grandfathers compel me to speak of the worth of our people and the beauty all around us, to banish the profaning of ourselves, and to ease the pain. I carry the language of the voice of the land and the valiance of the people and I will not be silenced by a language of tyranny.” Jeannette Armstrong, Okanagan

“I write for the same reason that mountain climbers do what they do: because it’s there. As a younger woman, I remember a few dreadful weeks when I wept and raged because all I did was write when there were so many ills to correct, so much to be done. Eventually, I came to understand that the pen is mightier than the law books, and that the image is where the action is begotten.” Paula Gunn Allen, Laguna Sioux

“Ultimately, writing is a process of confronting what is human in oneself as well as in others. Good, honest writing makes us tell the truth about the oppressor and the oppressed in us all. This is also why we must write about “all our relations.” Emma LaRocque, Cree and Métis

“I write about the issues that trouble me, stories of my family and my people and myself that keep me awake at night, the stories that call me to drive dark roads at midnight, to return again to the small lakes and streams that are lit by moonlight. I write to find understanding, to find peace. I write in the hope that I will give voice to those who have never had an opportunity to tell their stories. I write to give voice to myself.” Debra Earling , Flathead

To further express the depth of Indigenous literature, I draw on the following passage shared in 1994 by Beth Brant:

“The amount of books and written material by Native people is relatively small. Yet, to us, these are precious treasures carefully nurtured by our communities. And the number of Native women who are writing and publishing is growing. Like all growing things, there is a need and desire to ensure the flowering of this growth. You see, these fruits feed our communities. These flowers give us survival tools. I would say Native women’s writing is the Good Medicine that can heal us as a human people.” (9)

Since these words were shared in 1994, the number of books and written material by Indigenous women has certainly grown and continues to fill our bookshelves and feed our spirits. As Maria Campbell writes in the Foreword to Kim Anderson’s (2016) A Recognition of Being: Reconstructing Native Womanhood:

When I published Halfbreed in 1973 there were very few books about Native people and even less written by Native authors. I could walk into any bookstore and buy all the titles— and I did—saving money, going without so I could buy native authors’ works. I did this because I was hungry to see myself and my people. Today I cannot go into a bookstore and buy all the books written by Native authors, as there are so many. Thousands in fact, and it is those books that have given me strength and inspiration to continue my work. (xi)

Campbell’s work draws attention to the empowerment that comes through Indigenous literature. As she wrote, “recognition is powerful.” Her work documents and positions Indigenous women’s literature within a long history of confronting the colonizers and moving Indigenous women to action by organizing and marching. Campbell recalls the feelings that were stirred during a reading of nineteenth-century Mohawk poet Tekahionwake’s (E. Pauline Johnson) The Cattle Thief at a 1990 women’s gathering in Edmonton, AB. Campbell describes being “woken up” by the keynote speaker Maryanne LaValley who shared stories of Indigenous women, the aunties, the grandmothers, and the songs they shared. As Campbell noted, by the end of the day, they were so moved that they had organized a march to the legislature building. This is the power of Indigenous women’s literature. It propels us into action by naming injustices and presenting or reawakening a strong “recognition of being.” I have witnessed students in my class become propelled to action upon learning about the shared experiences of violence Indigenous women and girls face and organizing events on campus to spread awareness. Other students have now published work including academic essays and poetry to continue to spread that awareness.

Deconstructing the Squaw/Princess Binary

“Her ears stung and she shook, fearful of the other words

like fists that would follow. For a moment, her spirit drained like

water from a basin. But she breathed and drew inside her fierce

face and screamed until the image disappeared like vapour ”

(Marilyn Dumont cited in An anthology of Native Canadian Literature, 436–437).

The above words are part of Marilyn Dumont’s Squaw Poems, a poem in which she writes “Indian women know all too well the power of the word squaw” (437).

The princess/squaw binary that reduces Indigenous women’s humanity through racialized and sexualized objectification is certainly not part of our own recognition of being but rather something imagined by the colonizer’s gaze. However, this gaze filters into the everyday threat of violence against Indigenous women and girls. Within this context we understand what Beth Brant meant by the “survival tools” of Indigenous women’s literature. The extent of the princess/squaw binary is the tragic and disheartening reality of the horrific numbers of Indigenous women who go missing. E. Pauline Johnson wrote about these stereotypes 125 years ago. In an essay titled “A Strong Race Opinion: On The Indian Girl in Modern Fiction,” which was originally published in the Toronto Sunday Globe on May, 22 1892, Johnson spoke out about the images of the “Indian squaw” that were presented in mainstream literature and called on writers to move beyond their fantasies of Indigenous women: “Above all things let the Indian girl of fiction develop from the ‘doglike,’ ‘fawnlike’ ‘deer- footed’ ‘fire-eyed’ ‘crouching,’ ‘submissive’ book heroine into something of the quiet, sweet womanly, woman she is, if wild, or the everyday, natural, laughing girl she is, if cultivated and educated; let her be natural, even if the author is not competent to give her tribal characteristics (163) as cited in Fee and Nason ).

Similarly, in her book, Iskwewak — Kah’Ki Yaw Ni Wahkomakanak : Neither Indian Princesses nor Easy Squaws (1995), author Janice Acoose also draws attention to the racialized and sexualized legacy of settler colonialism that has led to an acceptance of violence. As Acoose wrote, these colonial attitudes have justified many of the legally sanctioned policies that have targeted Indigenous women and families, such as the Indian Act and residential schools. Indigenous women’s literature bring the effects of Canada’s deep history of settler colonialism on Indigenous families and communities to the forefront to shape understandings of the pervasive mindset that fosters violence against Indigenous women and girls.

Indigenous women’s literature—including autobiographies, short stories, and poetry—expresses the social, historical, colonial, and political contexts of Indigenous women’s identities. The literature also includes Indigenous maternal identities, contemporary realities, and connections between the two. Powerful autobiographies include Maria Campbell’s (1973, restored edition 2019) Half-Breed and Morningstar Mercredi’s (2006) Morningstar: A Warrior’s Spirit , which showcase the life stories of the authors who overcame oppressive forces that led them to prostitution and addictions and of their journeys toward recovery that brought them to their vocations as writers, mentors, and frontline workers. Beatrice Culleton’s In Search of April Raintree (1983) and Come Walk With Me (2009) offer powerful narratives that highlight hardships to which many Indigenous women can relate and also inspire hopes and dreams through examples of perseverance. The short stories of Lee Maracle and Beth Brant weave in cultural and historical memory and connect it with contemporary realities. Poetry, from the earlier works of Pauline Johnson to the works of Chrystos , Marcie Rendon, and Marilyn Dumont to the recent works of Lesley Belleau, Katherena Vermette, and Sara General present cultural teachings that connect past, present, and future. Indigenous women’s literature also provides a space for presenting queer Indigenous theory by drawing on the work of scholars such as Beth Brant (1988) and Chrystos (1988). For me, this body of Indigenous women’s literature has become a teaching tool that inspires cultural identity development while also complicating the patriarchal influences that have suppressed the variations of gender performativity within Indigenous communities. Indigenous women’s literature also offers a space to consider the threat of settler colonial violence, specifically a particular kind of hyper-masculinity that is rampant throughout society. Unfortunately, it is still not a recognized part of the threat by reporters and politicians as Sarah Hunt points out: “It seems that while reporters and politicians feel entitled to weigh in on what First Nations should do to address this issue, they are unwilling to name what is right in front of them. They are unable to see the culture of whiteness that excuses violence against Indigenous women and girls by blaming Native people for the violence they face” (2014).

A hyper-masculinity is now being confronted by Indigenous scholars who consider the ways in which it implicates Indigenous wellbeing (for example, see Innes and Anderson 2015). Through such work, Indigenous literatures help bring wholistic understandings of settler violence against Indigenous women and girls to the forefront. The power of Indigenous women’s literature is such that it not only moves us to action but it unravels deeply ingrained misperceptions about our daily lives and serves as a pedagogy of humanity and compassion.

Indigenous Women’s Literature: A Pedagogy of Humanity and Compassion

“To begin to understand the severity of the tragedy facing Indigenous women today you must first understand the history.” Nick Printup , Director and Producer of “Our Sisters in Spirit.”

The issue of Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls in Canada is as old as the development of Canada itself and must be understood within the historical context of settler colonialism that has led to the ongoing racialization and sexualization of Indigenous women. Historically, Indigenous women were sexualized and held against dangerous cultural attitudes that defined them as promiscuous and dangerous. Today, these stereotypes permeate many facets of Canadian society and Indigenous women and girls continue to be sexualized. My Indigenous women’s literature course begins with reading Janice Acoose’s (1995) Iskwewak Kah’Ki Yaw Ni Wahkomakanak : Neither Indian Princesses nor Easy Squaws, providing an opportunity for the students to learn about White-Euro-Canadian-Christian-Patriarchy (WECCP) institutions and their associated ideological forces that have interfered with the lives of Indigenous women. Acoose writes about her points of contact with WECCP institutions throughout her life and connects the authority of WECCP institutions to the negative images of Indigenous women that have been expressed and maintained throughout mainstream Canadian literature. According to Acoose , literary representations describing Indigenous women as lewd, licentious, dissolute, dangerous, or promiscuous, along with those that lean more towards the polar opposite Indian Princess representation, trap Aboriginal women within a Squaw/Princess binary; one that simultaneously renders Indigenous women’s identities highly visible and invisible. Indeed, such ideologies continue to inform public notions of Indigeneity through the troubling headlines noted earlier. As Acoose writes: “Indigenous women are misrepresented in images that perpetuate racist and sexist stereotypes . . . . [T]hose images foster cultural attitudes that encourage sexual, physical, verbal, or psychological violence against Indigenous women. Stereotypic images also function as sentinels that guard and protect the white eurocanadian-christian-partriarchy against any threatening disturbances that might upset the status quo” (55).

Acoose explicitly connects the derogatory images of Indigenous women presented in mainstream literature to the racialized and sexualized violence we continue to face. To explain this further she notes, “In much of canadian literature, the images of Indigenous women that are constructed perpetuate unrealistic and derogatory ideas, which consequently foster cultural attitudes that legitimize rape and other kinds of violence against us” (71). This is further clarified through the story of Helen Betty Osbourne who was a nineteen-year-old student when she was abducted by four white men and killed in 1971. As Acoose explains, the young men who killed her were influenced by particular cultural attitudes and she draws on the Report of the Aboriginal Justice Inquiry of Manitoba that notes: “the attackers seemed to be operating on the assumption that Aboriginal women were promiscuous and open to enticement through alcohol or violence. It is evident that the men who abducted Osbourne believed that young Aboriginal women were objects with no human value beyond sexual gratification” (70). It took sixteen years for any charges to be laid in the death of Helen Betty Osbourne and only one of the four men who abducted her was charged. As Holly McKenzie (2010) points out, such cases set a dangerous precedence as “these men may also choose to attack Indigenous women based on the assumption that they will not be held accountable by the justice system because of the indifference of white-settler society to the well-being and safety of Aboriginal women” (144). McKenzie’s work connects this to Indigenous women’s exclusion from Canadian society that has pushed women into vulnerable situations such as homelessness, poverty, and sex work.

The Violent Erasure of Indigenous Women and Girls

“Indian women ‘disappear’ because they have been deemed killable, able to be raped without repercussion, expendable. Their bodies have historically been rendered less valuable because of what they are taken to represent: land, reproduction, Indigenous kinship and governance, an alternative to heteronormative and Victorian rules of descent. Theirs are bodies that carry a symbolic load because they have been conflated with land and are thus contaminating to a white, settler social order.” (Audra Simpson 2014, 156)

As Mary Ellen Turpel -Lafond, Cree lawyer and honourary doctorate expresses, “It is women who give birth both in the physical and spiritual sense to the social, political and cultural life of the community” (cited in Anderson 2007, 774). Her words describe the power of matrilineal and egalitarian societies that honour the role of Indigenous women. Consider this statement in light of the well-known Cheyenne Proverb: “A nation is not conquered until the hearts of its women are on the ground. Then it is done, no matter how brave its warriors nor how strong its weapons.” These two statements on their own tell of the vulnerability of Indigenous Peoples when women are targets of violence; together they illuminate the intentions of settler colonialism and the multiple attacks on Indigenous women through both legislated policy and the dangerous ideologies that have governed the development of “Canada.” Indeed, the ennoblement of the stereotypical beliefs and the associated policies that control Indigenous women’s bodies have a long history rooted in assimilation and dispossession of land.

I familiarize students with the work of Sarah Carter (2008) who documented the increasing segregation of Indigenous peoples and settlers and described the 1880s as a time when there was a “sharpening of racial boundaries and categories” and “an intensification of racial discrimination in the Canadian West” (146). As Carter points out, assimilationist policies were justified by images of Indigenous women as “dissolute, dangerous, and sinister” (147) and these negative images were promoted by government officials, political leaders, and the national press. Students learn that these representations are not only upheld by WECCP institutions, but they have been used to justify many of the legally sanctioned policies that have targeted Indigenous women. If Indigenous women were deemed dangerous and promiscuous, the policies designed to control them were welcomed by settler society. I raise these conversations in the classroom to identify this particular form of racism and structural violence as ongoing and position it as a platform for understanding contemporary realities that continue to target Indigenous women and girls today. Indeed, as the final report of the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls concluded in a supplementary report: “Genocide is a root cause of the violence perpetrated against Indigenous women and girls, not only because of the genocidal acts that were and still are perpetrated against them, but also because of all the societal vulnerabilities it fosters, which leads to deaths and disappearances and which permeates all aspects of Canadian society today” (8).

Students learn about the gender discrimination embedded in The Indian Act of 1876, with emphasis on Section 12(1)(b)—the removal of status upon marriage to a non-status man; repealed in 1985 under Bill C-31 and they come to understand the ongoing forms of gender discrimination that still exist in the Indian Act today. Students learn about the eugenics movement, which involved the forced sterilization of women deemed unfit to have children. They learn that Indigenous women were specifically vulnerable to these racist and sexist procedures and often deemed unfit to have children. The Sexual Sterilization Legislation in Canada was repealed in 1973, however cases of forced and coerced sterilization of Indigenous women in Canada continues today (Boyer and Bartlett 2017). Students learn that the pass system of 1882 to 1935 was created to control Indigenous movement off the reserve. Without a pass from the Indian Agent, Indigenous men and women could not leave their reserve. This severely limited their access to resources and employment opportunities and left them in positions that further justified intervention from family and children’s services. Students also learn that the residential school system and the Sixties Scoop were attacks on the very rights of Indigenous women to mother their own children. Policies against Indigenous women were deeply entrenched in gender discrimination in the Indian Act. This continued through the pass system, residential schools, and the Sixties Scoop. They were the result of deliberate and forceful efforts to assimilate Indigenous Peoples by restricting their movement to reserve lands so that development and settlement could quickly take place by non-Indigenous settlers across Turtle Island. This is a form of structural violence described as a deliberate “tool of genocide” (Leanne Simpson 2017). Many years later, the trend of targeting Indigenous women and girls continues and is reflected in the overrepresentation of Indigenous children in child protective services, the lack of protection for Indigenous women and girls, and the disproportionate rates of violence against Indigenous women and girls. Thus, as Acoose expressed, the dangerous ideologies embedded in mainstream literature media and film serve a purpose, one that is indeed connected to the racialized and sexualized violence experienced by Indigenous women and girls today.

The stories shared in Indigenous women’s literature expose the everyday experiences of racism that are deeply rooted in the aforementioned history of Indigenous and settler relationships. As an example of what I mean by everyday experiences of racism, Francine Cunningham (2017) shares her experience in a poem entitled “A Conversation with a Massage Therapist,” noting some of the comments that I think many Indigenous women have heard on multiple occasions. Her entire poem resonates with my own personal experiences in numerous settings. The poem describes a conversation with a massage therapist where a woman is asked about her identity, told she does not really look “Native,” asked if she lives on a reserve and then told she is not a real “Native.” When the woman explains she is pursuing a master’s degree the response is “good thing you got the taxpayers to pay for it” and then told, “you’re not a drunk or anything, good for you” (59). It is important to understand that these kind of offensive interactions take place so often and are not isolated incidents. Offensive comments similar to those noted above are made by educators, officers of the law, and health care professionals and reflect a grand narrative about the racialized and sexualized perceptions of Indigenous women . . This deep-seeded narrative remains rooted in the dominant colonial mindset and has existed for many generations. Keep in mind, this is the mindset that exists among the very people who Indigenous women and girls are expected to trust and turn to for safety This is evident in a 2012 interview with an RCMP officer and an Indigenous girl who was reporting a sexual assault. A video of the troubling two-and-a-half-hour interrogation was released in 2019 showing an RCMP officer asking the young girl if she was turned on by the rape and questioning the truth of her story.

As Maria Campbell declared during her opening address at the 2008 Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women’s Conference held in Regina, SK, “Patriarchy and misogyny are so ingrained in our society, and our silence makes them normal.” These words describe the society we live in today: A society where women disappear and nobody seems to have seen or heard anything. The aforementioned Report of the Aboriginal Justice Inquiry of Manitoba made this silence evident as it took 16 years for anyone to be charged with the death of Helen Betty Osbourne who was killed in 1971. In the same province today, Indigenous communities call for justice into the death of Tina Fontaine. There is a deafening silence that perpetuates the violence against Indigenous women and girls. The numbers of students I have taught over the years who had not heard of the Stolen Sisters report or the issue of Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls awareness are testament to this silence.

The slogan “Silence is Violence,” highlighted on Amnesty International’s 2004 Stolen Sisters: A Human Rights Response to the Discrimination and Violence against Indigenous Women in Canada, takes on a deeper meaning for students who are urged to reflect on the silencing of Indigenous women in spite of their powerful roles in matriarchal and egalitarian societies. I urge students to think critically about the Indigenous leaders written about or documented more widely throughout history. Names like Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse usually come to mind. The erasure of Indigenous women from dominant Canadian narratives is evident in the words of Marcie Rendon, Anishinaabe: “My own grandmothers have no names, their heroic actions erased from history’s page. Freedom stories left untold . . . shared only in the deepest dreams. In lessons to the world, the enemy has recorded our greatest warriors’ names: Crazy Horse, Sitting Bull, Geronimo, Cochise. Resistance fighters all . . . yet my own grandmothers have no names, their heroic actions erased from history’s page.”

I ask my students to consider the names of Indigenous women throughout history and the students usually name Pocahontas but no one else comes to mind even though they many played valuable and very powerful roles in traditional societies; there are few stories known to my students of Indigenous women leaders throughout history. To extend my argument and connect it to the binary described earlier, the story of Pocahontas that is most familiar to my students is one in which she is presented as the young highly sexualized virginal princess. By drawing on the squaw/princess binary that imprisons Indigenous women, I express the importance of literature written by Indigenous women as expressions of traditional and contemporary identities that provide true representations of Indigenous womanhood. With the story of Pocahontas, for example, Beth Brant (1994) offers a different version in “Grandmothers of a New World” where Pocahontas is described as a woman of authority who fought for her Nation until her final days. By deconstructing mainstream literature, Indigenous women can find liberation from the false images perpetuated by the squaw/princess binary ( Acoose 1995) and today more and more Indigenous women writers take on this role.

Prevailing Attitudes toward Indigenous Women

In July 2015, two paintings appeared on a storefront window during the Hospitality Days cultural festival in Bathurst, New Brunswick. One painting depicted two Indigenous women with their hands tied behind their backs, their ankles tied and their mouths forced shut with what appeared to be duct tape. These images appeared during the height of the push for a National Public Inquiry into missing and murdered Indigenous women and girls. In response, social media backlash prompted the removal of the images. In an article published by The Halifax Media Co-op Miles Howe documented the reaction of Patty Musgrave, one of the hosts of the local annual Sisters in Spirit Vigil and Indigenous Student Advisor for New Brunswick Community College. Musgrave wrote a letter to city council “to address the appalling disregard to First Nation people in [New Brunswick] and across the country” and expressed that the paintings trivialized violence against Indigenous women. According to Musgrave, after an apology that links readers to the legend of the phantom ship, a sincere and suitable apology should be made as well as further action including consultation with Indigenous communities prior to such images being presented. President of the Bathurst Art Society, Rita May Gates expressed “We just didn’t think at the time that the images would be painful and upsetting and of course we do respect their culture and stories very much. This depiction does open thought and dialogue regarding the plight of Aboriginal women, the abuse and femicide they have suffered over the centuries. We just send prayers for hope and healing going out to First Nations’ people. It was never our intention to hurt anyone” (Howe 2015).

The issue of the paintings, especially at the height of the push for the national public inquiry demonstrate that there is much work to be done in many facets of society as prevailing attitudes have not changed much since the time when E. Pauline Johnson published “A Strong Race Opinion: On The Indian Girl in Modern Fiction,” in May 1892. Nor have we seen an answer to the calls for justice into the death of Helen Betty Osbourne in 1971 that prompted the Aboriginal Justice Inquiry of Manitoba. Today, families across the country call for justice for Tina Fontaine and the thousands of Indigenous women and girls who have gone missing since contact.

A mother that wakes and finds her babies gone

A young girl with blood down her thighs

A grandmother without any daughters left

And a lone woman under a man that she loves

Breathing to the drum of one heart

And giving themselves to morning

To wash this all away and return to a place like home

Where these things never happen

Where men don’t take these women

(Belleau, 55)

In IndianLand Lesley Belleau shares poems of home, of memory, and of missing Indigenous women and girls. Lesley’s poetry is a profound expression of the home that Indigenous women and girls have always called Turtle Island and her words are testament to the memories that echo throughout the land and reverberate within our waters. In her poem Niibinabe she asks, “how many missing and murdered Indigenous women are there? . . . [f] amilies and memories speak thousands and thousands until our lips are closed.” She asks readers to “Imagine a woman. Your mother. Imagine a woman that created your first stories. And then she is gone” (47).

For Indigenous women, Belleau’s poetry resonates all too well. The extent to which stories of settler violence against Indigenous women are deeply rooted within Indigenous literatures tells us that these are not isolated incidents. Rather, they are powerful expressions of the violence that threatens all Indigenous women and girls. Settler violence is indeed a sociological phenomenon that has taken place on these lands since contact because theft of Indigenous lands has become intertwined with theft of Indigenous women’s bodies.

Beth Brant’s (1994) description of Indigenous women’s writing as “recovery writing” against repeated attempts of “cultural annihilation” at the hands of the “State” (18), highlights Indigenous women’s literature as a “survival tool” that serves as a weapon against colonial violence. In a recent class, a student furthered this sentiment by describing Indigenous women’s literature as a powerful source of protection and spiritual medicine against the collective threat of violence. By serving as both a pedagogy of humanity and compassion, and a weapon of protection, Indigenous women’s literature calls attention to this ongoing and pervasive threat of settler violence and reawakens us to a time when “Turtle island women had no reason to fear other humans” as shared by Lee Maracle in Daughters are Forever .

I will end by drawing attention to the Haudenosaunee narrative “Thunder Woman Destroys the Horned Serpent” as described to me by Alyssa M. General and the stories of Jikonsaseh as shared by Sara General in Spirit and Intent: A collection of short stories and other writings . Inspired by Alyssa’s artwork that covers the front of Forever Loved: Exposing the Hidden Crisis of Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls in Canada , I consider the Haudenosaunee story of Thunder Woman to be a story of strength, determination, and protection. Thunder woman destroyed the horned serpent, offering a profound lesson about the threat of patriarchal violence and the strength and power of Indigenous women to call an end to colonial violence. Not only does the story of Thunder Woman teach us that we are survivors and we carry the strength to overcome the forces that bring danger into our lives, but it also teaches us that this is a collective strength. I was reminded of this vision of a collective strength when I read Sara General’s short stories about Jikonsaseh who is referred to as the Peace Queen. As Sara eloquently expresses, in the work that Indigenous women are doing to collectively bring us back to a time of peace, safety, and love when we can freely write our stories, create our art, sing our songs, dance our dances, and speak our languages, perhaps Jikonsaseh is a part of all of us. Her legacy lives through us and, like Thunder Woman, our literatures will help us to destroy the horned serpent. Through connections of the past, present, and future, Indigenous women’s literature shares deep-layered understandings of a long history of colonial violence through stories that bring humanity and compassion and honour the legacies of our missing women and girls. I dedicate this chapter to the spirit of Tina Fontaine and all of our missing sisters, daughters, aunties, and mothers. Their stories leave  us with a powerful legacy of hope as we continue to do this work by destroying the horned serpents, naming the genocide we continue to face, and collectively calling for justice.

Acoose, J. (Misko-Kìsikàwihkwѐ). Iskwewak Kah’Ki Yaw Ni Wahkomakanak . Neither Indian Princesses nor Easy Squaws. Toronto, ON: Women’s Press, 1995.

Amnesty International. No More Stolen Sisters: The Need for A Comprehensive Response To Discrimination And Violence Against Indigenous Women In Canada. Ottawa, ON: Amnesty International, 2009.

———. Stolen Sisters: A Human Rights Response to Discrimination And Violence Against Aboriginal Women In Canada. Ottawa, ON: Amnesty International, 2004.

Anderson, K. A Recognition of Being: Reconstructing Native Womanhood. Toronto, ON: Sumach , 2000/2016.

———. “Giving Life to The People: An Indigenous Ideology of Motherhood.” In Maternal Theory: Essential Readings, edited by A. O’Reilly, 761–781. Toronto, ON: Demeter, 2007.

Belleau, L. Indian Land. ARP Books, 2017.

Boyer, Y. and Bartlett, J. “External Review: Tubal Ligation in the Saskatoon Health Region: The Lived Experience of Aboriginal Women.” Saskatoon Health Region, 2017.

Brant, Beth. “The Good Red Road: Journeys of Homecoming in Native Women’s Writing.” American Indian Culture and Research Journal, 21, no. 1 (1997): 193–206. doi:10.17953/aicr.21.1.x371363538n4074q

———. Writing as Witness: Essay and Talk . Toronto, ON: Women’s Press, 1994.

———, ed. A Gathering of Spirit. A Collection of Writing and Art by North American Indian Women. Ithaca, NY: Firebrand, 1988.

Campbell, Maria. Half-Breed. Halifax, NS: Goodread Biographies, 1973, restored edition 2019.

Carter, Sarah. “Categories and Terrains of Exclusion: Constructing The ‘Indian Woman’ in The Early Settlement Era in Western Canada.” In In the Days of Our Grandmothers, edited by M. E. Kelm & L. Townsend, 46–169. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto, 2008.

Charleyboy , Lisa and Mary Beth Leatherdale, eds. #NotYourPrincess: Voices of Native American Women. Annick Press, 2017.

Chrystos. “I’m Making You Up.” In A Gathering of Spirit: A Collection By North American Indian Women, edited by Beth Brant, (153). New York, NY: Firebrand, 1988.

Culleton, B. Come Walk With Me: A Memoir . Winnipeg, MB: Highwater, 2009.

———. In Search of April Raintree . Winnipeg, MB: Pemmican, 1983.

Cunningham, F. “A Conversation with a Massage Therapist.” In #NotYourPrincess: Voices of Native American Women, edited by Lisa Charleyboy and Mary Beth Leatherdale, 58–59. Annick Press, 2017.

Dumont, Marilyn. An Anthology of Canadian Native Literature in English, edited by Daniel David Moses (Author), Terry Goldie (Author), Armand Garnet Ruffo (Author). Oxford University Press, 2013.

General, S. Spirit and Intent: A Collection of Short Stories and Other Writings. Spirit and Intent. (2015)

Grand Chief Arlen Dumas, Assembly of Manitoba Chiefs, Open Letter January 31, 2018.

Global News. “ Toxicologist testifies Tina Fontaine had drugs, alcohol in system when she died.” Staff, The Canadian Press . January 30, 2018.

de Vries, Maggie. Missing Sarah: A Memoir of Loss. Toronto, ON: Penguin, 2008.

Harjo, Joy, and Gloria Bird, eds. Reinventing the Enemy’s Language: Contemporary Native Women’s Writings of North America. WW Norton, 1998.

Hillsburg , Heather. “Reading anger, compassion and longing in Beatrice Culleton Mosionier’s In Search of April Raintree.” International Journal of Media & Cultural Politics. 11, no. 3 (September 1, 2015): 299–313.

Howe, M. “We didn’t think at the time the images would be painful and upsetting.” Halifax Media Co-op , July 27, 2015.

Hunt, S. (2014) Why are we hesitant to name white male violence as a root cause of # MMIW?, Blog post, September 5, 2014. Rabble.ca

Innes, Robert Alexander, and Kim Anderson, eds. Indigenous Men and Masculinities: Legacies, Identities, Regeneration. Winnipeg, MB: University of Manitoba Press, 2015.

Johnson, E. Pauline. ( Tekahionwake ). “A Strong Race Opinion: On the Indian Girl in Modern Fiction.” Toronto Sunday Globe. May, 22 1892.

Kenny, Caroline. “When the women heal: Aboriginal women speak about policies to improve the quality of life.” American Behavioral Scientist, 50, no. 4 (December 1, 2006): 550–561. doi:10.1177/0002764206294054.

Lavell-Harvard, Dawn Marie. & Brant, J., eds. Forever loved: Exposing the Hidden Crisis of Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls in Canada. Toronto, ON: Demeter, 2016.

Maracle , Lee. Daughters are Forever. Vancouver, BC: Polestar, 2002.

McKenzie, H. “‘She was not into drugs and partying. She was a wife and mother’: Media Representations and (Re)presentations of Daleen Kay Bosse (Muskego).” In Torn from our midst: Voices of grief, healing, and action from the missing Indigenous women conference, edited by Brenda Anderson, Wendee Kubik , and Mary Rucklos Hampton, 142–161. Regina: SK, University of Regina Press, 2010 .

Mercredi, M. Morningstar: A Warrior’s Spirit . Regina, SK: Coteau, 2006.

Monture-Angus, P. Thunder in My Soul: A Mohawk Woman Speaks . Halifax, NS: Fernwood, 1995.

National Post. “’Society should be horrified’: Fifteen-year-old aboriginal girl’s body found in Winnipeg river.” The Canadian Press. August 19, 2014. Accessed https://nationalpost.com/news/canada/society-should-be-horrified-fifteen-year-old-aboriginal-girls-body-found-in-winnipeg-river .

Printup , Nick, writer, director, producer. Our Sisters in Spirit. Documentary. 2015. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zdzM6krfaKY .

Rendon, M. “Untitled . ” In Sweetgrass Grows All Around Her, edited by Beth Brant and Sandra Laronde . Toronto: Native Women in The Arts, Issue 2 (1996): 46.

Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples. Report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples—Volume 3: Gathering strength. Ottawa, ON: Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, 1996.

Simpson, A. Mohawk Interruptus: Political Life Across the Borders Of Settler States. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2014.

Simpson, Leanne. As We Have Always Done. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 2017.

Vermette, Katherena . The Break. House of Anansi Press, 2016.

Global Femicide Copyright © 2021 by Jennifer Brant is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Share This Book

Presentations made painless

• Get Premium

122 Canadian History Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

Inside This Article

Canadian history is rich and diverse, offering students a vast array of topics to explore and write about. Whether you are studying Canadian history or simply have an interest in the subject, here are 122 essay topic ideas and examples that can inspire and guide your research.

• The impact of European colonization on Indigenous peoples in Canada.
• The role of the fur trade in shaping early Canadian history.
• The significance of the Royal Proclamation of 1763 in Canadian history.
• The causes and consequences of the Seven Years' War on Canada.
• The impact of the American Revolution on Canada.
• The role of the War of 1812 in shaping Canadian identity.
• The impact of the British North America Act on Canadian Confederation.
• The significance of the Canadian Pacific Railway in uniting Canada.
• The role of Louis Riel and the Métis in Canadian history.
• The impact of the Klondike Gold Rush on Canada's development.
• The causes and consequences of the Red River Rebellion.
• The significance of the Northwest Rebellion led by Louis Riel.
• The impact of the Canadian Pacific Railway on Indigenous communities.
• The role of women in early Canadian society and their fight for suffrage.
• The impact of World War I on Canada's economy and society.
• The causes and consequences of the Winnipeg General Strike.
• The role of the Group of Seven in shaping Canadian art and culture.
• The impact of the Great Depression on Canada.
• The causes and consequences of the On-to-Ottawa Trek.
• The significance of the Persons Case in advancing women's rights in Canada.
• The role of Canadian soldiers in World War II.
• The impact of the Japanese Internment Camps during World War II.
• The causes and consequences of the Baby Boom in post-war Canada.
• The significance of the Quiet Revolution in Quebec.
• The role of Lester B. Pearson in Canadian history.
• The impact of the FLQ crisis on Quebec and Canada.
• The causes and consequences of the October Crisis.
• The significance of the Official Languages Act in promoting bilingualism.
• The role of Pierre Elliott Trudeau in Canadian politics and society.
• The impact of the National Energy Program on Canada's economy.
• The causes and consequences of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.
• The significance of the Oka Crisis in Indigenous land rights.
• The role of the Canadian military in peacekeeping missions.
• The impact of the Free Trade Agreement on Canada's economy.
• The causes and consequences of the Meech Lake Accord.
• The significance of the Charlottetown Accord in constitutional reform.
• The role of the Quebec Referendums in Canadian unity.
• The impact of the 1995 Quebec Referendum on Canadian politics.
• The causes and consequences of the Westray Mine disaster.
• The significance of the Canadian Human Rights Act in promoting equality.
• The role of Canadian soldiers in Afghanistan.
• The impact of the 2008 global financial crisis on Canada.
• The causes and consequences of the Idle No More movement.
• The significance of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in addressing residential schools.
• The role of LGBTQ+ activism in advancing rights in Canada.
• The impact of the legalization of same-sex marriage in Canada.
• The causes and consequences of the 2015 Canadian federal election.
• The significance of the Canada-China relations in Canadian foreign policy.
• The role of Indigenous land claims in shaping Canadian law.
• The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on Canada's economy and society.
• The causes and consequences of the 2021 Kamloops Indian Residential School discovery.
• The significance of the Black Lives Matter movement in Canada.
• The role of environmental activism in Canadian politics.
• The impact of climate change on Canada's northern regions.
• The causes and consequences of the Quebec sovereignty movement.
• The significance of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples in Indigenous rights.
• The role of Canadian peacekeepers in international conflicts.
• The impact of the 2010 Vancouver Winter Olympics on Canada's image.
• The causes and consequences of the 2013 Lac-Mégantic train disaster.
• The significance of the legalization of cannabis in Canada.
• The role of Canadian women in politics.
• The impact of Canadian multiculturalism on society.
• The causes and consequences of the Newfoundland and Labrador Hydroelectric Project.
• The significance of the Canadian Museum for Human Rights in promoting awareness.
• The role of Canadian literature in shaping national identity.
• The impact of social media on Canadian politics.
• The causes and consequences of the 2017 Quebec City mosque shooting.
• The significance of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission's Calls to Action.
• The role of Canadian artists in promoting social change.
• The impact of the Me Too movement in Canada.
• The causes and consequences of the opioid crisis in Canada.
• The significance of the 2018 legalization of assisted dying in Canada.
• The role of Canadian athletes in international sporting events.
• The impact of the 2020 Black Lives Matter protests on Canada.
• The causes and consequences of the 2021 Canada-U.S. border closure.
• The significance of the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls.
• The role of Canadian healthcare system in providing universal coverage.
• The impact of the 2019 federal carbon pricing plan on Canada's environment.
• The causes and consequences of the 2021 Nova Scotia mass shooting.
• The significance of the 2021 discovery of unmarked graves at residential schools.
• The role of Canadian technology companies in the global market.
• The impact of immigration on Canada's population and culture.
• The causes and consequences of the 2016 Fort McMurray wildfire.
• The significance of the 2021 federal budget in post-pandemic recovery.
• The role of Canadian musicians in promoting cultural diversity.
• The impact of the 2020 COVID-19 vaccine rollout on Canada's healthcare system.
• The causes and consequences of the 2021 British Columbia heatwave.
• The significance of the 2021 federal election in shaping Canada's future.
• The role of Canadian media in shaping public opinion.
• The impact of the 2017 Canada 150 celebrations on national identity.
• The causes and consequences of the 2020 Beirut explosion on Canadian aid efforts.
• The significance of the 2021 discovery of unmarked graves at former Indigenous residential schools.
• The role of Canadian NGOs in international development.
• The impact of the 2020 Black Lives Matter protests on Canadian policing.
• The causes and consequences of the 2021 Newfoundland and Labrador election.
• The significance of the 2021 federal climate change plan in meeting international targets.
• The role of Canadian universities in fostering research and innovation.
• The impact of the 2020 Canada-EU Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement on Canadian trade.
• The causes and consequences of the 2021 British Columbia wildfires.
• The significance of the 2021 federal budget in addressing economic inequality.
• The role of Canadian filmmakers in promoting Canadian culture.
• The impact of the 2020 COVID-19 travel restrictions on Canada's tourism industry.
• The causes and consequences of the 2021 Alberta oil sands spill.
• The significance of the 2021 federal election in shaping climate policy.
• The role of Canadian athletes in promoting inclusivity in sports.
• The impact of the 2020 COVID-19 school closures on Canadian education.
• The causes and consequences of the 2021 Newfoundland and Labrador oil spill.
• The significance of the 2021 federal carbon neutrality plan in addressing climate change.
• The role of Canadian NGOs in supporting Indigenous communities.
• The impact of the 2020 COVID-19 lockdowns on mental health in Canada.
• The causes and consequences of the 2021 Quebec language law on linguistic diversity.
• The significance of the 2021 federal budget in addressing affordable housing.
• The role of Canadian fashion designers in promoting sustainability.
• The impact of the 2020 COVID-19 border closures on Canadian trade.
• The causes and consequences of the 2021 British Columbia logging protests.
• The significance of the 2021 federal election in promoting reconciliation.
• The role of Canadian musicians in promoting mental health awareness.
• The impact of the 2020 COVID-19 restrictions on Canadian arts and culture.
• The causes and consequences of the 2021 Alberta water shortage.
• The significance of the 2021 federal climate change targets in meeting international agreements.
• The role of Canadian NGOs in supporting refugees and newcomers.
• The impact of the 2020 COVID-19 vaccine passports on Canadian civil liberties.

These essay topic ideas and examples cover a wide range of aspects of Canadian history, from Indigenous rights to contemporary issues. Select a topic that interests you, conduct thorough research, and develop a well-structured essay that demonstrates your understanding of Canadian history and its significance. Happy writing!

Want to create a presentation now?

Instantly Create A Deck

Let PitchGrade do this for me

Hassle Free

We will create your text and designs for you. Sit back and relax while we do the work.

Explore More Content

• Privacy Policy
• Terms of Service

© 2023 Pitchgrade

• Dalhousie University Libraries

Indigenous Studies

• Journal Articles (peer-reviewed / scholarly articles)
• Relevant Services & Programs

Search Tip - Indigenous Studies topics

Libraries search, find articles in the following databases and sources:, scholarly journals, database tutorials, plan / search.

• Books & E-Books
• Newspapers and News sources
• Encyclopedias / Dictionaries / Handbooks
• Other Sources
• Cultural Heritage - Images and Sources
• Residential Schools
• Truth & Reconciliation Commission (TRC)
• Indigenous Research Methodologies (IRM)
• Donald Marshall, Jr., Prosecution
• Environment
• Arts & Humanities
• Social Sciences
• Visual & Performing Arts
• Style Guides
• University Writing
• Ask A Librarian
• Indigenous Data Sovereignty

Core academic skills for students

Students! Not sure where to start? Looking to get a handle on some core skills that will help you with research? Look no further!

Visit our core skills for resources on how to research like a pro, document delivery.

If Dalhousie's Libraries do not have the article or book that you need, you can order the item via Document Delivery , a service which is offered free of charge to Dalhousie students and faculty.

• Document Delivery service
• Document Delivery tutorial (5 min.)

The First Nations, Métis and Inuit have long used their own words to name their people and territories. Contemporary researchers strive to be respectful and use this terminology when referring to Indigenous peoples. However there have been times when authors have referred to Indigenous peoples using words that were inappropriate and/or disrespectful. You may encounter these words when you do assignment research.

When selecting words to use in a database search, you may need to use both old and new terminology, as well as general and specific words to find relevant material. Here are a few examples:

General terms : Indigenous, Aboriginal, First Nations, Inuit, Métis, Native, First Peoples, Indian

Specific terms : Mi’kmaq, MicMac, Montagnais, Haudenosaunee, Iroquois, Ojibwe, Ojibway, Anishinaabe, Cree, Dene, Athapaska, Haisla, Sto:lo

Database search example:  (Mi’kmaq OR Mi’kmaw OR MicMac) AND treaty

• Indigenous History – A Bibliography by Shekon Neechie A bibliography of Indigenous-authored history articles - compiled by Indigenous historians.
• Bibliography of Indigenous Peoples in North America This link opens in a new window BNNA covers all aspects of native North American culture, history, and life. It includes citations for books, essays, journal articles, and government documents of the United States and Canada, published from 16th century to the present (from HRAF).
• First Nations Periodical Index
• America: History & Life This link opens in a new window Key database for North American history. Includes articles, books & dissertations on the history of Canada & the United States from pre-historic times to the present.
• AnthroSource This link opens in a new window Key database for peer-reviewed articles in anthropology.
• Sociological Abstracts This link opens in a new window Key database for Sociology covering anthropology, economics, education, medicine, community development, philosophy, demography, political science, and social psychology. Includes references to journal articles, conference papers, dissertations, books, and book reviews.
• PAIS Index This link opens in a new window Indexes articles, books, documents, reports, and statistical compilations about public policy, social policy and international development.
• ERIC (Educational Resources Information Centre) - ProQuest This link opens in a new window The key database for education, ERIC consists of two files: Resources in Education, covering document literature, and Current Index to Journals in Education, covering published journal literature.

• Google Scholar This link opens in a new window Search for academic sources using the Google search engine.

Here are examples of just a few of the many journal titles which are likely to contain material related to indigenous studies:

• Canadian Journal of Native Studies (2005 to present)
• Canadian Journal of Native Studies (1981 - 2005) - free online
• AlterNative: An International Journal of Indigenous Peoples
• American Indian Culture and Research Journal
• Decolonization: Indigeneity, Education & Society
• Canadian Historical Review
• Recherches Amérindiennes au Québec
• American Indian Quarterly
• Native Studies Review
• Études Inuit = Inuit Studies
• International Journal of Indigenous Health
• How to Search a ProQuest database (5 min. video) ProQuest databases include CBCA, PAIS, ERIC and Sociological Abstracts.

• Critically Analyzing Information Sources Wondering how to tell whether a book or article is scholarly? Here are a few tips from Cornell University Libraries.
• Locating Readings that are "On Reserve" in Library Online tutorial
• << Previous: I want to find...
• Next: Books & E-Books >>
• Last Updated: Mar 12, 2024 9:38 AM
• URL: https://dal.ca.libguides.com/Indigenous_Studies

Home — Essay Samples — Sociology — Race and Ethnicity — Indigenous People

Essays on Indigenous People

The choice of indigenous people essay topics.

Writing an essay about Indigenous People is an important and relevant topic in today's society. It provides an opportunity to explore the history, culture, and issues faced by Indigenous communities. Choosing the right topic is crucial to produce a well-researched and compelling essay.

Indigenous People have a rich and diverse history that is often overlooked or misrepresented. By writing about Indigenous People, you can shed light on their experiences, challenges, and contributions to society. It is also a chance to address social justice issues and promote understanding and respect for Indigenous cultures.

When selecting a topic, it's essential to consider your interests, the relevance of the issue, and the availability of credible sources. You should also choose a topic that allows you to present a balanced perspective and engage in critical analysis.

Recommended Indigenous People Essay Topics

History and culture.

• The impact of colonization on Indigenous communities
• Traditional Indigenous art forms and their significance
• The role of Indigenous women in their communities
• The preservation of Indigenous languages
• The history of Indigenous resistance movements

Social Issues

• Indigenous land rights and environmental conservation
• Indigenous representation in the media
• The effects of government policies on Indigenous communities
• Indigenous education and access to resources
• Health disparities among Indigenous People

Contemporary Challenges

• The impact of climate change on Indigenous communities
• Indigenous activism and advocacy for rights
• The role of Indigenous knowledge in addressing global challenges
• The effects of urbanization on Indigenous cultures
• The intersection of Indigenous identity and modernity

Land and Resources

• The impact of environmental degradation on indigenous communities
• Indigenous land rights and the struggle for sovereignty
• The role of indigenous knowledge in sustainable resource management
• The impact of mining and resource extraction on indigenous lands

Health and Well-being

• The disparities in healthcare access and outcomes for indigenous communities
• The impact of historical trauma on indigenous mental health
• The role of traditional healing practices in indigenous communities
• The impact of substance abuse on indigenous populations

Education and Representation

• The portrayal of indigenous peoples in the media and popular culture
• The challenges and opportunities in indigenous education
• The impact of cultural appropriation on indigenous communities
• The importance of indigenous representation in leadership and governance

Legal and Political Issues

• The impact of colonial legal systems on indigenous communities
• The struggle for recognition and rights for indigenous LGBTQ+ individuals
• The impact of government policies on indigenous communities
• The role of indigenous sovereignty in contemporary political debates

These essay topics provide a starting point for exploring the diverse issues related to Indigenous People. It's important to approach these topics with sensitivity, respect, and a willingness to listen to Indigenous voices. By choosing a relevant and meaningful topic, you can contribute to the ongoing dialogue about Indigenous rights and representation.

Mexico Culture

The medicine bag: a symbol of cultural identity and healing, made-to-order essay as fast as you need it.

Each essay is customized to cater to your unique preferences

+ experts online

The Broken Spears Summary

The human rights problem faced by the indigenous people all around the world, the impact of residential schools on canadian children, intergenerational effects of residential schools on indigenous people, let us write you an essay from scratch.

• 450+ experts on 30 subjects ready to help
• Custom essay delivered in as few as 3 hours

The Challenges on Indigenous People’s Education

The importance of self-deternination for indigenous people, the cultural genocide in canadian society, the social determinants of health and its influence on indigenous people’s health in canada, get a personalized essay in under 3 hours.

Expert-written essays crafted with your exact needs in mind

Indigenous Studies as a Mandatory Course in Universities

Discussion of the issue of colonialism and state dependency, housing as determinant of health, the darfur genocide: causes, effects, and who’s to blame, the role of business in the life of indigineous communities in canada, urban memory and the indeginous knowledge system, an indigenous philosophical ecology: situating the human, the mabo decision and sovereignty of the indigenous people of australia, columbus day is out and indigenous peoples' day is in, the impact of technology on indigenous people, the story of genocide of the pawnee people, native american tribes: the caddo, agawam, and esopus indians, the ethnobotanical knowledge of the onge tribal community, european colonization of africa: war with the indigenous population, fire suppression as native american oppression, analysis of mark rose’s article about silent apartheid’ experienced in australia, sacagawea's life and time, how indigenous people have been impacted by technology, cabeza de vaca's legacy, the meaning of australian indigenous epistemology according to indigenous academics, relevant topics.

• American Identity
• African American
• Intercultural Communication
• Mexican American
• Cultural Identity
• Physical Appearance
• Social Media
• Effects of Social Media

By clicking “Check Writers’ Offers”, you agree to our terms of service and privacy policy . We’ll occasionally send you promo and account related email

No need to pay just yet!

We use cookies to personalyze your web-site experience. By continuing we’ll assume you board with our cookie policy .

• Instructions Followed To The Letter
• Deadlines Met At Every Stage
• Unique And Plagiarism Free

Canadian Study: Course on Indigenous Studies

The process of reconciliation between First Nations and Europeans is complex and quite lasting. A lot of effort has been made to make these two groups find some common ground and truly become one nation. However, it is clear that this goal is yet to be reached. Education is seen as one of the platforms for this reconciliation, and some higher educational establishments have already introduced mandatory Indigenous studies courses to fill in the gap (Monkman par. 5).

At the same time, it is obvious that some students are not happy about such innovations (Dehaas par. 4). It is important to consider a number of important aspects to understand whether a university (such as Carleton University) should introduce such a mandatory course.

It has been acknowledged that First Nations peoples have been discriminated for many decades and even centuries. Of course, there have been various regulations, laws, and incentives (as well as treaties) to secure human and other rights of Aboriginal Canadians (Harrison and Friesen 185).

Nonetheless, the two groups are still divided. It is also clear that First Nations peoples have fewer opportunities and are more prone to engaging in criminal activity due to the lack of educational and employment opportunities. Furthermore, Aboriginal people suffer from significant trauma associated with racism, exclusion, and neglect (Bombay, Matheson, and Anisman 14). There is still a considerable gap between the two groups.

It is necessary to note that this gap has been created by people who had quite good intentions. An example of such factors contributing to the development of the gap is the Royal Proclamation of 1763 (Freeman par. 6). The document was aimed at developing a path for two groups (First Nations people and Europeans) to coexist and interact properly (Woodward par. 5). However, it had quite a reverse effect as the two groups were divided by different territories and rights. The fact that Indigenous people were treated as another group as opposed to the new society contributed to the increase in the divide. People were made to behave in particular ways (hunt, make agreements, treat cultures), which could hardly lead to the nation’s creation.

The introduction of mandatory courses is quite similar to the Royal Proclamation of 1763. People will feel the gap between the two nations, and both groups will have their arguments against close cooperation. Aboriginal Canadians will hardly benefit from the course as people’s awareness is quite sufficient since the focus on the history of Indigenous peoples of Canada is one of the peculiarities of Canadian K-12 education (Dehaas par. 15).

Other ethnic groups will also be dissatisfied with such decisions as they also feel (and often are) discriminated against. Canadians of European descent will feel weary of those issues discussed during classes. Thus, all the groups will feel dissatisfied, and the course will not lead to the creation of jobs or educational opportunities for Aboriginal Canadians. It will be much more useful for Carleton University to provide more scholarships to these people and launch various events where different groups will interact and develop proper relationships.

In conclusion, it is necessary to note that mandatory Indigenous Studies courses at any university are bad. Such a decision may contribute to the development of the gap between different ethnic groups in Canadian society. It is better to try to eliminate racism and inequality through other incentives that will create new jobs, new opportunities, new (business and cultural) relations. Raising people’s awareness is somewhat redundant as the issue has significant coverage within the scope of K-12 education.

Works Cited

Bombay, Amy, Kim Matheson, and Hymie Anisman. “Intergenerational Trauma: Convergence of Multiple Processes Among First Nations Peoples in Canada.” Journal of Aboriginal Health 5.3 (2009): 6-47. Print.

Dehaas, Josh. Why Indigenous Studies Shouldn’t Be Mandatory . 2012. Web.

Freeman, Victoria. The Royal Proclamation and Colonial Hocus-Pocus: A Learned Treatise . 2013. Web.

Harrison, Trevor W., and John W. Friesen. Canadian Society in the Twenty-First Century: An Historical Sociological Approach , Toronto: Canadian Scholars’ Press, 2010. Print.

Monkman, Lenard. “High Hopes for Mandatory Indigenous Courses Set to Start at U of W.” CBC News , 2016. Web.

Woodward, Jack. “Jack Woodward: The Real Anniversary of Canada’s Founding.” National Post, 2013. Web.

Cite this paper

• Chicago (N-B)
• Chicago (A-D)

StudyCorgi. (2021, January 7). Canadian Study: Course on Indigenous Studies. https://studycorgi.com/canadian-study-course-on-indigenous-studies/

"Canadian Study: Course on Indigenous Studies." StudyCorgi , 7 Jan. 2021, studycorgi.com/canadian-study-course-on-indigenous-studies/.

StudyCorgi . (2021) 'Canadian Study: Course on Indigenous Studies'. 7 January.

1. StudyCorgi . "Canadian Study: Course on Indigenous Studies." January 7, 2021. https://studycorgi.com/canadian-study-course-on-indigenous-studies/.

Bibliography

StudyCorgi . "Canadian Study: Course on Indigenous Studies." January 7, 2021. https://studycorgi.com/canadian-study-course-on-indigenous-studies/.

StudyCorgi . 2021. "Canadian Study: Course on Indigenous Studies." January 7, 2021. https://studycorgi.com/canadian-study-course-on-indigenous-studies/.

This paper, “Canadian Study: Course on Indigenous Studies”, was written and voluntary submitted to our free essay database by a straight-A student. Please ensure you properly reference the paper if you're using it to write your assignment.

Before publication, the StudyCorgi editorial team proofread and checked the paper to make sure it meets the highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, fact accuracy, copyright issues, and inclusive language. Last updated: January 7, 2021 .

If you are the author of this paper and no longer wish to have it published on StudyCorgi, request the removal . Please use the “ Donate your paper ” form to submit an essay.