water hyacinth essay

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Invasive Water Hyacinth: Ecology, Impacts and Prospects for the Rural Economy

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No new data were created or analysed in this study. Data sharing is not applicable to this article.

Water hyacinth (WH) is notorious for causing severe environmental degradation and being an economic burden to manage. However, it offers substantial prospects if exploited, especially by rural communities. High temperatures, eutrophic conditions and other environmental factors promote the proliferation of the plant in regions where it has been introduced. Regarded as among the world’s worst invasive weeds, WH is nearly impossible to control and eradicate without an integrated approach and community participation. The effectiveness of control methods varies, yet sustained community involvement determines the long-term success of these methods. Reproducing rapidly, WH has the resource capacity to support a unique microeconomic ecosystem, incentivising WH control by generating sustainable income. The WH ecology, the socioeconomic impacts of its invasion and its various applications are reviewed, and revenue generation and cost-saving options are highlighted. A circular microeconomic model is proposed by integrating WH valorisation into the general limitations of a rural community. Empowering locals with opportunities and enticing them with potential economic gains can be a nudge towards a pro-environment behavioural change in managing WH. This would aid in upgrading local livelihoods and could foster resilience within the community in tackling both environmental problems and economic setbacks through the management of WH invasions.

1. Introduction

Invasive in nature, water hyacinth has been extensively addressed in reviews due to its destructive environmental and economic impact [ 1 , 2 ]. Originating from the Amazon, this notorious macrophyte has spread to many other tropical and sub-tropical regions [ 2 , 3 ], invading freshwater waterways, displacing native species, reducing biodiversity [ 4 , 5 ] and deteriorating water quality [ 6 ]. In terms of its direct impact on mankind, it disrupts human activities [ 7 , 8 ], acts as a breeding ground for disease vectors [ 6 , 9 ] and continues being a pest in the aquatic environment. Further environmental problems related to water hyacinth are evident. Managing water hyacinth through physical, mechanical, chemical, and biological means causes additional complications [ 10 ]. Herbicides used in the chemical cleansing of water hyacinth will pollute water bodies and may bioconcentrate, bioaccumulate and biomagnify in the aquatic food web, potentially eliminating non-target organisms [ 2 ]. Introducing a predator, the weevil beetle, for the weed to gain biological control might lead to a secondary catastrophic impact, besides the long duration required to achieve significant success [ 10 ]. While they remain the most practical means, physical and mechanical interventions are both costly and labour-intensive [ 11 ]. Moreover, once harvested, water hyacinth biomass can create waste issues if not properly managed.

Conversely, a remarkable number of studies have emerged for the potential use and conversion of water hyacinth into value-added products, suggesting a positive aspect of the weed [ 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 ]. Transforming management issues into opportunities and harvesting water hyacinth through physical and mechanical means by collecting its biomass can be manageable, feasible, and profitable.

Current and recent reviews addressing the valorisation of water hyacinth have focused on several aspects, including water hyacinth biomass-to-energy [ 15 ], biochar production potential [ 12 ], phytoremediation capacities [ 17 ], cost-benefit analyses and the economic feasibility of its utilisation [ 12 , 13 , 18 ] and various other products [ 16 ]. Though frequently mentioned in previous works of literature, the direct and indirect prospects for the utilisation of water hyacinth in affected, and especially rural areas, for the benefit of the people within those areas, has not yet been thoroughly discussed. Most of the literature has focused on the socio-economic impacts that water hyacinth infestations have on the community, rather than on the ways the community can gain immediate benefits from it [ 7 , 9 , 19 , 20 ].

Listed among the top 100 in the Global Invasive Species Database by the Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG), water hyacinth has been described by many experts as nearly impossible to eradicate. However, the key to its successful control, it has been reported, is the active participation of relevant stakeholders, including the affected locals [ 21 ]. However, a lack of enthusiastic involvement in many instances has led to failures and the re-establishment of the aquatic weed invasion [ 7 , 22 ]. Furthermore, the involvement of locals in water hyacinth management has remained limited to roles at the ground level, for example, monitoring the effect of control strategies implemented by relevant authorities or becoming directly involved in the manual clean-up of water hyacinth [ 21 ]. Community empowerment to instil knowledge regarding the weed and the prospects of managing it remains deficient.

Promoting pro-environmental behaviours among community members can be vital in addressing environmental problems [ 23 ]. One strategy to achieve this is through the introduction of green nudges. Green nudges, or environmental nudges, are informal suggestions aimed at creating a behavioural change, leading to more pro-environmental actions [ 23 , 24 ]. As such, the eradication of water hyacinth and the proper management of its harvested biomass waste could be made economically attractive to rural people through green nudges. This would subtly encourage community members to become actively involved and opt for a more ecological form of water hyacinth management. Some regard nudges as unethical, as they serve to benefit others but overlook the normative cost of the well-being of those being nudged [ 24 ]. However, it is often agreed that optimal environmental nudges serve the common good and collective welfare, for both the present and future generations [ 25 ]. Therefore, empowering rural communities with the prospects of water hyacinth would not only benefit the environment by making it cleaner, but also the well-being of the locals by potentially allowing income generation. Hence, the normative cost associated with the alleged unethical aspects of green nudging would simultaneously be addressed.

In general, this review will discuss the water hyacinth ecology and the impacts of its invasion on rural communities. Furthermore, it aims to suggest a green nudge: a microeconomic model based on various potential water hyacinth valorisation schemes for the affected rural communities. This would promote the sustainable management of water hyacinth in order to control the expansion of its negative human and environmental impacts. Analysis of the prospects for water hyacinth will focus on the conversion of the weed into two types of products. The first are those that can be created and sold directly by the rural community for income generation and cost-saving purposes. The second type use water hyacinth as their base material and can be supplied by the community to relevant industries. Closing the water hyacinth movement loop in the microeconomic model will also be explored as part of the effort to achieve a circular microeconomy. Rural communities affected by water hyacinth infestation can become involved by coping with and managing the issue through the microeconomic model, which will foster resilience and lead to more sustainable solutions for the water hyacinth control and management issues.

2. Water Hyacinth Invasion

Water hyacinth is native to the Amazon in South America and especially to Brazil and Argentina. Initially intended to be given as gifts, it was introduced worldwide and has spread both accidentally and deliberately into the natural environment. Invasions have been reported in Africa, Asia, Europe, Central America, North America and the Caribbean [ 26 ]. Successful weed invasions are due to the optimum conditions provided by the invaded areas, especially in terms of temperature and nutrient levels, among other relevant factors. According to Wilson et al. [ 27 ], at a constant temperature and nutrient level, the projected growth of water hyacinth is a rate of 0.1 kg/m 2 , while under nutrient-rich or eutrophic conditions the rate will increase to 10 kg/m 2 . Supplemented with an average optimum temperature of 30 °C, it takes around 50 days for the plant to reach the 10 kg/m 2 rate. For these reasons, water hyacinth invasions have been observed to predominantly affect equatorial regions that have warm average temperatures and eutrophic lakes, with rivers and wetlands affected more commonly and severely.

2.1. Ecology of Water Hyacinth

Water hyacinth, or Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms, from the family Pontederiaceae , is a free-floating aquatic plant that commonly grows in inland freshwater bodies such as lakes, rivers, streams, ponds and wetlands. The plant has broad, wide canopy-like waxy leaves and purple clustered flowers that grow in spikes. The petioles of the plant appear bulbous with air-sacs that help make it buoyant. The plant varies in height from a few centimetres to nearly a metre, while the leaves may be around 15–20 cm in length and width [ 14 ]. The plant can sometimes become rooted when it lodges in muddy, shallow waters and the flowers may be blue or white [ 14 ]. With the ability to reproduce both sexually through seed propagation and asexually through stolon vegetative reproduction, water hyacinth exhibits the reproductive characteristics suited to invasive success. According to Zhang et al. [ 26 ], the invasive spread of water hyacinth is characterised by its genetic uniformity due to its prolific clonal reproduction, dominated through vegetative propagations. In the absence of interspecific competition, water hyacinth outcompetes other aquatic plants, even outside its native range; thus, its growth is rapid and unchecked. Its seeds can remain viable for up to 20 years and may germinate in moist soil or warm, shallow waters [ 28 ]. Additionally, the high dispersal of its buoyant propagules and well-developed phenotypic plasticity and its ability to change in response to different stimuli are among the factors that enhance the plant’s adaptive capacity to any local environmental changes in its native range. Meanwhile, these factors facilitate its ability to colonise its introduced ranges [ 26 ].

A study by Wu and Ding [ 5 ] discussed the abiotic factors in terms of environmental parameters and the biotic, species-specific factors influencing water hyacinth invasion. Interesting highlights from the abiotic study include the influence that the dissolved oxygen level has on reducing the plant growth, while high levels of conductivity, indicating nutrient availability, promotes the plant’s propagation. Water hyacinth has also been proven to reduce the biodiversity of the invaded area, according to four biodiversity indices. Water hyacinth invasion was observed to reduce the overall biodiversity in terms of species richness and evenness. Various other factors may either promote and accelerate or limit and slow a water hyacinth infestation. These include temperature, nutrients, salinity, light, wind, water currents, carbon dioxide levels, waves, turbidity and changes in water levels [ 27 , 29 ]. In general, higher temperatures and greater nitrogen and phosphorus content are important factors promoting water hyacinth growth [ 27 , 29 ]. Higher salinity levels inhibit water hyacinth proliferation by inducing growth reduction and an increase in its mortality rate [ 30 ], which hamper invasions in coastal areas. In cases where both salinity and nutrients vary, nutrients will have a greater influence on the leaf count while total biomass remains limited [ 30 ]. A higher flow velocity reduces the probability that water hyacinth can become established. Consequently, a higher level of dissolved oxygen derived from the turbulence similarly limits the plant’s growth. Water hyacinth has also been reported to reduce phytoplankton productivities due to the fall in dissolved oxygen and chlorophyll-a levels in water bodies covered by the plant. These have major ecological impacts on the infested water as the aquatic food web becomes disrupted, leading to a drop in aquatic species composition and biodiversity [ 31 ].

Despite the extensive knowledge of the inhibiting factors of the plant, the water hyacinth invasion rate can be uncontrollable, especially when aided by continuous inputs of nutrient pollution from agricultural activities. The mechanical harvesting of water hyacinth requires a weed harvester, an excavator and other heavy machinery. Physical harvesting may refer to the same process or involve manual harvesting. Both the mechanical and physical methods lead to an abundance of harvested biomass that must be managed. In contrast, chemical and biological methods aim to eradicate the weed. Chemical cleansing using herbicides kills the plant but may also affect non-target species [ 2 ]. Biological control involves the use of biocides or, more commonly, an insect predator of the plant, namely the weevil beetle. Biocides are not commonly used as they are less commercially available compared to their chemical counterparts [ 32 ]. Biological control using the weevil relies on its herbivorous nature to shorten the plant petioles and reduce the above- and below-surface biomass [ 33 ]. Although successful in reducing the size and increasing the mortality of the plant, weevil biocontrol fails in reducing the plant cover, one of the most important factors in deterring the invasion [ 33 ]. With such different approaches and varying levels of success, controlling water hyacinth invasions clearly requires an integrated approach using all available means to ensure long-term success and to avoid the re-establishment of an aquatic weed invasion.

2.2. Impacts on Rural Communities

The invasion of water hyacinth has a major impact on the rural people affected, especially those who depend on water bodies for their livelihoods, such as fishing and riparian communities [ 7 , 8 , 9 , 20 , 34 ]. As discussed by Dersseh et al. [ 1 ], a water hyacinth invasion has negative impacts on the hydrology and environment, resulting in subsequent socio-economic impacts, as it disrupts human daily activities and health. The increase in evapotranspiration compared to surface evaporation disrupts the hydrological water balance in the infected areas, which could disrupt local rainfall events. Reduced water flows in rivers due to water hyacinth blockages will promote sedimentation, deoxygenation and water quality deterioration. Weed canopies on lakes reduce sunlight penetration. This increases the water turbidity and reduces variability in temperatures, as well as other similar water quality concerns [ 35 ]. Consequently, all these events lead to a reduction in fish and other aquatic organism populations as their habitat becomes less habitable. Instead, the proliferation of disease vectors such as mosquitoes and snails will occur, as the plant hosts a variety of these species [ 9 ].

Dense weed mats mean limited access to waterways, leading to conflicts among the affected communities to gain access to watercourses. As water hyacinth is buoyant and not anchored, it moves with the wind. This is especially disruptive to fishermen, making boat navigation harder, delaying fishing preparation and resulting in fishing net entanglements and damage to other equipment [ 20 ]. In places with hydroelectric dams, the invasion has led to damaged generators and coolers and threats to the electricity supply [ 28 , 36 ]. Hence, locals’ livelihoods are disrupted as many lose their source of income, incur costs due to damage and are further inconvenienced in many ways.

Coping strategies for water hyacinth invasion can be described as reactive- or recovery-based [ 34 ]. Reactive behaviour is a short-term coping mechanism for handling an immediate current situation. Affected communities tend to be reactive, for instance, by joining clean-up activities to remove the weed or simply halting their daily routine during the invasion peak. On the other hand, some communities have been reported to adopt alternative sources of income when interrupted by water hyacinth. Such actions are considered recovery-based, as locals recover their livelihoods through other means, such as switching to agriculture.

From the rural perspective, water hyacinth has only negative impacts on communities, according to a survey conducted on communities affected by an invasion of Lake Tana, Ethiopia [ 7 ]. Livelihood security concerns may hinder the prospects for water hyacinth to be explored by a rural community, especially without support from relevant authorities, which can provide information and technical and financial aid [ 37 ]. Thus, a community tends to adopt alternatives to overcome its hardship. Consequently, the water hyacinth problem remains unresolved.

Therefore, a community must be empowered so that it becomes resilient in coping with a water hyacinth invasion. The problem tends to recur because fully eradicating the plant appears to be impossible as it rapidly expands its territory. The key to successful community involvement is the dissemination of information coupled with empowerment programmes. These approaches would enlighten locals, offering not only the knowledge but also the skills needed to manage water hyacinth for their benefit. One example of a successful empowering project was reported in Indonesia. The Bangkit Bersama Cooperation, a community empowerment institution, developed a water hyacinth waste scavenger programme in the Saguling Reservoir area that created job opportunities through the utilisation of the weed [ 38 , 39 , 40 ]. The success of such programmes highlights the importance of integrating the concept of the weed into the community and local livelihoods in order to ensure that its management is sustainable [ 37 ].

3. Prospects for Water Hyacinth

Despite being one of the top ten global worst weeds, water hyacinth is also considered a highly productive plant [ 41 ]. Its rapid reproduction provides numerous opportunities for its usage as a sustainable resource. In that sense, water hyacinth is not merely an environmental challenge, as its considerable inherent advantage can be utilised for economic growth [ 42 ]. The valorisation of water hyacinth is not new; its prospects are extensive, encompassing different sectors such as agriculture, energy, metallurgy, construction, pharmacology, arts and craft, material science and more [ 13 , 15 , 16 ]. Despite these various opportunities, rural communities may not benefit directly from all the applications as limitations may arise due to the location, the cost and the complex technology required and the availability of labour. The following section reviews the prospects for water hyacinth in terms of how it can be managed, reused, recycled or repurposed by rural communities, as well as how it can be merely supplied to other relevant industries by the community. The community’s role within the water hyacinth management cycle for each application is also discussed.

3.1. Water Hyacinth for Feeds

Water hyacinth has been studied for its nutritional value and potential use as feed for livestock, poultries, and fish [ 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 ]. Its nutritive attributes—for example, it is high in cellulose, hemicellulose and crude protein content—make it suitable for use as a substitute or an additive for animal feeds [ 46 ].

Water hyacinth has been reported to be used as feed for cattle [ 47 , 48 ], goats [ 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 ], sheep [ 53 ], pigs [ 54 , 55 ], ducks [ 56 , 57 ], rabbits [ 58 , 59 ], fish [ 45 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 ] and other animals.

Water hyacinth is highly versatile: it can be used directly as fresh feed [ 54 , 56 ], ensiled into silage by mixing with manure, urea, molasses, straws and other substances [ 48 , 64 , 65 ], composted [ 66 ], or used in a dried or wilted form as hay [ 47 , 53 , 67 ] for feeding animals. The plant’s relatively low fat content, however, prevents voluntary uptake by certain livestock as it lowers palatability [ 59 ]. Ensilaging is regarded as a more common practice, as it helps to make the water hyacinth feed more palatable to animals [ 65 ]. Similarly, wilted water hyacinth was stated to reduce digestibility and intake as feed, yet it was also reported as an economically viable substitute in the areas it invaded, as its availability is guaranteed [ 46 ]. Another major disadvantage of using water hyacinth as feed is the high crude fibre content of the plant, which may lead to a lower feed conversion (feed/weight gain) ratio and can be an anti-nutritional factor for certain animals [ 63 ]. However, this can be overcome through fermentation with added microbes [ 57 , 63 ].

The positive effects of utilising water hyacinth as feed include increased weight gain in pigs [ 55 ], increased feed intake and digestibility of nutrients in bulls [ 68 ] and cattle [ 48 ], higher final protein content in fish [ 63 ] and goat meat [ 69 , 70 ], strengthened duck eggshells [ 56 ], improved microscopic aspects of goat sperm [ 70 ] and lower feed production costs for rabbits [ 58 , 59 ] and fish [ 66 ]. Some negative health effects do arise, especially related to digestion, when ruminants are fed directly or solely with the plant [ 7 , 46 ]. Meanwhile, water hyacinth was also reported to have no additional effect when mixed with other concentrated feed ingredients or used as additives. In fact, an increase in its ratio may have detrimental effects [ 63 , 71 , 72 ].

Additionally, water hyacinth nutrient contents were proven to be independent of its place of origin and remain constant at the same levels, even if collected from different geographical areas or water sources [ 44 , 73 ]. Although normally the whole plant is used as feed, some users omit the roots to avoid possible metal contamination, even when the metal concentration was found to be below the maximum permissible limit [ 59 ]. In general, leaf meal was observed to be more preferable, as the water hyacinth leaf protein content accounts for about 50% (per dry weight) of its total nutritional quality [ 74 ].

For decades, livestock agricultural activities have played an important role in the rural economy [ 75 ]. Promoting suitable incentives for reducing feed costs, for example, by utilising water hyacinth, may improve rural livelihoods that depend on livestock agriculture. With the diverse possibilities of using the plant for animal feed, rural communities affected by water hyacinth invasion can take advantage by utilising it for rearing animals, whether at the personal or commercial level. Water hyacinth application, with no amendment besides sun drying, is suitable for small-scale use and incurs relatively minor nutrient losses for feed. In addition, less of a workload would be required [ 76 ]. Using them fresh or dried incurs no costs, although for better results, ensilaging or fermenting the plant for feed can lead to higher animal acceptability and subsequent higher returns. However, the latter might require some form of intervention and involve knowledge transfer programmes delivered by relevant parties to educate the communities on the right methods. This would arguably mean that managing water hyacinth as feed could be practised sustainably. Figure 1 summarises the potential use of water hyacinth as feed and the role of the community in the management cycle of the plant.

Water hyacinth, its animal feed potential and the benefits that can be gained by the community.

3.2. Water Hyacinth for Biofertilisers

Harvested water hyacinths left to dry on land can quickly wilt and will, in time, be naturally composted. Cleared land with a pile of water hyacinth leftovers will quickly enter secondary succession driven by the nutrients provided by the composted weed through natural fertilisation. Rich in organic nutrients, water hyacinth consists of more than 70% organic matter on a dry basis [ 14 ] and high levels of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) content [ 13 ]. Water hyacinth can be either mulched [ 77 , 78 , 79 ], composted [ 17 , 80 ] vermicomposted [ 81 , 82 ] or anaerobically digested [ 83 ] for biofertilisation purposes.

Mulching involves using the fresh or dried water hyacinth with or without amendments for soil cover to retain moisture, stabilising the soil structure, regulating soil temperatures and controlling the weed [ 79 ]. Composting usually involves mixing water hyacinth with animal dung, with cow dung being the most common [ 17 , 77 , 84 ]. Composting with the aid of worms describes vermicomposting. In this process, water hyacinth supplies nutrients to both the soil and worms and the excreted worm casts further improve the overall soil condition [ 81 ]. Anaerobic digestion involves mixing water hyacinths with various wastes, including animal manure, solid waste and food waste for biogas production. The resulting digested liquid and solids can then be used as biofertilisers [ 83 , 85 ].

Mulched water hyacinths have been reported to contain 10–40% more nitrogen (N) and 20–50% more carbon (C) compared to other aquatic weeds, increasing the quality of the biofertiliser [ 77 ]. Moreover, digestates from the anaerobic digestion of water hyacinth have been reported to be effective biofertilisers because they contain phytohormones, nutrients (N, P and K) and other bioactive compounds that support plant growth [ 85 , 86 ]. Composting water hyacinth can reduce metal bioavailability in the plant, especially in specimens obtained from polluted waterways or used in phytoremediation [ 80 ]. Further metal leachability reduction can be achieved through vermicomposting [ 84 ]. These methods of managing water hyacinth ensure the safer application of the composted plant as biofertilisers, especially for edible crops.

In general, biofertilisers made from water hyacinth can improve soil nutrient content, increase crop growth, improve crop quality, and even curb weed and pest infestation in certain cases [ 78 , 82 ]. However, depending on the type of mixture and condition used when preparing water hyacinth biofertilisers and the type of crop it is used on, beneficial outcomes may vary. Water hyacinth has been shown to improve soil nutrient content for strawberry growth, but the strawberries do not benefit directly [ 87 ]. When used as mulch, water hyacinth was reported to improve soil temperature, soil moisture and crop yield in maize cultivation [ 79 ]. In turmeric farming, water hyacinth mulch improved the morphological and physiological characteristics of the tuber plant [ 78 ]. Water hyacinth mulch was also reported to be able to lower the soil salinity in saline soil for the cultivation of potatoes and tomatoes [ 88 ], while composted water hyacinth helps overcome salinity stress in white lupin seedlings [ 89 ].

The various benefits for the plants and crop growth indicate that water hyacinth-based biofertilisers should be sufficiently attractive for affected rural communities to take advantage of. Mulching and composting are more feasible than vermicomposting and anaerobic digestion, and little training is needed. Additional community empowerment can facilitate greater awareness among other communities in terms of the prospects for using water hyacinths as biofertilisers, while interest in vermicomposting and anaerobic digestion can be aided by providing training and knowledge transfer. Hence, water hyacinth waste can be properly managed, and enhanced crop production will help improve community livelihoods. A summary of the weed’s biofertilisation potential and its connection with the community is portrayed in Figure 2 .

Water hyacinth valorisation to biofertilisers and the role and benefits of the community.

3.3. Water Hyacinth in Crafts

Water hyacinth has great potential for use in craft production. Raw material from the dried plant and its fibre can be utilised to make bags, handbags, wallets, flower pots, fashion accessories, mats and many other items [ 90 , 91 , 92 ]. According to Rakotoarisoa et al. [ 93 ], in selecting the raw materials, the water hyacinth stem length must be at least 50 cm for it to be suitable for handicraft production. They also added that water hyacinth stems are simple to cut and weave due to their size and flexibility. Other than the stem, the dried petioles of water hyacinth are also used to make other forms of handicraft, including coasters, mats, shoes, sandals, belts, wallets and vases, in countries like Indonesia and the Philippines [ 94 ]. Today, digital technology has enabled the development of home-based enterprises (HBEs) or home industries utilising water hyacinths. For instance, communities around Rawapening in Indonesia utilised overgrowing water hyacinths in online home-based enterprises [ 95 ]. The locals use water hyacinths to make products such as bags, sandals and baskets, and furniture like chairs and tables, before marketing them using the internet [ 95 ]. In Madagascar, communities traditionally use papyrus for handicraft production; however, water hyacinth is now being used in the production of large and small hats, shopping bags, handbags, sandals and mats [ 93 ]. These products are also being exported to international markets [ 93 ].

The results of water hyacinth processing helps to empower the community. Usually, handicraft production using water hyacinth involves the selection of raw materials, the transportation and drying process, the ornament choice and, finally, the construction and production of the items [ 93 ]. In Indonesia, for instance, the Bangkit Bersama Cooperation has developed an empowerment programme to train people in processing water hyacinths for craft production. Housewives have been taught how to turn water hyacinth weeds into a variety of craft items, including bags, vases, tissue boxes, calligraphy, furniture and many other products [ 39 ]. It was found that the resulting art and craft works are enabled by the collaboration between the Bangkit Bersama Cooperation and the community. The products are then sold domestically and internationally. Another community empowerment effort in Indonesia can be identified in a Samosir regency government policy that exploits water hyacinth in Lake Toba for bag-making, a product targeted at elementary to high school students. This benefited the community, especially the unemployed, as new bag-making job opportunities were created. Besides providing the capacity for the community to cope with environmental problems, the method can also reduce the poverty levels associated with the lack of available jobs [ 96 ]. The communities were also provided with waste management expertise and skills, ranging from identifying different forms of waste-to-waste separation to conditioning and recycling [ 39 ].

The involvement of women in industrial crop processing practices can also enhance their ability to contribute significantly to household budgets and decision-making, leading to long-term empowerment. Housewives who traditionally did not work and relied financially on their husbands can now assist their partners by supplementing their income [ 97 ]. For instance, many housewives operate small stalls from their homes where they sell regular necessities. Ristianasari et al. [ 98 ] mentioned that communities who have had a long-term engagement in empowerment events and are participating in organisations appear to be more independent, and so empowerment projects have been demonstrated to offer knowledge, widen perspectives and inspire people to access the available improvements. Nieminen et al. [ 99 ] added that locals’ constructive internal resources were strengthened, their inner mind functions were enhanced and their lives were given greater meaning through such experiences.

After becoming empowered through a social compass approach, residents’ socio-economic systems in Indonesia, for instance, have shifted from agriculture to home industry. Working as traders or craftsmen allows people to meet their everyday needs and, in conjunction with garbage scavenger and women’s empowerment programmes, creating handicrafts from water hyacinth waste is becoming an appropriate way to integrate economic gains and social empowerment while utilising a plant that has tended to be seen only as a problem [ 39 ]. The added value of water hyacinth in terms of economic growth and community empowerment is summarised and shown in Figure 3 .

Illustration of value-added water hyacinth to economic growth and community empowerment.

3.4. Water Hyacinth Conversion to Bioenergy

Water hyacinth has immense potential for use as an energy resource. Due to its dense population and aggressive growth, the utilisation of this aquatic weed as an energy feedstock is highly attractive, especially when paired with its potential capacity for phytoremediation and energy production. Furthermore, using this biomass as an energy resource solves the issue of water hyacinth management post-phytoremediation [ 13 ]. Water hyacinth is abundantly available, biodegradable and characterised as a non-crop plant. This categorises the biofuels thus produced as second-generation biofuels, alleviating any food versus fuel complications. Its biomass characteristics are promising in terms of energy production; it has a low lignin content (10%) and high cellulose (20%) and hemicellulose (33%) content [ 100 ]. As the lignin content is low in water hyacinth, the plant is especially suited for utilisation as a bioenergy resource, as this compound hinders the fermentation processes of several commercial yeasts and enzymes [ 100 ]. Water hyacinth also exhibits a useful C/N ratio within the range of 20:1–30:1, which is appropriate for microbial decomposition processes [ 101 ].

These features make it suitable for use as feedstock for many types of biofuels (see Figure 4 ), including biogas through anaerobic digestion; biohydrogen and bioethanol through hydrolysis and fermentation; syn-gas, biochar and bio-oil through thermochemical conversion via pyrolysis, gasification and hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL); and briquettes through mechanical conversion. However, fresh water hyacinth biomass may contain up to 95.5% water, which may complicate harvesting and processing [ 100 ]. The biofuel yields from thermal processes such as combustion, gasification and pyrolysis generally suffer from wet biomass resources, which necessitates pre-treatment and dewatering. As such, the scope of this review is limited to the biochemical and mechanical conversion of water hyacinth biomass via biomethane (biogas) and briquette production. This is based on the intention of the authors to focus on economical nudges for rural communities, which require that approaches are less technologically complex yet economically feasible, as well as being based on locals’ socio-economic capacity and the existing energy situation.

The energy potential of water hyacinth biomass.

3.4.1. Biogas Production through the Anaerobic Digestion of Water Hyacinth

Anaerobic digestion is a process whereby organic matter is converted into biogas, a mixture of methane (CH 4 ) and carbon dioxide (CO 2 ). Biomethane can then be used as an energy resource for heating, cooking and power generation. This conversion relies on the biochemical activities of bacteria and archaea consortia that break down the complex organic matter into soluble monomers such as amino acids, fatty acids, simple sugars and glycerols, subsequently producing methane.

In detail, four stages are involved in the anaerobic digestion process: hydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis and methanogenesis. Initially, the biomass-containing complex organic compounds undergoes hydrolysis, whereby they are broken down by the consortia into their monomers of simple sugars, amino acids and fatty acids. The hydrolysis of carbohydrates usually concludes within hours, whereas the process for lipids and proteins may take days to complete [ 102 ]. The simple monomers will then be fermented in the acidogenesis stage, which produces volatile fatty acids (VFAs), alcohols, hydrogen (H 2 ) and CO 2 [ 103 ]. The product in the second phase becomes the feedstock for the bacteria involved in the third acetogenic phase. These microorganisms reduce H 2 , CO 2 , organic acids and alcohols to acetic acid. Then, depending on the methanogen population available, acetate, methanol or H 2 and CO 2 are converted into methane in the final stage, the methanogenesis phase. Current AD processes usually occur in a single stage and the biogas yield greatly depends on the population of the microorganisms in the consortia and sufficient mixing for feedstock contact. However, as anaerobic digestion contains four distinct stages, the stability of the methane production process is influenced by the methanogen activity in the consortia. Methanogens have slower growth rates compared to other microbes and thus present a challenge. In their study, Barua and Kalamdhad [ 104 ] concluded that a two-stage biogas digester is superior to traditional single-stage digesters, as a higher rate of feedstock degradation, a more stable process and a simpler biogas recovery system were observed. The two stages of the process separate the methanogenesis phase from the other phases and ensure that optimum environmental conditions for the methanogens can be maintained in order to maximise methane production.

Another bottleneck is the hydrolysis stage, in which the sugar monomer yield becomes the limiting factor in subsequent stages; this eventually determines the biogas yield. However, water hyacinth proved useful by achieving higher reducing sugar yields and faster hydrolysis rates than other aquatic and terrestrial plants such as water peanut, miscanthus and metasequoia chips under the same conditions [ 105 ]. This highlights an opportunity to use water hyacinth in anaerobic digestion processes, which could be adopted by communities that are severely affected by the invasion of water hyacinth and economically dependent on agriculture. They would be able to control the weed, generate income and become energy-independent. However, many factors affect the performance of biogas production, including the operating parameters, feed characteristics and mode of operation. These will be reviewed briefly to highlight the links between the availability of water hyacinth as feed, the potential of a circular economy through a zero-waste philosophy and the requirement of simple technologies that rural areas can implement easily.

Operating temperature is a highly significant parameter for anaerobic digestion. There are three temperature profiles, psychrophilic (T < 20 °C), mesophilic (20 °C < T < 40 °C) and thermophilic (T > 45 °C), although anaerobic digestion processes usually occur in either mesophilic or thermophilic mode [ 106 ]. Mesophilic reactions are primarily used as thermophilic digesters that require higher energy input and are sensitive to operational parameter changes [ 107 ]. From the rural community perspective, therefore, mesophilic AD offers an obvious advantage compared to the thermophilic process, as it requires very minimal energy input and is less complicated. However, Photong and Wongthanate [ 108 ] demonstrated that cumulative methane production is higher when the process occurs at a thermophilic temperature of 55 °C (230 mL/g COD methane produced), compared to a mesophilic temperature (methane production at 110 mL/g COD ). Methane yield rises at higher temperatures have been linked to lower enzyme activation energy, higher hydrogen production, stable consortia population and increased methane cumulative production [ 109 , 110 , 111 ]. Overall, many processes involved in anaerobic digestion are biochemical and highly dependent on the reaction rates of the enzymes involved [ 106 ]. The characteristics and optimal conditions of these enzymes, however, depend on the microorganism used in the AD process.

The existing microbial community in a digester is highly dependent on the chemical and physical characteristics of the feed and the initial inoculum [ 112 ]. Common forms of inoculum used in the AD process include farm animal manure, municipal sewage sludge and leachate from composting plants [ 113 , 114 ]. For example, the addition of rumen fluid in the range of 25–50% during the pre-treatment process showed optimum biogas production compared to runs without this addition [ 15 ]. Inoculum starter is a prerequisite at the commencement of the digestion process; however, subsequent processes may occur without the addition of inoculum. Nevertheless, the absence of inoculum causes more dynamic variations in the microbial community, leading to increased lag time and lower biomethane concentration, regardless of pre-treatment [ 111 ]. From the perspective of rural communities planning to adopt the AD approach to treat their agricultural or municipal waste, the use of inoculum is an interesting opportunity, as locals could use any available inoculum source from their economic activities, such as waste from cow-herding, poultry farming or fishing.

The operation of anaerobic digestion can proceed in either liquid or solid-state, which is determined by the total solids (TS) content. For liquid AD, TS (% v / v ) values range between 0.5–15%, while solid-state AD has values higher than 15% [ 115 ]. AD processes may also occur with single feed or feeds co-digested with other substrates, such as food, agricultural or animal waste [ 114 , 116 , 117 ]. For example, Photong and Wongthanate [ 101 ] studied the feasibility of using a mix of water hyacinth and cassava starch sediment for biomethane production. They discovered a ratio of water hyacinth and cassava starch sediment at 25:75, initial pH of 7.5, thermophilic temperature (55 ± 2 °C) and C/N ratio of 30 were optimal for the digestion process and produced 436.82 mL CH 4 /g COD . One advantage of co-digesting water hyacinth with other substrates is that the stability of the process can be improved. The addition of water hyacinth to food waste in the digester feed was found to maintain pH values in the optimum range as the plant acts as an organic nutrient and buffer agent [ 118 ]. Zhao et al. [ 119 ] also argued that the co-digestion of food waste and waste-activated sludge mitigates the effects of salt and pH variation on biogas production. After all, pH is another factor that affects AD performance. In general, the anaerobic digestion process is conducted within the neutral pH range of 6.6 to 7.8, as lower pH values tend to modify the biochemical activities of the methanogen enzymes into non-methane metabolites [ 107 ]. The presence of salt in the feedstock is also a point of contention as it has been found that high concentrations of chloride salts (4–10 g/L) in digester feed inhibits biomethane production as methanogen growth is affected [ 110 ]. However, in some cases, a higher salt concentration does not delay biogas production but, instead, promotes hydrolysis and the acidification steps of anaerobic digestion through the promotion of the hydrolysis enzyme activity. This maintains the biofilm balance and regulates the osmotic pressure in the cells [ 119 ]. Methane production in the digestion of water hyacinth from brackish water (22.5 L/kg VS added /day) was twice the rate of that from freshwater (10.0 L/kg VS added /day) due to the higher nutrient content in the former [ 120 ]. In conclusion, an optimum level of salt is required to maintain the optimum conditions in the digester.

With regards to the feed, it has been suggested that methane yield can be improved by employing pre-treatment to the water hyacinth biomass. Four approaches can be applied [ 106 , 113 , 121 ]: (i) mechanical pre-treatment in which the solid sizes are reduced through shredding or grinding, which assists hydrolysis by making more surface accessible to enzymes; (ii) thermal pre-treatment, which uses high temperatures to assist the physical degradation of biomass; (iii) chemical pre-treatment, which uses alkali or acid to improve the carbohydrate fibre digestibility; and (iv) biological pre-treatment, which uses external enzymes or microorganisms to convert complex sugars into monosaccharides. These approaches are readily available to communities and would improve the characteristics of the water hyacinth available before it is used in the subsequent processes and transferred to the AD system. Nevertheless, for AD purposes, mechanical and thermal pre-treatments are relatively easy to apply and require only basic machines or items, which are likely to increase their appeal among rural communities. Despite the advantages of high-temperature pre-treatment processes, low temperatures can be utilised to further simplify the process. However, the addition of alkali is required, as noted by Carlini et al. [ 106 ] Their paper also demonstrated that through this approach, the reduced sugar concentration increased from 57% to 74% ( w / w ), while the ash content decreased. A multiple pre-treatment approach might also increase biomethane production. Xu [ 122 ] concluded that reducing the water hyacinth biomass size, coupled with thermophilic conditions, improved biomass biodegradation by up to 59%.

The energy potential of water hyacinth is substantial and encouraging. Castro and Agblevor [ 118 ] estimated that 846.5 MJ of energy can be produced from one tonne of fresh biomass and only 6.8% of that energy produced is required for mechanical harvesting. Therefore, although energy is required to harvest the water hyacinth biomass from its aquatic environment, the total energy produced from the biomass is more than sufficient to maintain continuous operations. In terms of productivity, 50 kg/m 2 of ash-free water hyacinth biomass can be produced annually with a daily biomass productivity of 0.04–0.08 kg/m 2 per day [ 93 ]. From the harvested biomass, the annual energy potential from one tonne of biomass is equivalent to 13.3 m 3 biogas or 18.35–18.75 kWh electricity [ 108 ]. If a higher methane concentration of up to 75% is achieved, the electricity output may increase up to 25 MJ/kg [ 116 ].

3.4.2. Briquette Production from Water Hyacinth Biomass

Despite its substantial potential as an energy resource, the direct utilisation of water hyacinth is relatively challenging. Fresh biomass is bulky and has a low density, so its use in conventional burners is uneconomical. Briquetting is a biomass densification process that transforms biomass residues into a cleaner and enhanced solid fuel with higher density and heat intensity (13.1–18.4 MJ/kg) [ 15 ]. Raw water hyacinth contains up to 95.5% moisture, which compromises its ability to be combusted as a direct fuel [ 14 ]. The advantage of converting biomass into briquettes is that the moisture content can be reduced while its density is increased, which enhances its fuel properties [ 100 ]. The transformation of water hyacinth biomass into briquettes is also a more environmentally friendly process, as co-firing with coal reduces greenhouse gas emissions [ 123 ].

The fuel properties of briquettes made from water hyacinth also depend on the biomass ratio, which subsequently determines the briquette’s physical, mechanical, and thermal properties [ 124 ]. Photong and Wongthanate [ 108 ] demonstrated that ratios of water hyacinth (WH) and cassava starch (CS) sediment at 10:90, 20:80, 30:70, 40:60 and 50:50 were optimal as fuel properties, with heating values of 15.66, 15.43, 15.10, 14.88 and 14.58 MJ/kg, respectively. Previously, many different types of agricultural waste had been tested in briquette production using water hyacinth. These included waste fibres from the oil palm industry, sawdust, tannery solid waste and fruit waste [ 124 ].

The most important factors in bio-briquette production are moisture, cellulose and lignin content [ 108 ]. Lignin enhances the bio-briquette binding characteristics while low moisture content ensures that high-quality briquettes are produced by avoiding instances where incomplete burning and fly ash formation are detected. Cellulose and lignin ratios also influence the volatile matter content, which subsequently affects the combustion rate and calorific value of the briquettes. For comparison, briquettes with a volatile matter content in the range of 65–85% were shown to coincide with heating values in the range of 12.91–16.00 MJ/kg.

In the briquetting process, the raw materials are processed as follows: first, the raw biomass is ground into a uniform size suitable for the subsequent processes. Then, they are dried to significantly reduce the water content. When the optimal water content has been achieved, a briquetting machine is used to form the biomass into briquettes. This densifying process functions due to the binding properties of lignin at a high pressure and temperature, which makes the various biomass components adhere together. However, studies have demonstrated that low pressures may also be used to achieve comparable results. This may appeal to rural communities, as relatively simple technology can therefore be used and only hand-pressed mechanical equipment is required [ 124 , 125 ].

Implementing both AD and briquetting processes for bioenergy production in rural areas is a holistic approach to treat WH. Since rural communities tend to rely on economic activities such as agriculture, farming and fishing, many potential co-digestion and co-briquetting candidates are available for the anaerobic digestion and bio-briquette process. The manufacture of products such as briquettes, which can be marketed, and biomethane, which can be used locally to provide power, is a nudge from which rural communities can benefit ( Figure 5 ). Small and independent industries can utilise the new energy resources to cut their energy expenditure, while utilising the available waste streams means that no additional waste management costs are incurred. This allows communities to sustain their small industries, while local jobs are created, eventually leading to wealth creation. In addition, the environment also benefits from such endeavours as the available waste from the associated industries, which are treated systematically, reducing carbon emissions and pollution.

Bioenergy production for uptake by rural communities.

3.5. Supplying Water Hyacinth to Other Industries

According to some reports, water hyacinth has been used as a raw material for bio-based building materials such as thermal insulators [ 126 , 127 ] and concrete mixture [ 128 , 129 ]. It has also been used in the production of high-value chemicals such as furfurals and hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), biopolymers and enzymes, as reviewed by Ilo et al. [ 13 ] and the production of biochars used in agriculture and low-grade energy sectors [ 130 , 131 ]. Water hyacinth has other potential bioenergy uses, having been extracted for its phenalenone compounds and sterols for pharmacological purposes [ 132 ] and used for water treatment purposes through phytoremediation [ 133 ].

As water hyacinth is commonly grown and proliferates in slightly polluted to polluted environments, its phytoremediating potential has been investigated more often than its other recognised prospects, which can be considered newer breakthroughs. The following section focuses on the prospects for the use of water hyacinth in phytoremediation and the link to the metal reclamation industries that might be supplied by the affected rural communities.

Phytoremediation and Metal Reclamation

Water hyacinth has a proven capacity to remove heavy metals from wastewater [ 134 , 135 , 136 , 137 ]. A study reported that water hyacinth can remove up to 99.5% of chromium (Cr(VI)) pollution from industrial mine wastewater [ 134 ]. It was also reported that water hyacinth was able to remove zinc (Zn), lead (Pb), iron (Fe), copper (Cu) and nickel (Ni) from landfill leachates [ 135 ]. Besides heavy metals, water hyacinth has a reported capacity to remove ammonia (NH 3 ) and phosphorus (P) from sago mill effluent [ 136 ]. The removal of P by water hyacinth from rice mill wastewater was reported to be up to 77.2% efficient [ 137 ].

Water hyacinth removes heavy metals by root uptake and accumulates them in the plant. While some heavy metals are transported to other aerial parts of the plant via the xylem, the root accumulates the majority of the contaminants, possibly in multifaceted vacuoles in the root tissues [ 135 ]. Considering the high accumulation of heavy metals in the root and the direct exposure of the root to the wastewater heavy metals, it is understandable that the root suffers the greatest stress due to the toxicity of the heavy metals, causing it to be thin and wiry, as observed by Abbas et al. [ 135 ] Additionally, while the plant growth rate was positive when grown in wastewater [ 137 ], it was negatively affected compared to its growth in clean tap water and can be identified by the stunting, chlorosis, and shorter root length [ 135 ]. However, despite the negative effects of the heavy metals on plant growth, it was reported that heavy metal removal by water hyacinth peaked at 50–75% wastewater dilution [ 135 , 137 ].

The ability of water hyacinth to remove heavy metals from wastewater creates a valuable opportunity for its direct application in the wastewater treatment process. Unlike physiochemical wastewater treatment methods, the application of water hyacinth in wastewater treatment does not require the utilisation of energy, chemicals or the production of adsorption materials. Additionally, the accumulation of heavy metals in water hyacinth allows contaminants to be easily removed. Used and collected water hyacinth can be composted, the heavy metals from which can be recovered using electrocoagulation, electro-floatation or a combination of the two [ 138 ]. The recovered metals can be formed into solid bars and sold to metallurgical industries, like the process flow adopted by e-waste recycling facilities in Malaysia [ 139 ].

The phytoremediation potential of water hyacinth in removing heavy metals contamination from wastewater treatment reveals an opportunity for communities with water hyacinth infestation problems. The current practice of removing the infestation with no monetary returns can strain communities’ livelihoods. Instead, the unwanted water hyacinth can be harvested and sold to industries for use in their wastewater treatment process. Moreover, the direct application of water hyacinth in wastewater treatment allows plants to be sold immediately and with no further processing, making the process sufficiently simple to be performed by these communities. Furthermore, significant heavy metal removal by water hyacinth can be achieved in 15 days [ 135 , 137 ], which would prompt industries to buy more water hyacinth periodically from the communities. The constant industrial wastewater production means a constant demand for fresh water hyacinth supply from the communities. This continuous water hyacinth supply and demand would benefit three parties: (1) the environment (due to the removal of water hyacinth, a pest, from lakes); (2) the communities (healthy lakes allow fishing; the sale of water hyacinth provides profits); and (3) the industries (due to the cheaper wastewater treatment system and profits from heavy metals extraction) ( Figure 6 ).

The water hyacinth supply and demand cycle when used as an industrial wastewater treatment. The plants will be extracted by the communities and sold to the industries. The latter use the whole plant to collect heavy metals from their wastewater. The industries can then compost the whole plants before extracting the heavy metals from the compost and selling them to metallurgical industries. Since water hyacinth can significantly reduce heavy metal levels in wastewater within 15 days, industries will be prompted to buy more water hyacinth from the communities after this period to treat the next wastewater batch. This cycle demonstrates how communities will benefit from the sale of water hyacinth and the industries will benefit from the cheaper wastewater treatment and sale of extracted metals from the water hyacinth compost.

4. Microeconomics of Water Hyacinth for the Rural Community

Experiencing environmental disturbances such as a water hyacinth invasion jeopardises not only the livelihoods of rural communities, but also their health and the environment. Water hyacinth invasion tends to be long-lasting without continuous, integrated management from all stakeholders. Wainger et al. [ 140 ] proved that the benefits of managing water hyacinth outweigh the long-term costs of controlling it.

Hence, it is imperative that the community becomes resilient in coping with the problems arising from an invasion. Some core elements of community resilience are local knowledge, health, resources, the interconnectedness of the community through networks and relationships, communications, economic growth and preparedness, among others [ 141 ]. According to Rijke et al. [ 142 ], the adaptive capacity of rural communities in becoming more resilient to environmental disturbances can be supported by circular economy approaches in resource use that are available within the community. The continuous growth dynamics of water hyacinth ensure a sustainable supply of the weed as resources for various valorisation strategies [ 3 ].

Therefore, to gain enthusiastic commitment from rural communities affected by water hyacinth invasion, a microeconomic model based on water hyacinth valorisation is suggested, using a circular economy approach. This model aims to be a nudge towards a pro-environmental behavioural change within the community in terms of their handling of problems related to water hyacinth. An effective environmental nudge would help attain environmental goals, ensuring that the benefits outweigh the costs and remain ethically sustainable in the long term [ 25 ]. With a clear environmental aim that focuses on a community’s potential gains, it is believed that the circular micro-economic model can be a useful environmental nudge towards sustainable water hyacinth management.

As reviewed in the previous sections, various approaches can be followed to develop useful products from water hyacinth. Any processes can be customised based on the community requirements, resource availability, the skills of the potential workforce and the sustainability of the process. Figure 7 illustrates the proposed model for such an endeavour and includes some general assumptions. It has been reported that water hyacinth coverage may produce 450 tonnes/hectares with a doubling time of seven days [ 100 ]. Based on these figures, a harvesting rate of 35 tonnes/hectare/day would ensure that a sufficient amount of the plant remains to sustain the process, yet be plentiful enough to stimulate the rural economy through the generation of valued products, job opportunities and income creation while improving the quality of life. In general, rural communities are socio-economically connected to agriculture. Hence, the proposed model accommodated the labour availability, which is capped at 30% full capacity and eight man-hours for craft production, in which five items per day may be produced from 1 kg of fresh water hyacinth stems. Another assumption concerned the availability of agricultural residues, as it has been reported that up to 20% of total residues can be removed but still maintain yield and soil fertility. As for the farm animals, this model includes cows that consume 10% of their body weight and produce up to 30 kg of manure daily.

The proposed model for the valorisation of water hyacinth into bioproducts, utilising agricultural residues, reclaimed water and technologies that can be readily adopted by rural communities.

In summary, from one hectare of water hyacinth and the agricultural residues from one plantation hectare, 3500 m 3 of biogas can be produced through anaerobic digestion, which can be used to provide energy for the community, reducing their dependence on the electricity grid. The energy produced can also be used to power a digester and a harvester, allowing the process to be energetically sustainable and potentially reducing the operational costs. The crafts, bio-briquettes and fresh plant biomass can be sold to interested parties, while any wastewater generated from these processes can be treated through phytoremediation without endangering the ecosystem. The digestate from the AD process may also be used by farmers to augment their crops or sold to gain additional income. Meanwhile, water consumption can be reduced by incorporating reclaimed water from the digester output. The harmony of utilising one form of waste as a resource for another process presents an attractive option for communities seeking improvements in their way of life. This process adopts the circular economy philosophy and acts as a nudge towards investing continuous effort in mitigating the issue of water hyacinth infestation. Meanwhile, incentives are created in the form of income generation, job creation, social empowerment and environmental protection.

Restoring the ecosystem invaded by water hyacinth will involve long-term commitment from communities, utilising their unique resources and current economic activities as suggested by the microeconomic model. As an integrated approach is crucial for a long-term solution for water hyacinth invasion, the model may be used to design systems, plan logistics, predict targeted product yields, and assist communities in developing their own business models. Systematic harvesting of the plant will eventually help in controlling the spread of the invasion, which provides an opportunity for the ecosystem to naturally heal. Less water hyacinth mat cover on water bodies will increase sunlight penetration, reduce turbidity, increase dissolved oxygen levels, and subsequently improve water quality. This will then restore the habitat conditions for aquatic organisms, allowing them to return and flourish. Once a balance has been achieved between humans, water hyacinth and the aquatic ecosystem, a new equilibrium in ecosystem stability can be obtained, one that satisfies the nexus of economic strength, environmental protection, and social empowerment. Therefore, water hyacinth invasion should be treated as an opportunity for both the community and the environment to develop adaptive capacities and build resilience in coping with environmental disturbances and achieving sustainability.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, I.H. and Z.Z.; methodology, H.P. and A.J.A.-A.; formal analysis, I.H.; investigation, I.H., H.P., A.J.A.-A. and Z.Z.; resources, Z.Z.; data curation, I.H., H.P. and A.J.A.-A.; writing—original draft preparation, I.H., H.P., A.J.A.-A. and Z.Z.; writing—review and editing, I.H., Z.Z.; visualization, I.H., H.P., A.J.A.-A. and Z.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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• Aquatic Invasives
• Aquatic Plants

Water Hyacinth

Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms ( ITIS )

Common water-hyacinth, floating water hyacinth

South America ( Zhang et al. 2010 )

1884 ( Zhang et al. 2010 )

Ornamental ( Toft et al. 2003 )

Forms dense colonies that block sunlight and crowd out native species ( Toft et al. 2003 )

Water hyacinth, plants at Mara River

Photo by Ted D. Center; USDA, Agricultural Research Service

Find more images

• Google Images - Water Hyacinth
• Invasive.org - Common Water Hyacinth

Distribution / Maps / Survey Status

Early detection & distribution mapping system (eddmaps) - common water hyacinth.

University of Georgia. Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health.

Provides state, county, point and GIS data. Maps can be downloaded and shared.

Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database: Point Map - Common Water-hyacinth

DOI . USGS . Wetland and Aquatic Research Center.

Provides detailed collection information as well as animated map.

YouTube - Water Hyacinth ( Eichhornia crassipes )

Google. YouTube; University of Florida. IFAS . Center for Aquatic and Invasive Plants.

All Resources

Selected resources.

The section below contains highly relevant resources for this species, organized by source.

Invasive Plants of California's Wildlands - Eichhornia crassipes

California Invasive Plant Council.

In online book: Bossard, C.C., J.M. Randall, and M.C. Hoshovsky (Editors). 2000. Invasive Plants of California's Wildlands . University of California Press. Berkeley, CA

Southeast Exotic Pest Plant Council Invasive Plant Manual - Water Hyacinth

Southeast Exotic Pest Plant Council.

Global Invasive Species Database - Eichhornia crassipes (aquatic plant)

IUCN . Species Survival Commission. Invasive Species Specialist Group.

Invaders Factsheet: Water Hyacinth

Ontario's Invading Species Awareness Program (Canada).

Invasive Plant Atlas of the United States - Water Hyacinth

Invasive species compendium - eichhornia crassipes.

CAB International.

Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER) - Eichhornia crassipes

USDA . FS . Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry.

Plantwise Technical Factsheet - Water Hyacinth ( Eichhornia crassipes )

CABI . PlantwisePlus Knowledge Bank.

Texas Invasives Database - Eichhornia crassipes

TexasInvasives.org.

The Quiet Invasion: A Guide to Invasive Species of the Galveston Bay Area - Common Water Hyacinth

Texas Commission on Environmental Quality, Galveston Bay Estuary Program; Houston Advanced Research Center (HARC).

Weeds Australia - Water Hyacinth ( Eichhornia crassipes )

Centre for Invasive Species Solutions; Atlas of Living Australia; Australian Government. Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment.

Indian River Lagoon Species Inventory - Eichhornia crassipes

Smithsonian Institution. Smithsonian Marine Station at Fort Pierce.

Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database: Fact Sheet - Common Water-hyacinth

Provides distribution maps and collection information (State and County).

PLANTS Database - Common Water Hyacinth

USDA . NRCS . National Plant Data Center.

U.S. National Plant Germplasm System - Eichhornia crassipes

USDA . ARS . National Genetic Resources Program. GRIN-Global.

NSW WeedWise: Water hyacinth

New South Wales Department of Primary Industries (Australia).

Invasive Plants: Restricted Invasive Plants - Water Hyacinth

Business Queensland (Australia).

Freshwater Invasive Species in Rhode Island: Water Hyacinth [PDF, 1.61 MB]

Rhode Island Department of Environmental Management. Office of Water Resources.

See also: Aquatic Invasive Plants for species of concern

Anchored Water Hyacinth; Water Hyacinth, Floating

Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources.

Weed Alerts: Water Hyacinth

Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission.

AQUAPLANT - Water Hyacinth

Texas A&M University. AgriLife Extension Service. Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences.

Introduced Species Summary Project - Water Hyacinth

Columbia University. Center for Environmental Research and Conservation.

Plant Profile: Eichhornia crassipes

University of Florida. IFAS . Center for Aquatic and Invasive Plants.

Waterhyacinth - History and Ecology in North America [PDF, 5.79 MB]

North American Invasive Species Management Association.

See also: Biocontrol Factsheets for more information on biocontrol agents

Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Eichhornia crassipes . [Accessed Sep 28, 2023].

Toft, J.D., C.A Simenstad, J.R. Cordell, and L.F. Grimaldo. 2003. The effects of introduced water hyacinth on habitat structure, invertebrate assemblages, and fish diets . Estuaries 26(3):746-758.

Zhang, Y., D. Zhang, and S.C. Barrett. 2010. Genetic uniformity characterizes the invasive spread of water hyacinth ( Eichhornia crassipes ), a clonal aquatic plant . Molecular Ecology 19(9):1774-1786.

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Water Hyacinth - The Green Potential

Related Papers

Proceedings of the 2nd Borobudur International Symposium on Humanities and Social Sciences, BIS-HSS 2020, 18 November 2020, Magelang, Central Java, Indonesia

HELDINA PRISTANTI

ruth nyambura

Everyday Companions. Meaning-Making Process Through Handbag Design.

Jaana Päeva

ʻEveryday Companions. Meaning-Making Process Through Handbag Designʾ is a practice-based doctoral thesis. The 21st century has witnessed significant growth in the handbag market since handbags have become an essential everyday accessory, a portable manifestation rather than a functional product. The subject of the thesis is handbag design, and the research emphasis is on the cultural construction of the meanings of bags because handbags reflect changing everyday needs and the thinking of the time being relevant both on personal and cultural-historical levels. Handbags of this thesis are taken as independent sculptural and functional objects that are close to but separate from the human body; the thesis concentrates on handbag design and designing and excludes the meaning-making involved in product marketing. The doctoral thesis applies research through design and the semiotic approach to connect the past and the present of handbag design in order to explain the communicative potential and the cultural production of meanings of handbags through linkages between the physical characteristics of bags and their perception past and present. The study asks: How is it possible for a handbag to communicate meaning and how can the designer generate meanings in the handbag he/she designs? The thesis presents three creative cases. The first case focuses on the novel characteristics of bag design; in particular, those considered innovations and their meanings. In contrast to the novel, the second case aims to define a classic bag and concentrates on the most enduring features of handbags. The third creative case focuses on the Estonian-origin handbag designs and aims to find specific features, which can be identified as Estonian design, or that defines handbags as ‘local’. Each creative case consists of three phases. First, the historical research examines handbag design in Estonia from 1918 to 1940. The historical period between the world wars was the first period of the independence of Estonia but, more importantly, the period bursting with innovative designing and first social rules towards carrying handbags, both locally and internationally, was chosen as the most inspiring and highly relevant in handbag history from the viewpoint of a designer and a practitioner. The research is based on the thematic content analysis of 15 periodicals and object analyses of 250 handbags from the collections of the Estonian Museum of Applied Art and Design, Tallinn City Museum, the Estonian History Museum and the author. Second, the creative outcome of the cases includes three collections of bags – ʻBags for Dreamers Onlyʾ, ʻBags for Collectors Onlyʾ and ʻBags for Meʾ - whose design processes are informed by the most outstanding features from the historical analysis. The second phase explains the principles of the design process, describes and presents images of prototypes in detail and reflects on the bag making. The third phase collects and analyses contemporary feedback from respondents on the created handbags. Feedback observations and interviews allowed to compare past and present perceptions to detect characteristics of bags in which meanings have remained similar or changed over the years. Feedback analysis helped to understand how handbags are perceived and interpreted, thus revealing the potential of meaning-making through handbag design. The results of the creative cases imply that meanings can be designed when the potential and likely connotations of specific characteristics of bags for various audiences and markets are known beforehand. Knowing the design principles behind the physical characteristics makes it possible to design the desired meanings. The findings reveal the potential for innovating the meaning of bags - a new reason and direction for bag design.

IJMRAP Editor

In developing a product, the preferences of the user community must be considered carefully so that new products will always sell well in the market. The society of product users in a region can differ from one region to another in terms of whether or not the population is heterogeneous. This can also affect people's preferences when choosing a product. The conclusions of several studies that have been carried out show that a person's culture affects the level of preference/choice towards the product. The contribution of the handicraft industry to the national GDP was 15.7 percent. Tas women with distinctive materials made manually is one of the craft products that has the opportunity to be developed. Based on the background above, it is necessary to know the preferences of teenagers in choosing fashion products, namely bags. The purpose of this study is to find out what are the preferences of fashion products from teenagers. The method used in this study is the descriptive method. The results of this study were teenagers' preferences for accessories and aesthetics of bags using ethnic materials are 1) accessories: for bag handles is to use rings; The bag cover/opening is uncovered using a zipper lock; Most bag pockets do not have pockets. 2) Aesthetics: 1) For materials, most use a combination of fiber materials with other types of fibers such as ulap doyo with purun or like doyo fiber with jute fiber.

Elsayed Elnashar

Atna - Journal of Tourism Studies

Robinet Jacob

Handicrafts and souvenirs have a long and glorious tradition behind them. They represent the culture of the people and from a great heritage of art. Souvenirs are a manifestation of the creative impulse of people. The specialty of the handicraft is that it reflects the craftsmanship of each and every part of the country. Souvenirs always remind a traveller of a particular place that it was purchased from. Souvenir trade improves the local economy and even serves as a brand image or icon of the destination visited by tourists while providing easy visibility. Souvenirs also help in the word of mouth marketing of a destination. The souvenir trade worldwide is part of a rich handicraft tradition that evolved over the years. India has a diversity of souvenirs, and so does Kerala. The uniqueness of Kerala isits abundance of plant or natural fibre-based souvenirs. But, little research has been done on the process of production or the potential it provides in promoting tourism. This study i...

Elsayed A H M E D Elnashar

Visual Dictionary In Textiles & Apparel _Elsayed Elnashar, Oksana Zakharkevich, Galina Shvets, Anna Selezneva

Toolika Gupta , Dr Barun Shankar Gupta , Prof. Bhargav Mistry

Knowledge is power and education is the means to achieve it. IICD is committed to the growth of the Craft sector through education. Education means over all development and growth of an individual and is much more than mere classroom learning. The faculty of research and innovation and preserving our heritage that teaches us many nuances is of prime importance when we talk of the crafts sector. A congregation of experienced and educated people in the sector of crafts, exchanging ideas and the research undertaken in this field, could create a powerhouse of learning. With this idea in mind, a conference on ‘Recent Trends and Sustainability in Crafts and Design’ was organised at IICD. Abstracts and full papers began pouring in. We received an overwhelming response from different institutes in India and from outside India too. Each one was unique and we realised the importance of a research platform in this sector. We received excellent papers from professors and students from IITs, NIFTs, NID, MSU Baroda, Lady Irwin College, G.B. Pant University, to name a few. Alongside the institutes, it was decided to invite our craftsmen, whose expertise is unparalleled and who have so much to offer in terms of skill and understanding of crafts. An artisan Panchayat was held, where eminent artisans from different craft fields were invited and an excellent talk ensued. The jajam on which they sat along with the faculty and staff of IICD and exchanged information in the dim light of the evening was a sight to behold. We were all mesmerised by the end of it. The candid conversation was enriched with information, experience and knowledge of each crafts person. Our Chief Guest Padma Shree Laila Tayabji, Dr Ghada H. Qaddumi (President, World Crafts Council, APR), all our session chairs, namely, Prof. Paul Singleton (Plymouth College of Arts, U.K.), Mr. Yunus Khimani (Director, City Palace, Jaipur), Mr. K.B. Jinan (Design enthusiast), Mrs. Devika Krishnan (Up-cycling enthusiast), Mr. Sharada Gautam (Head of crafts, Tata Trust), Ms. Ritu Sethi (Craft Revival Trust) and Dr. Anamika Pathak (Curator at National Museum, New Delhi; Chairperson of the Textiles and Clothing Research Centre (TCRC)) all the delegates, artisans, craftsmen, presenters and audience added much value to our first International Conference on crafts at IICD. The papers that were presented talked about the need for marketing, documentation and diversification of crafts alongside innovations in the field of dyeing and printing. The people who were present in the conference benefited from it and those not present, have this proceedings book to read from. I wish you all an enriching journey through the course of this book. I have to thank Prof. Bhargav Mistry, Dean at IICD, for his guidance and many thanks to Dr. Barun Shankar Gupta, Head of Research at IICD, who painstakingly worked for the success of this conference and for the compilation of this book. Toolika Gupta Director IICD

Desiree Koslin

Creativo Melt

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Utilizing water hyacinths for weaving: innovation in activity in thailand's bueng kho hai community.

© 2023 IIETA. This article is published by IIETA and is licensed under the CC BY 4.0 license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ).

OPEN ACCESS

In Southeast Asia, water hyacinths pose a significant threat to freshwater ecosystems, proliferating as invasive species. This study explores an innovative approach to leverage these natural resources in the creative economy, extending local wisdom through the craft of wickerwork. Qualitative research methods were employed to examine the unique weaving techniques of the Bueng Kho Hai community, known for transforming water hyacinths into wickerwork products. Data was collected through an array of techniques, including document analysis, field studies, preliminary surveys, structured and unstructured interviews, participatory and non-participatory observations, and group discussions. Rooted in traditional weaving practices and guided by meticulous experimentation, an eco-friendly fabric was developed, comprising a unique blend of 40% water hyacinth fiber and 60% cotton. This blend symbolizes the community's efforts to reconcile the preservation of local handicrafts and the Thai way of life with environmental conservation. It presents a cost-effective and scalable method contributing to sustainable development. The study highlights the untapped potential of indigenous knowledge in advocating sustainability and provides insights into local innovation that could be replicated in diverse contexts. This abstract elucidates the implementation of research methods and the specific data gleaned from each source, offering readers a comprehensive understanding of the study's methodology. Furthermore, it underscores the significant implications of the research for environmental conservation and the preservation of local handicrafts and Thai culture, emphasizing the environmental benefits of this unique blend.

wickerwork production, water hyacinth fiber, Thai handicrafts, eco-friendly design, sustainable materials, community innovation, indigenous knowledge, Bueng Kho Hai community

The development of human civilization has been shaped by inventiveness as well as adaptability to the natural resources that were available at the time. The skill of wickerwork dates back some four thousand years, and it has been made using materials such as bamboo and rattan. Thai basketry, a distinguishing attribute of agricultural cultures, has always been sensitive to the use of local resources, generating patterns that appeal to aesthetics, usefulness, religious rites, and cultural customs. This has resulted in the production of designs that are unique to Thailand.

In recent years, Thailand, along with other locations such as Lake Victoria in Kenya, has come up against a problem in terms of its ecology as a direct result of the growth of water hyacinths. These non-native aquatic plants represent significant threats to the health of freshwater ecosystems, including adverse effects on fisheries, water quality, and even irrigation systems. Despite this, the inventiveness of humans has come up with ways to turn this challenge into an opportunity. Other places are researching the possibilities of water hyacinth as a bioenergy resource, organic fertilizer, and even a base material for handicrafts [1]. In Thailand, skilled artists have cleverly combined water hyacinth into traditional wickerwork. This adaptability illustrates the durability of human cultures by demonstrating their capacity to generate novel solutions to the problems posed by the environment.

In recent decades, rapid advancements in technology and industry, in addition to rising global populations and increasing urbanisation, have brought mankind face-to-face with a number of significant difficulties, including those pertaining to the availability of water, food, energy, and a sustainable environment. In the context of Thailand, the water problem stands out as a noteworthy one due to the fact that it is intricately connected to the other three predicaments. It is abundantly clear that water is necessary for the production of both food and energy, and it is clear that environmental concerns extend to the protection of water quality and the management of associated challenges. This study presents a novel strategy to reuse the biological leftovers of the water hyacinth plant, which is known scientifically as Eichhornia crassipes. The goal of the study is to address the obstacles that have been presented. The goal is to turn dried water hyacinth stalks into materials of consistently high quality that are appropriate for use in handicrafts [2]. This will be accomplished by utilizing automated equipment specialized for processing dried water hyacinth stalks. This programme not only provides a long-term solution to environmental problems, but it also helps local handicraft enterprises by providing a more efficient and affordable alternative to the conventional manual processes that are now in use.

Introduced to Thailand in 1901 by King Rama V as an ornamental addition, the water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) soon transformed from a benign decorative freshwater plant to an environmental concern, rapidly plaguing and deteriorating freshwater habitats. Its swift proliferation across water bodies earned it an infamous reputation as an environmental menace. However, the silver lining to this ecological challenge has been the ongoing research into its untapped potential. Despite the fact that its fast spread has given it a reputation as an environmental hazard. For instance, the high cellulose content of water hyacinth fibers, which may reach up to 62.15%, paves the way for the creation of reinforced polymer composite materials that are ideal for applications that need less weight. These fibers have been extracted using new mechanical methods rather than the usual retting procedures, and they have been used in the development of environmentally friendly handcraft goods such as table mats, which are gaining favor among customers in cities like Bangkok. In addition, the use of these items not only satisfies the desire that customers have for environmentally friendly products but also helps the local economy by providing a novel approach to a plant that has historically been troublesome. It's interesting to note that the widespread development of water hyacinth also has an effect on the local species. For example, the presence of these plants has caused certain species of waterbirds, such as the Little blue heron and the Common moorhen, to modify the ways in which they forage for food. This study highlights the adaptability of water hyacinth by illustrating how it has evolved from an environmental obstacle into a model for environmentally responsible innovation and ecological harmony [3-6].

Handicrafts play an important part in the economy of Pathum Thani, which is located in the middle of Thailand. These handicrafts exemplify the ideals of the circular economy and sustainability. Recently, there has been an increased emphasis placed on the design of environmentally friendly furniture that makes use of waste materials and has an emphasis on recycling and reusing [7]. In spite of the fact that water hyacinth continues to be a dominant material in the area, local artists are investigating the possibility of using hybrid laminated composites. They want to manufacture environmentally friendly materials that are appropriate for a variety of structural purposes by using different types of fibers, such as coir [8]. This forward-thinking strategy not only highlights the region's illustrious handcraft heritage but also tackles environmental concerns by reusing trash and incorporating environmentally friendly materials.

It is essential to develop and make designs that appeal to current preferences and put an emphasis on both beauty and sustainability if the business of water hyacinth wickerwork is going to see a revitalization. The usage of water hyacinth should not be justified merely by its visual appeal, rather its environmental benefits as an alternative that is kind to the environment should be emphasized [9]. This environmentally friendly method tackles the problems that are caused by the overgrowth of water hyacinths in aquatic habitats while also capitalizing on the plant's potential for use in the creation of reinforced polymer composites [10].

The Pathum Beyond the realm of traditional handicrafts, the water hyacinth industry in Thani, which is well known for its handcrafted goods like purses and home décor, has unrealized potential. It is crucial to provide a connection between craftspeople and customers, making certain that products are in line with modern desires while preserving the rich crafting tradition [11].

Nevertheless, difficulties are in the horizon for the sector. The attraction and demand for water hyacinth goods have slightly decreased as a result of factors such as market saturation, shifting consumer preferences, and a perceived lack of innovation in the industry. As the focus of the world moves towards sustainability, there is an urgent need for the sector to innovate, broadening its offers to include items with value additions, such as bioenergy solutions [12]. In a market environment that is always shifting, it will be essential for the industry to embrace innovation and adaptation in order to maintain its continuous development and relevance.

This research investigates the cultural and creative industries throughout Asia, with a particular emphasis on the weaving practises of water hyacinth in Pathum Thani, Thailand. The artists of Pathum Thani, who may be found tucked away amid the bustling fabric of the cultural industries of Asia, have established themselves not just as keepers of heritage but also as trailblazers in their own right. They have invented a combination of water hyacinth fiber and cotton, which has resulted in an eco-friendly fabric that can be used in a variety of design applications. This was accomplished by skilfully merging indigenous knowledge with current processes. This synergy is a monument to the community's combined dedication to sustainability and innovation, and it aligns perfectly with the needs of the current market [13].

In addition, the purpose of this investigation is to dissect the more far-reaching implications of such innovations on the economic dynamics of local communities, environmental sustainability, and the treasured preservation of cultural heritage. The intentions here are multifaceted, much like those of many cultural sectors across Asia, including the preservation of centuries-old artistic practices, the creation of economically viable paths, the successful navigation of the ebb and flow of the global market, and the accomplishment of larger societal objectives. By using this perspective, the research is able to draw interesting similarities with other cultural epicenters in Asia, shedding light on the same aspirations held by the region's cultural sectors as well as the inherent difficulties they face [13].

Investigate the innovative approach of water hyacinth fiber and cotton to create an eco-friendly fabric with potential applications in design.

2.1 Fabric-making process using water hyacinth

The Research conceptual framework delves into the production of water hyacinth fabric (Figure 1). This exploration focuses on the detailed manufacturing process, the fabric's inherent attributes, and its potential market value. Within this process, water hyacinth fiber is spun into yarn, accentuating the fabric's sustainability while highlighting its eco-friendliness. This approach also presents a solution to agricultural waste by using it as a primary material for fabric.

The journey from ideation to the final product is multifaceted. Both textiles and final products are designed with a balance of aesthetic and functional qualities. The fabric's unique characteristics offer opportunities for establishing a distinct brand or product identity. Textile machinery plays an indispensable role, in ensuring production efficiency and top-tier quality. Furthermore, this fabric lends itself to the creation of distinctive furniture designs, resulting in either market-ready prototypes or finished products.

Figure 1 . Research conceptual framework

Upholding quality is of paramount importance. The production process strictly adheres to textile testing standards, ensuring the fabric meets safety and quality criteria. Similarly, the produced furniture aligns with set standards, guaranteeing durability and safety. The resultant furniture product is tailored to meet market preferences.

From harvesting to processing, this sequence outlines the transformation of water hyacinth into fabric. If a deep dive into the entire procedure is the aim, detailing these stages becomes essential. However, a summarized version suffices if the spotlight rests on the conceptual framework and its broader applications.

Potential stakeholders must understand the fabric's texture, resilience, eco-consciousness, and aesthetics. This may appear redundant to water hyacinth fabric experts, but it delivers significant information to a larger audience.

2.2 Environmental benefits

Figure 2 . Pathum Thani is strategically located in Thailand's central region, bordered by various provinces and the vital Chao Phraya River. This river not only supports agriculture but also significantly influences the day-to-day life of the locals

Figure 2 looks into the several districts that comprise the Pathum Thani province, known for combining urban growth and natural splendor. For example, the Sam Khok District is known for its long history of agricultural production and its strong sense of community. Mueang District is Pathum Thani's busy epicenter with business and residential zones. The Lat Lum Kaeo District is an example of how contemporary urban growth can live with the splendor of nature. The Nong Suar District is distinguished by its verdant landscapes and calm bodies of water. At the same time, the Khlong Luang District is renowned for its status as an intellectual center due to the presence of many educational and research facilities.

The Thanyaburi District is always bustling with activity, as seen by the lively marketplaces and robust community life. However, the Lam Luk Ka District is the one that genuinely attracts the interest of visitors with its enormous wetlands, which are a haven for birdwatchers owing to the abundance of bird species found there. A region of great relevance to this investigation is Bueng Kho Hai, which is located inside Lam Luk Ka. Its one-of-a-kind ecosystem highlights community-led efforts to develop sustainable products while preserving the surrounding environment. These community-based endeavors, particularly in places like Bueng Kho Hai, shed light on the possibilities for bringing economic goals and ecological responsibilities into harmony:

• Sustainable Resource. Water hyacinth's rapid growth makes it a promising renewable resource.
• Reduces Water Pollution. Harnessing water hyacinth, known for its invasive growth in waterways, aids in mitigating its spread and curbing water pollution (Figure 3).
• Biodegradable. Crafted products from water hyacinth fabric decompose naturally, reducing landfill waste.
• Potential for Local Economy. Cultivating and processing water hyacinth into fabric can usher in economic opportunities for the local populace (Figure 4).

Figure 3 . Plants hold potential for innovative applications like weaving and eco-friendly packaging

Figure 4 . Possibility for the regional economy. The local community may benefit economically from water hyacinth cultivation and processing into fabric

3.1 Scope of study

The weaving skills used in the Bueng Kho Hai village, along with the community's dedication to being good stewards of the environment, make this a particularly interesting case study. It is admirable that they have developed a novel strategy to turn water hyacinth, a plant that has the potential to cause problems, into valued handmade items. Research has proven that water hyacinth has the potential to be turned into cellulose nanocrystals; this demonstrates the community's versatility in making use of the plant for a variety of uses that are environmentally friendly [14].

The research investigates a number of distinct subcommunities that exist inside the Bueng Kho Hai community. This includes both the village academics and the village weavers, in addition to the larger populace engaged in the manufacture of wickerwork. A method of this level of specificity seeks to get an understanding of the intertwined contributions that various practices make to the culture, economics, and long-term viability of the local community.

The research attempts to gain insights that may be applicable to other communities in the area by concentrating on this particular community and its unique circumstances. It's possible that this may serve as a model for more comprehensive approaches to sustainable development and environmental preservation. The community of Bueng Kho Hai in Thailand is an excellent example of how traditional weaving methods may be combined with concerns for the environment. It is interesting that they have made an attempt to transform an invasive plant into valued artisan goods that are in demand all around Thailand. This research illustrates the resiliency of the town as well as the cooperative spirit that exists there, highlighting the city's twin quest of economic advancement as well as cultural preservation.

Figure 5 . Comprehensive overview of the project's various impacts on society and the environment. Complete overview of the project's multiple effects on other parts of society and the environment

This picture depicts the development of the area as well as its significance in a variety of different ways (Figure 5). The necessity of protecting the environment is brought to light in item number one. It displays the region's dedication to the preservation of the natural environment. The second illustration illustrates the crucial importance that agricultural communities play in the region, while the third illustration examines the differences and similarities between urban and rural communities. The fourth point emphasizes how important it is for communities to continue their education and build up their capabilities. The importance of forming connections is highlighted in point number 5. The importance of connecting the many different players in this field is underlined. Because of these visuals, we have a much better understanding of the significance of the relationships between the many factors in this region.

3.2 Area boundary

The region of Bueng Kho Hai in Pathum Thani province is significant because of its proximity to the Chao Phraya River, its agricultural resources, and its pioneering approach to the use of water hyacinths in the manufacture of wickerwork and environmentally friendly design. Because of the community's dedication to the maintenance of local customs and the protection of the local environment, it is an essential component of the region.

The study methodology used a qualitative approach to conduct an in-depth inquiry and gain a better knowledge of the traditional water hyacinth weaving practices used in the community of Bueng Kho Hai. These practices entail weaving for ornamental purposes and manufacturing useful products like bags and baskets, as seen in (Figures 6 and 7). This strategy was developed to unearth the underlying concepts, beliefs, and procedures that form the basis of the community's one-of-a-kind approach to using water hyacinth, using the plant's inherent features to generate sustainable things that can be used daily.

Figure 6 . Dried water hyacinths can be processed using traditional methods

Figure 7 . Explore potential strategies for revitalizing and promoting traditional production processes, such as education and training programs and collaborations with designers and entrepreneurs to create innovative products that appeal to contemporary consumers

4.1 Data analysis

The data analysis process consists of several key steps as follows:

4.1.1 Data collection

Tools were employed to collect detailed data from various community sources. This included structured interviews with artisans, first-hand observations of traditional weaving practices, and document analysis.

4.1.2 Pre-processing

The gathered data underwent an organization phase to ensure it was primed for in-depth analysis, ensuring the information's accuracy and reliability.

4.1.3 Analytics

Techniques were harnessed to interpret the data, identifying trends and patterns concerning weaving techniques, material preferences, and cultural significance.

4.1.4 Visualization

Analysis results were translated into visual formats, such as charts or graphs, facilitating the comprehension of intricate data sets.

4.1.5 Performance and insights

The culmination of the analysis process led to the drawing of substantial conclusions. This offered insights into the community's weaving practices, innovative strategies, and overarching contribution to the local economy and sustainability.

4.2 Strategies for revitalization and promotion

Based on the insights gained from the data analysis, several potential strategies can be explored to revitalize and promote traditional production processes.

4.2.1 Education and training programs

Implementing comprehensive education and training programs can help preserve and enhance conventional weaving skills. This may include workshops, seminars, and hands-on training sessions led by experienced artisans.

4.2.2 Collaborations with designers and entrepreneurs

Forming collaborations with contemporary designers and entrepreneurs can lead to the creation of innovative products that appeal to modern consumers. This can broaden the market reach and add value to traditional crafts.

4.2.3 Marketing and branding

Effective marketing and branding strategies can promote the unique aspects of conventional wickerwork, emphasizing its eco-friendly nature and cultural significance. This can attract new customers and increase demand.

4.2.4 Support for sustainable practices

Encouraging and supporting sustainable practices can further enhance the appeal of traditional wickerwork. This includes the use of environmentally friendly materials and energy-efficient production methods.

The detailed analysis of data collected through sophisticated tools, as visualized in the provided pictures, offers valuable insights into the traditional weaving practices of the Bueng Kho Hai community. The understanding gained from this analysis can guide potential strategies for revitalizing and promoting these conventional production processes. By embracing education, innovation, collaboration, and sustainability, it is possible to preserve the rich cultural heritage while adapting to contemporary market demands and contributing to broader societal objectives.

4. 3 Methods and tools of the trade

This Section provides a detailed overview of the methodologies and instruments employed in this study.

4.3.1 Document analysis

Relevant documents, encompassing historical archives, government directives, past research projects, and news articles, were thoroughly investigated. This exploration traced the journey of water hyacinth in Thailand and charted the evolution of innovative weaving techniques.

4.3.2 Field research

Direct visits to the Bueng Kho Hai village offered invaluable firsthand observations of the weaving practices. These visits also fostered meaningful interactions with local inhabitants. The significance of community engagement became particularly evident, especially during collaborative group discussions.

4.3.3 Interviews

Both structured and open-ended interviews with community members yielded deep insights into their perspectives and experiences related to water hyacinth weaving. Notably, many of these interviews transitioned into broader group discussions, revealing diverse viewpoints and shared experiences.

4.3.4 Observational insights

Engaging in both participatory and non-participatory observation techniques allowed for a nuanced understanding of the intricacies of water hyacinth weaving. These sessions also granted a unique perspective on the dynamics and flow of group discussions.

4.3.5 Group dialogues

Facilitated group discussions among stakeholders and fostered a space of shared learning and collaboration. As captured in Figure 8, these discussions were pivotal in unearthing the community's weaving practices, challenges, and aspirations.

Figure 8 . Researchers urge stakeholders to share water hyacinth-weaving ideas, experiences, and opinions in groups. These talks help researchers comprehend weaving practices and provide vital insights

4.4 Alteration of water hyacinth stems and design procedure

The research delved deeper into the practical applications and innovations possible with water hyacinth fibers, expanding upon the foundational knowledge of traditional water hyacinth weaving techniques.

4.4.1 Water hyacinth production of fiber

Figure 9 depicts a significant aspect of the research the transformation of water hyacinth stems into a woven material. This is a multi-step procedure. Collecting water hyacinth plants from their aquatic environment. The process of separating the stems and allowing them to dry naturally. Extracting the fibers from the desiccated stems. Transforming these fibers into a format suitable for weaving. In addition to being eco-friendly, the resulting woven fabric possesses the required strength and pliability for a variety of applications, including the manufacture of furniture.

Figure 9 . Focuses on transforming water hyacinth stems into a woven fabric, an eco-friendly and sustainable material. This is accomplished through the production of hyacinth stems, which are used to create hyacinth-woven fabric

4.4.2 The use of water hyacinth fiber in the design of furniture

Water hyacinth, traditionally viewed as an invasive aquatic species, has emerged as a sustainable material with multifaceted applications. This section focuses on the utilization of water hyacinth fibers specifically for furniture construction.

Harnessing insights from the local community, who possess extensive experience with this plant, a comprehensive method was developed to transform these fibers into functional furniture. This process encompasses:

• Conceptualization Phase

Preliminary ideas emerge from brainstorming sessions, emphasizing the distinctive texture, durability, and adaptability of water hyacinth fibers.

• Prototyping

The abstract concept is translated into a tangible prototype, laying down the initial blueprint for the design.

• Community Engagement

This prototype is presented to the community for feedback. Their deep-rooted familiarity with water hyacinth enriches the design process, ensuring the prototype resonates with local sensibilities.

• Final Design

Community feedback is integrated, refining the design to achieve an equilibrium between aesthetic appeal and functional efficacy.

• Manufacturing

With the design blueprint in place, the transformation of water hyacinth fibers into eco-friendly furniture commences.

The innovative use of water hyacinth fibers in furniture design presents a sustainable alternative to conventional materials. Beyond being an aesthetic choice, this eco-friendly material embodies the ethos of the local community and emphasizes the adaptability of water hyacinths. While the referenced study discusses the broader applications and potential of water hyacinth, including its potential as an alternative energy source and environmental implications, this section underscores the plant's versatility, specifically in sustainable furniture practices (Figure 10) [15].

Figure 10 . The researcher uses community input to create an initial design

Based on the information provided in the article, the researchers investigated the potential for using water hyacinth fibers in the design and production of eco-friendly products. The research team observed and worked with local villagers in Pathum Thani province to learn about traditional weaving techniques and create innovative designs that cater to modern market needs.

The article indicates that producing water hyacinth fabric involves drying and spinning the stems into uniform strands, which are then combined with cotton yarn in various proportions to create materials with different properties. The resulting fabrics were found to be suitable for a range of applications, including furniture, bags, tablecloths, and curtains.

The weaving process employed in this study involves blending water hyacinth fibers with cotton yarn to create a range of versatile and eco-friendly fabrics. The research explores five distinct ratios for mixing water hyacinth fiber and cotton yarn to strike the right balance between flexibility and durability.

Figure 1 1 . Natural fiber derived from water hyacinth, as briefly described in the given proportions, results in a distinct fabric pattern resembling marble's appearance

Table 1. Comparison of the characteristics of fabrics made from water hyacinth and cotton strands in various proportions

Figure 11 visually illustrates the varying compositions of water hyacinth fiber and cotton yarn, providing a tangible understanding of their textures and appearances.

100% water hyacinth fiber, this composition emphasizes environmental sustainability, as demonstrated in Table 1. As a result, it possesses the highest ecological value possible. On the other hand, it might not have the same degree of flexibility and gentleness typically found in compositions containing cotton.

This composition, outlined in the second row of Table 1, strikes a balance between comfort and sustainability by utilizing 80% water hyacinth fiber and 20% cotton yarn. Compared to a composition consisting entirely of water hyacinth, the fabric's flexibility and softness significantly improve when cotton yarn makes up 20% of the design.

This blend offers a harmonious balance between eco-friendliness and user comfort, as shown in the third row of Table 1, and as a result, it is a versatile choice for a variety of applications. The water hyacinth fiber makes up 70% of the yarn, while the cotton yarn makes up 30%.

This blend, which is highlighted in the fourth row of Table 1, is geared towards maximizing comfort and flexibility, making it suitable for applications where user comfort is a priority. The water hyacinth fiber makes up sixty percent of the yarn, and the cotton yarn makes up forty percent.

Fifty percent water hyacinth fiber and 50 percent cotton yarn: The fifth row in Table 1 displays the most well-balanced blend of water hyacinth and cotton, which ensures the highest possible level of flexibility, softness, and durability.

In conclusion, the choice of fabric composition is determined by the desired equilibrium between comfort and sustainability, as outlined in Table 1.

Table 2. Comparing the weight and durability of water hyacinth cloth to traditional materials

Figure 1 2 . Using a 60:40 cotton-water hyacinth blend and a 70:30 water hyacinth-cotton yarn in creating lamps and furniture emphasizes the importance of size and type in furniture design while utilizing eco-friendly vegetable fibers

Water hyacinth's potential in the textile industry becomes more evident when its characteristics are compared to traditional materials. The density of textiles made from water hyacinth, as shown in Table 2, is noticeably lower compared to materials like cotton, silk, and linen. This is further illustrated in Figure 12, which showcases a blend of 60:40 cotton-water hyacinth and a 70:30 water hyacinth-cotton yarn used in lamp and furniture design, emphasizing the adaptability of water hyacinth fibers [16].

The tensile strength of water hyacinth fabric is closely comparable to that of cotton fabric, with figures standing at 250 Mpa and 280 Mpa, respectively. Additionally, water hyacinth fabric exhibits strong resistance against abrasion and color fading, marking it as an appealing and environmentally friendly option.

Research efforts have combined water hyacinth fiber and cotton yarn in various proportions aiming to produce textiles that are both eco-friendly and user-friendly. The ultimate goal was to identify the best combinations suitable for diverse design and industrial applications. An exemplary design highlighted in Figure 13, showcases a chair made using water hyacinth fabric, requiring 10 tons of water hyacinth stems in its production.

Figure 1 3 . A chair design that utilizes water hyacinth fabric requires 10 tons of water hyacinth stems for processing

Figure 1 4 . The vital role of improvements in life and community economies, focusing on eradicating poverty, providing clean water and sanitation, promoting decent work, and fostering economic growth to create a sustainable future

Figure 14 underscores the profound impact of such innovations on local community economies, emphasizing broader societal implications. Adopting sustainable materials like water hyacinths can shape a sustainable future by addressing challenges like poverty, ensuring clean water and sanitation access, and stimulating economic growth [17].

Figure 1 5 . Explore community-based decision-making, active participation in community development, and sharing the benefits of local production to contribute to a thriving and sustainable community

Furthermore, Figure 15 sheds light on the significance of community-based decision-making, accentuating the importance of active community involvement and the equitable distribution of production benefits.

In conclusion, the potential of water hyacinth fibers in eco-friendly product design and manufacturing is profound. Merging age-old craftsmanship with contemporary market needs, augmented by sustainable materials, can meet the increasing global demand for environmental responsibility.

Water hyacinths, an invasive species known to create significant ecological problems, have the potential to be transformed into a valuable resource for sustainable product development [18]. Communities can assist in preventing the spread of this invasive species and, in turn, minimize its adverse effects on water quality, native flora and fauna, and the overall health of aquatic ecosystems by utilizing water hyacinths in the wickerwork industry [19]. This can be realized by using water hyacinths to craft wickerwork products [20].

The exhibition "Transforming Water Hyacinths: Thai Weaving Innovation for Sustainable Development in Thailand" emphasizes the novel approach of using water hyacinths as a renewable resource for eco-friendly products. This strategy aligns with global trends that prioritize sustainability and environmentally conscious design [21]. In Thailand's Pathum Thani province, researchers partnered with local villagers to understand traditional weaving techniques and design patterns that meet the demands of contemporary markets [22]. By processing water hyacinth fibers and merging them with cotton yarn, they developed a spectrum of textiles suitable for various applications, including furniture, bags, tablecloths, and curtains [23]. The researchers also designed prototype furniture and displays, revealing the commercial potential of water hyacinth fabric.

Adopting water hyacinth fibers benefits local communities, conserves artisan traditions, and aids environmental conservation efforts. By repurposing an invasive species for sustainable product development, these communities can economically thrive and adapt age-old methods to satisfy modern market requirements [24-26]. This ensures eco-friendly materials remain competitive in global markets [27].

Future studies might delve into additional applications of water hyacinth fibers, such as packaging or construction materials [28]. Such applications could diminish plastic waste and reduce the carbon footprint of manufacturing processes. As the world confronts environmental challenges and the quest for sustainable development, innovative methods like the one described herein gain increasing importance.

Numerous advantages may be gained by exploring the possibility of employing water hyacinths as a resource for the creation of environmentally friendly products. Researchers may help local populations, protect traditional crafts, and contribute to efforts to make the world a more sustainable place if they investigate novel applications of invasive species.

In the framework of Transforming Water Hyacinths: Thai Weaving Innovation, Thailand, various routes of inquiry that might contribute to the growth, development, and sustainability of the water hyacinth weaving industry will be the focus of future research.

6.1 Advanced processing techniques

Investigate and develop innovative methods for processing water hyacinth fibers to improve their strength, durability, and versatility. This may include experimenting with different treatments, blending with other natural fibers, or incorporating new technologies in the production process.

6.2 Diversification of applications

Explore a wider range of applications for water hyacinth woven products, such as packaging materials, insulation, textiles, and construction materials. By diversifying the product portfolio, the industry can attract new markets and customers while reducing dependence on a single product type [29].

6.3 Sustainable dyeing and finishing processes

Examine eco-friendly dyeing and finishing techniques that can enhance the aesthetic appeal of water hyacinth woven products without causing harm to the environment. This research could focus on natural dyes derived from plants, minerals, or other sustainable sources.

6.4 Market research and consumer preferences

Conduct in-depth market research to understand consumer preferences and identify potential niches for water hyacinth woven products. This information can help guide product development, design, and marketing strategies to target potential customers better and increase market share [30].

6.5 Environmental impact assessment

Study the long-term environmental impacts of water hyacinth harvesting and processing on local ecosystems, aquatic life, and water quality. This research can help develop guidelines for sustainable harvesting and processing practices that minimize negative impacts on the environment [31].

6.6 Social and economic impact

Assess the social and economic impact of the water hyacinth weaving industry on local communities, including job creation, skill development, and income generation. This research can help identify strategies for maximizing the positive effects of the industry while addressing potential challenges and inequalities [32].

6.7 Policy and regulatory frame work

Investigate the current policy and regulatory framework governing the water hyacinth weaving industry and its environmental aspects. Identify gaps and propose recommendations for improvements that can foster sustainable growth and development in the sector.

6.8 Collaboration and knowledge sharing

Explore opportunities for collaboration and knowledge sharing among different stakeholders, such as researchers, local artisans, government agencies, and non-governmental organizations. This can foster innovation, capacity building, and the transfer of best practices within the industry.

By focusing on these future research topics, the water hyacinth weaving industry in Thailand can continue to evolve, adapt to market demands, and contribute to sustainable development and environmental conservation.

The innovative approach to repurposing water hyacinths, an invasive species in Southeast Asia, for sustainable product development forms the crux of this research. Researchers have explored the potential of water hyacinth fibers to create eco-friendly products by revitalizing traditional weaving techniques and aligning them with modern market needs.

The study emphasizes the importance of supporting local communities, preserving traditional crafts, and reducing environmental impact. By harnessing the potential of water hyacinths, communities can benefit economically while contributing to global sustainability efforts. This project is not only about innovation but also about the continuous adaptation of traditional techniques to ensure that eco-friendly materials remain competitive in an increasingly eco-conscious world.

One key aspect that adds depth to this research is the role of education. Education plays a pivotal role in the success of sustainable product development, particularly in the context of repurposing water hyacinths for eco-friendly products. It empowers local communities with the knowledge and skills required to innovate and adapt traditional techniques to contemporary market demands. By fostering collaboration between researchers, artisans, and educators, education acts as a bridge, connecting traditional wisdom with modern scientific understanding. The integration of educational programs in the process promotes awareness, builds capacity, and enhances the community's ability to engage with sustainable practices effectively. Moreover, education can inspire new generations to continue exploring and innovating within the realm of sustainability, ensuring the long-term growth and resilience of eco-friendly product development.

The article underscores the innovative use of Southeast Asia's water hyacinth overgrowth, transforming this invasive plant into valuable and sustainable products. Through collaboration between researchers and local communities and the integration of education, this study exemplifies how creative solutions can turn environmental challenges into opportunities for sustainable development.

The field of research offers promising paths for exploration, such as optimizing blends of water hyacinth fiber, scaling production, engaging local communities, analyzing market trends, and assessing long-term environmental impacts. These avenues, infused with educational strategies, can further contribute to environmental stewardship and present a responsible innovation and sustainable growth model aligned with global sustainability goals.

This investigation was supported by the Academic Promotion Fundamental Fund and Area-based Research Unit. In addition, the author would like to thank Mr. Krittin Wichittraitham for his invaluable counsel and assistance throughout the course of this study.

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How Does Water Hyacinth Harm the Local Ecosystem? Research Paper

Introduction, identification of waterhyacith, effects of waterhyacith on local ecosystems, degradation of water quality, control of waterhyacith.

Water hyacinth is a perennial aquatic plant which freely floats in tropical as well as sub-tropical waters. Water hyacinth is native in South America but has since been introduced to many regions. This plant has glossy, broad, ovate and thick leaves and rises up to 1 meter above the water surface.

Water hyacinth is among is among the fastest growing plants ever known and reproduces through stolons or runners that form daughter plants. There has been raging debate on the overall significance of water hyacinth on human society. Despite that the plant has some economic and ecological benefits; its adverse effects are overwhelming.

The presence of Waterhyacith has been associated with numerous economic and ecological damages. Water hyacinth has great harm on the local ecosystems. Water hyacinth degrades water quality and affects habitats for aquatic life. This research paper will explore, discuss and analyze how water hyacinth harms the local ecosystem.

Water hyacinth has been ranked as one of the worst invasive species. The reputation of water hyacinth has been doomed due to its ecological and economic effects. Being a native plant in South America, water hyacinth has spread to other regions of the world. Water hyacinth produces beautiful flowers, though its problems are higher. Water hyacinth can be easily identified since it freely floats on water surface.

This plant has dark green, shiny and glossy leaves. The leaves are elliptical and round in shape. The leaves of water hyacinth are approximately 6 inches wide alongside being waterproof. Another key feature of water hyacinth is that it rises over 3 feet above the water surface.

The roots of water hyacinth are distinctive and hang below water surface, whereby they have a feathery appearance. Despite the harmful effects of water hyacinth on ecosystems, the plant has very attractive flowers (Villamagna Murphy, 2010).

Water hyacinth has great harm on the local ecosystem and affects aquatic life and water quality. This plant blocks photosynthesis thus degrading water quality. The reduction of water quality through deprivation of oxygen has a cascading effect on aquatic life. Fish, plants and other sea life are adversely affected by this phenomenon. The biological diversity is greatly degraded by water hyacinth.

This is because water hyacinth has a negative effect on submersed plants. Water hyacinth also interferes with immersed plant communities through crushing and pushing them. By so doing, the general ecosystem is impacted. Animal communities are negatively affected through the elimination of plants as well as blocking the access of water which the animals rely on for nesting and shelter (Mariana et al, 2006).

The effects of water hyacinth are enormous on the ecosystem. This can be attributed to the fast growing nature of the plant. Water hyacinth grows very dense to the point that a single acre of the weed weighs over 200 tons. This is a great catastrophe to the ecosystem in the sense that it blocks oxygen in the waters thus inhibiting aquatic life.

The thick and dense mats formed by water hyacinth overwhelm lakes and rivers thus inhibiting biological and economic process. The life of other plants and animals is jeopardized by the rapid growth of water hyacinth. The enormous growth and concentration of the plant decreases water flow as well as leads to oxygen depletion.

As a result, a good environment for mosquito breeding is developed. Native plant species are overwhelmed by the plant thus leading to their elimination. Based on these changes, water hyacinth alters the entire ecosystems which animals and plants rely on (Weijden and Bol, 2007).

Water hyacinth has a distinctive effect on water quality. Past research has shown that the dense mats formed by the plant have adverse effects on water quality. The plant forms dense and interlocking mats which affect the oxygen flow in the water. As a result of the dense and interlocking mats formed by the weed, the dissolved oxygen concentrations declines, hence degrading water quality.

A low level of phytoplankton productivity also takes place which in turn dooms water quality. The higher levels of sedimentation resulting from the dense mats as well as the complex root structure of water hyacinth also affect water quality.

Water hyacinth leads to high levels of evapo-transpiration rates due to the dense leaves of the plant. This is in comparison with the evaporation rates hence leading to heavy sedimentation (Villamagna Murphy, 2010).

The levels of temperatures and PH in waters are also affected by the plant. Water hyacinth destabilizes temperatures and PH levels in the lagoons. This scenario prevents stratification thus increasing mixing in water levels. This phenomenon affects water quality since oxygen levels are degraded. The rates and levels of photosynthesis are also greatly inhibited by water hyacinth.

Water hyacinth does not produce oxygen as compared to other submerged vegetation and phytoplankton. This leads to low levels of dissolved oxygen concentration thus negatively affecting water quality.

The capacity of the plant mats determines the level of oxygen concentrations. High concentrations of water hyacinth mats lead to low penetration levels of light into water columns thus inhibiting photosynthesis (Mariana et al, 2006).

Decrease in dissolved oxygen concentrations

Water hyacinth has been associated with the degradation of oxygen in water. This is in comparison with other aquatic invasive species like Sagittaria lancifolia and Hydrilla verticillata. Research has shown that water hyacinth greatly reduces oxygen concentration.

Water hyacinth has been categorized as the only plant leading to a massive decline in average levels of oxygen concentrations. An inverse relationship between water hyacinth and dissolved oxygen concentration has been identified. a significant decrease in the amount of dissolved oxygen beneath water hyacinth mats in relation to that of open water has also been established.

This offers a clear picture of the negative effects of the plant in decreasing dissolved oxygen concentration (Villamagna Murphy, 2010).

A point of concern is that the rate of decreasing oxygen concentration is not constant. The size of a water hyacinth mat that can cause a significant decrease in oxygen varies from one region to another.

Over 25% of cover in 0.05ha can decrease oxygen concentration to levels which threaten aquatic life mostly fish survival. Nevertheless, a negative relationship exists between dissolved oxygen and water hyacinth concentration (Streever, 1999).

In the case of dissolved oxygen, areas infested with water hyacinth usually demonstrate lower ranges as compared to waterhyacith free waters. Shorelines without the plants or with lower concentrations have high levels of dissolved oxygen. This is in comparison with water hyacinth free regions.

The absence or decline of dissolved oxygen has adverse effects on the ecosystem. Low levels of dissolved oxygen inhibit plant growth and survival of aquatic life. The low concentration of dissolved oxygen is a result of blockage by the water hyacinth mats.

The metabolic activities of aquatic life are jeopardized thus leading to extinction of some of the animals, plants and insects. This leads to loss of biodiversity, which is in this case a great harm to the ecosystem (Weijden and Bol, 2007).

Absorption of heavy metals

Alongside the decrease of oxygen concentration, water hyacinth absorbs heavy metals. Water hyacinth is dangerous in the sense that it absorbs large amounts of nutrients in the water column as well as heavy metals. This is a serious problem in relation to aquatic life.

The mercury concentrations of water hyacinth are very high. Research on water hyacinth in California indicated that water hyacinth leaves had same mercury levels as the sediments beneath. Poor disposal of the plant on the environment will definitely lead to contamination.

This will lead to ecological problems since animals and plants which depend on the contaminated environment will be affected. Nevertheless, the ability of water hyacinth to absorb large amounts of nutrients justifies its use as a tertiary or secondary biological alternative for waste water treatment (Streever, 1999).

Water hyacinth has a higher capacity of holding heavy solids as compared to shorelines without the plant. Water hyacinth waters have a higher turbidity as compared to clear waters. The levels of suspended solids in infested waters are alarming.

Water hyacinth traps phytoplankton and detritus which in turn affect water quality. Water which would have otherwise been fit for domestic use is rendered useless. High level of suspended solids inhibits zooplankton organisms hence decreasing energy transfer. The safety of human transport and other recreational activities in infested waters is jeopardized (Mariana et al, 2006).

Alteration of water PH levels

Water hyacinth affects pH levels and free carbon dioxide. PH levels are greatly decreased by the presence of water hyacinth. On the other hand, a high level of free carbon dioxide exists in areas infested with water hyacinth. In comparison with water hyacinth free shorelines, areas infested with the plant have a higher free carbon dioxide.

These high carbon dioxide levels are as a result of respiration, decay and the decomposition process of water hyacinth. Water hyacinth mats which are dense and large in size also prevents free entry of oxygen. This phenomenon is very harmful to aquatic and human life.

Oxygen demand for aquatic life is doomed, hence leading to death of some species. This leads to decline of biodiversity, thus illustrating the harm of the plant on the local ecosystem (Richard et al, 2011).

The high absorption rate of water hyacinth on nutrients is harmful to the environment. This is because it destabilizes PH level of the waters as well as the surrounding environment. The high absorption rate of nitrate, ammonium and phosphate can not only cause ecological harm but also affect aquatic and human life.

Despite that the high intake capacity is useful in reducing nutrient concentrations; it may lead to environmental contamination. Land on which the plant is disposed will be affected by the chemicals. This will have adverse effects on plants, animals and humans (Villamagna Murphy, 2010).

Depletion of Nutrients

Water hyacinth has a great impact on the ecosystem since it affects the overall nutrient composition. This may lead to the disappearance of some of the plant species or animal species which depend on them. Existence of water hyacinth leads to a high decrease in phosphorous and nitrogen. This calls for continuous control of the plant so as to counter its negative effects on the ecosystem.

Despite that waterhyacith provides phytoremediation, it leads to significant nutrient loss. This however depends on the concentration of water hyacinth. In light with this scenario, the decrease in nutrients affects the biological process of the plants and animals. Plant and animal loss will definitely occur thus demonstrating the effects of water hyacinth on the ecosystem and biodiversity (Streever, 1999).

The levels of nitrate concentration as a result of water hyacinth are lower compared to shorelines without water hyacinth. The average of nitrate concentration in water affected by water hyacinth is significantly lower as compared to that of shorelines free from the plant.

This is associated with absorption of nitrates by water hyacinth. The high capacity of nitrate absorption by water hyacinth is hazardous since it affects the overall concentrations of nitrates in the waters. This has great negative impacts on PH levels and also on the aquatic life (Weijden and Bol, 2007).

Increase in Water temperatures

Water temperatures in water hyacinth infested areas are slightly above average. Research shows that the average temperatures of water in areas infested with water hyacinth is higher compared to the shoreline temperatures. The difference in water temperature would not occur without the water hyacinth. This clearly shows the effects of water hyacinth in influencing water temperatures.

Higher water temperatures are attributed to the dense mats of the plant, which in turn hinders transfer of heat. Decay of organic matter resulting from the water hyacinth also leads to heat generation hence leading to temperature rise.

Temperature fluctuations in areas infested with water hyacinth is hereby a common phenomenon. Breeding of insects like mosquitoes is hereby likely as a result of the temperature changes (Richard et al, 2011).

Breeding of harmful insects

From another perspective, water hyacinth offers favorable conditions and environment for the breeding of mosquitoes and other animals and insects. The breeding of these insects like mosquitoes will definitely threaten human life since it leads to diseases.

Snails also get a prime habitat as a result of the water hyacinth. A good example of the snail species is the parasitic flatworm. This is a dangerous species of snails which causes schistosomiasis (Mariana et al, 2006).

Water hyacinth forms good breeding places for mosquitoes and other insects. The prolific and high growth of water hyacinth leads to excellent breeding areas for harmful insects like mosquitoes. Incidents of malaria, skin rash, encephalitis, cough; gastrointestinal disorders, bilharzias and schistosomiasis are very rampant in areas infested by water hyacinth.

Water hyacinth is harmful to aquatic life since it reduces the concentration of oxygen by de-oxygenating the water. Nutrients for young fish are also reduced. This is due to the high absorption rates of nutrients by water hyacinth.

The effects of water hyacinth are diverse and a catastrophe for aquatic life. The large and dense mats of water hyacinth block water supply and thus, affecting local subsidence fishing. This is an ecological disaster which calls for urgent measures in addressing the problem (Streever, 1999).

Inhibits fishing and transport

Water hyacinth has been blamed for starving subsistence farmers and will become a major problem if not controlled. This is associated with the diseases it enhances through the breeding of snails and mosquitoes which threaten humans.

The blocking or covering of waters by water hyacinth also inhibits fishing. Invasion of water hyacinth into waters associated with human activities can easily unbalance natural lifecycles. Aquatic life can hereby suffer a fatal blow as a result of the waterhyacith. This in turn contributes to loss of biodiversity (Weijden and Bol, 2007).

Lack of controlling and managing water hyacinth will lead to total coverage of ponds and lakes. This can have unprecedented effects on the local ecosystems. Covering of water deprive the native aquatic plants light and oxygen thus killing them.

Fish and other aquatic life will also be harmed since their food which consists of aquatic plants is no more. Death of aquatic plants and animals translates to loss of biodiversity (Villamagna Murphy, 2010).

Water hyacinth has a serious impact on local ecosystems in the sense that it inhibits free movement of aquatic life and humans. It has become common knowledge that water hyacinth inhibits water activities. For instance, boating, fishing and other human expeditions are also obstructed by water hyacinth.

The robust growth of water hyacinth outstrips other aquatic life. This leads to unnecessary competition for survival thus leading to near eradication of some of the species (Tacio, 2009).

The effects of water hyacinth on fishing and transportation are immediate. This is due to the thick mats and covering of the waters by the plant. Access to the beaches is hindered by waterhyacinth. This is due to the dense mats of the plant which hinder human transport. The dense mats formed by waterhyacinth hinter fishing. The movement of fish and other aquatic life is adversely affected by the water hyacinth.

This is an ecological problem in the sense that free movement of the aquatic life is hindered. On the other hand, water hyacinth inhibits irrigation, water treatment and water supply. These are natural and human processes which ought to be facilitated for sustainable coexistence.

Without proper water treatment and supply, biological and environmental catastrophes can emerge. For instance, the contaminated water is both harmful to humans and aquatic life. This is a clear manifestation of the hazardous nature of water hyacinth on the (Richard et al, 2011).

Reduction in biodiversity

Water hyacinth is an ecological disaster due to its prolific growth. This has resulted to its categorization as an ecological nuisance. The fast rate of growth of water hyacinth leads to covering of water surface thus affecting the growth and survival of other aquatic life. The fast proliferation of water hyacinth threatens the survival and development of aquatic species.

The effects of water hyacinth on water temperatures, photosynthesis, PH and nutrients are a serious threat to the survival of other aquatic life. For instance, the effects of water hyacinth in preventing penetration of light are unacceptable. Based on this phenomenon, the adverse effects of water hyacinth on the ecology are demonstrated (Mariana et al, 2006).

Water hyacinth has a serious effect on biological diversity. The prolific growth and spread of the plant has negative impacts on native submersed plants. Immersed plant communities are also altered by the growth of water hyacinth. This is because water hyacinth has fast growth and as a result pushes and crushes the native plants. Animal communities and other aquatic life are also altered by water hyacinth.

This is because the plant affects the local environments by altering temperatures, oxygen, PH and inhibiting penetration of light. By eliminating some of the plants, the animal communities are also affected. This is because the animals depend on the plants and vice verse.

Fish and other aquatic life usually disappear due to the changed environments in aspects of temperatures and PH. A serious human problem resulting from water hyacinth is that it results in the breeding of dangerous animals and insects.

For instance, areas infested with water hyacinth have higher chances of snakes and crocodiles. This ecological problem is a not only a threat to the human species but also to the entire biodiversity (Tacio, 2009).

Due to the adverse effects and harm of water hyacinth on the environment, there is the need for prevention and control. Research has established different ways in which the weed can be eliminated or managed. At present, there are different control approaches for controlling the rapid spread of water hyacinth. The harmful effects of water hyacinth on the ecology and economical prospects have called for its control.

Chemical, biological and physical control mechanisms have been established. Despite that each control mechanism has its benefits; they have also reported diverse weaknesses and drawbacks. Chemical through the use of herbicides affects communities and environment, thus the need to abandon it.

In addressing the problem of water hyacinth, there is a need to identify and administer the best control mechanism. Mechanical approaches of controlling water hyacinth have been widely used. In this approach, dredgers, mowers and other manual extraction methods are used. Nevertheless, this approach is costly and is not possible in large areas.

On the contrary, mechanical approaches for eradicating water hyacinth also offers only short-term solutions. Biological approach to eradication of water hyacinth is most favored due to its long-term and short-term effects. This is not only a sustainable but also an economical approach to controlling the weed (Tacio, 2009).

Manual or mechanical control

Physical control is mostly applied in short-term basis and in small scale. Mechanical methods are the best approach in providing short-term solutions. Nevertheless, this approach is costly and requires both machinery and human labor (NSW Department of Primary Industries, 2010).

Early control using physical means targets concentrated areas. Physical methods remove the weed from their mats and dump them on land to die. Manual removal of the weed has proved successful in small scale as especially in farm drains and dams. However, the high rate of growth of water hyacinth makes it hard to attain total eradication. This approach is only successful when the rate of removal is higher than the plant’s rate of re-growth. From another perspective, physical of manual removal is not successful in large scale. This is widely due to the higher costs and labor (Denise et al, 2007).

Research has shown that mechanical control of water hyacinth is at times effective. Large infestations of the weed have been manually eradicated though at a higher cost. The time and cost of eradicating water hyacinth through manual means is high. It order to attain success, the removal should be done before flowing and seed set of the water hyacinth (NSW Department of Primary Industries, 2010).

Chemical removal

The use of herbicides in the removal of water hyacinth has been overwhelming in recent days. Chemical removal of water hyacinth has proved successful, whereby it has been applied for years in different regions. The success rate of using chemical methods is higher as compared to manual methods.

Nevertheless, there has been high concern for the health of communities as well as the environment in relation to chemical removal. In areas where people wash and collect drinking water as well as fishing, chemical application can turn hazardous. A number of herbicides have been registered which help in the control of water hyacinth. High volume spraying is the most used approach in the application of herbicides.

Handgun power sprays from the banks or on a boat can be adopted in applying the herbicides. Aerial spraying of herbicides can also be considered for large infestations. Herbicides should be considered in growing season mostly in Spring so as to enhance effectiveness.

Spraying recklessly can result in environmental and human catastrophes. Spraying on heavy infestation leads to sinking of the mats, which eventually rot. This can result into ecological disasters through de-oxygenation of water hence potentially killing aquatic life like fish.

In this case, spraying should be consciously undertaken by spraying only portions like a third of the area at a time. Physical or manual removal of some of the weeds before spraying is also advantageous and sustainable (Denise et al, 2007).

Biological methods of removing water hyacinth have been the most recommended due to their sustainability and ecological friendliness. Biological researchers have identified insects which can be effectively used to combat the spread of water hyacinth.

Two weevil species including neochetna bruchi, neochetina eichhomiae and moth species, Xubida infusellus, and niphograpta albiguttalis have been discovered to help control water hyacinth. These insects have proved to be successful in destroying the spread of water hyacinth.

The insects which feed on leaves by creating small scars have great effect in controlling water hyacinth. The laying of eggs by the insects on the water hyacinth leads to infection by fungi and bacteria thus causing the plant to be waterlogged and ideas.

Nevertheless, the inactivity of these insects during winter makes it hard for them to be relied on. Neochetina bruchi on the other hand has proved to be reliable during winter hence complements the inactivity of the other insects (NSW Department of Primary Industries, 2010).

It is however notable that biological control can not be solely applied in control of the weed. Biological control only reduces the prolific growth of water hyacinth but does not lead to total eradication. Biological control ensures substantial reduction in growth rates and flowering thus countering the proliferation of water hyacinth.

The damages on the plants lead to sinking of the mats thus reducing their effects. Since chemical and mechanical control techniques are quite expensive and inefficient, biological removals offer the only suitable approach in controlling water hyacinth.

Researchers have confidence that biological methods are more resilient and effective as compared to the use of herbicides and mechanical control. This is the most sustainable approach to combating invasive water hyacinth, hence reducing their ecological damages (Denise et al, 2007).

Other control mechanisms to water hyacinth include cultural control, mulching, windrowing, and managing flood-stranded infestations. In the case of cultural control, nutrients run to infested areas should be limited. Reduction of water levels in dams and drains can significantly reduce water hyacinth.

Introduction of salty water into infested waterways can also help in combating the spread of water hyacinth. Flood-stranded infestations should be managed by using Earthmoving equipments to remove water hyacinth. This is applicable to verges and roads, which helps in breaking down the water hyacinth.

Windrowing water hyacinth with tractor-mounted blade is an effective approach to removing water hyacinth (NSW Department of Primary Industries, 2010).

The study has clearly demonstrated the harm of water hyacinth on the local ecosystems. Water hyacinth has greatly impacted on the physico-chemical environments thus affecting the ecosystems. Based on the research, water hyacinth affects local water temperatures, PH, concentration of dissolved oxygen, photosynthesis and nutrients in the water.

These influences have great harm on the local ecosystems by altering the normal environments for biological, cultural and economic activities. Aquatic life is adversely affected by the changes in the water environments thus leading to eradication of some species. Water hyacinth has led to significant reduction in biodiversity in infested areas due to the alteration of favorable conditions for survival aquatic plants and animals.

Based on these problems, effective water hyacinth control measures should be adopted. Chemical, biological, mechanical and cultural control methods should be considered. Cultural and biological methods of water hyacinth control are most sustainable hence the need for their prioritization.

Denise, B. et al. (2007). Undesirable Side-Effects of Water Hyacinth Control in Shallow Tropical Reservoir. Freshwater Biology . Vol 52 (6), p1120-1133.

Mariana, M. et al. (2006). An Experimental Study of Habitat Choice by Daphnia: Plants Signal Danger More than Refuge in Subtropical Lakes. Fresh Water Biology . Vol 51 (7), p1320-1330.

NSW Department of Primary Industries (2010). Water Hyacinth- Weed of National Significance . Web.

Richard, M. et al. (2011). Invasive Plants as Catalysts for the Spread of Human Parasites. Neobiota . 9.1156.

Streever, W. (1999). An International Perspective on Wetland Rehabilitation . London: Routledge.

Tacio, H. (2009). Water Hyacinth Ecological Value, Environmental Impacts . Web.

Villamagna, M. Murphy, R. (2010). Ecological and Socio-economic Impacts of Invasive Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia Crassipes): A Review. Freshwater Biology . Vol 55 (2), p282-298.

Weijden, W. and Bol, L. (2007). Biological Globalization: Bio-Invasions and Their Impacts on Nature- The Economy and Public Health. New Jersey: McGraw Hill.

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Water hyacinth: A source of pollution until turned into a solution

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In full bloom, water hyacinths make for a beautiful picture with their purple and white flowers. However, this plant is considered an aquatic pest as it clogs waterbodies and harms the quality of the water necessary for fish population

Near Baroicha Bazar on the Dhaka-Sylhet highway, Joynal Abedin was emptying the bilge water (water collected at the bottom) from his boat anchored in the Arial Khan River. He was readying the boat to repair the large bamboo structure that holds his fishing net. 

He has another important task too - fix the floating bamboo fence that keeps out the water hyacinth that covers the river. 

This alien plant, considered an aquatic pest, can grow and redistribute vigorously. Its seeds remain viable for around three decades, making it even harder to control it. If allowed, it can clog entire water bodies in no time, especially if the water is stagnant.

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Arial Khan River is no exception. As the river lost its flow for different reasons, water hyacinth took over almost the entire length of it, making fishing near to impossible. It also harms the quality of the water necessary for fish population.

"It is an everyday fight to clear the area of water hyacinth. See the bamboo structure that fends off the plants? It cost me Tk6,000 to Tk7,000 to set it up," Joynal Abedin told The Business Standard.

"It also damages the water quality, so, fish cannot thrive," he added.

When grown in huge numbers, the plant can deprive the waterbody of sunlight, rot and deposit on the bed and increase the BOD (biochemical oxygen demand) and COD (chemical oxygen demand) of water in the process, and harm other aquatic plant and fish species.

And fishers like Joynal face it every day of every month of the dry season. During monsoon, however, the plants normally drift to the sea where they die due to salinity. The journey is sometimes impeded by structures like road bridges, Jaynal said.

Then, someone has to release the 'islands' of hyacinth, so it can be carried away by the current. But it is a toilsome work and needs funding and deployment of labour, something fishers can hardly afford.

The fisherman from Rajabari village in Raipura Upazila is totally dependent on the river for his livelihood. He used to cultivate crops on leased lands but due to his deteriorating health, he stopped farming.

But fishing does not give him much. His youngest child, a school-going boy, now has to work as a daily labourer to make ends meet.

"I have Tk70,000 to Tk80,000 investment in this, but even covering the expenses is difficult nowadays. I can't even sell it, because there is no buyer," Jaynal said.

"Taking these back to home will also require over Tk1,500. I can neither keep them, nor leave them. The only solution left is to burn them," added an aggrieved Jaynal.

"Is there no solution to the hyacinth problem?" we asked him.

"If it were an acre of space, it could have been cleared. The river is 30 km long, and the whole river is infested with hyacinth. How can the problem be solved!" he replied. 

36 kilometres away on the Rampur Bridge near Bijoynagar in Brahmanbaria, an extraordinary view caught our eyes. The river below was fully covered in blooming water hyacinth. Virtually every inch of it. The flowers looked so beautiful that a car full of foreign tourists stopped and started taking selfies with them.

Sitting on the bridge were two middle-aged local men, staring at the river. After a brief chit-chat, we found out that unlike the tourists, they were not really enjoying the view. The men, Devraj and Narendra from Rampur village, were fishermen. The otherwise beautiful plants just made it impossible to fish in the river. 

There was actually a large net fitted onto a bamboo frame under the bridge, but that would only catch hyacinths and plastic bottles instead of fish. The boat anchored on the ground indicated navigation was also impossible.

Devraj said there are 500 to 700 fishing families in three villages around. None of them can fish in the river in this season.  They are awaiting the monsoon water to wash away the water hyacinth.

"When the river is clear of the plants, I can catch fish worth Tk2,000 to Tk4,000 each day. Now it's zero," said Devraj. 

"The plants will go away when the water level will rise by a metre," the fisherman added.

"Is water hyacinth necessarily bad for fish?" we asked an expert.

"It depends on the depth of the waterbody. If it is too shallow, fish cannot travel. Also, the plant eats up the nutrients from the water, as a result of which the water's natural productivity falls. As it is an alien species, water hyacinth is harmful for native fish species," Dr Md Niamul Naser, professor and chairman of the Department of Zoology at the University of Dhaka told The Business Standard.

The history

Water hyacinth is native to tropical and subtropical South America. It is said that the plant was brought to British India from Brazil by a tourist in the late 19th century who was amazed by the beauty of its flower. The plant has also naturalised in other parts of the world. 

By the 1920s, the plant spread across the country (then Bengal). It hindered navigation and made cultivation of jute and aman paddy hard, posing a threat to the country's economy. The administration found it very difficult to clear the water bodies of the invasive plant. 

In 1936, an act was promulgated to prevent the spread of water hyacinth and to destroy it in Bengal. The Bengal Water Hyacinth Act, 1936 made it illegal 'to grow or cultivate water hyacinth in any garden or in any ornamental water or receptacle.' It was also punishable to keep the plant in any land, premises of water in someone's occupation 'except with a view to destroy it'.

In 1937, the issue of eradicating water hyacinth made it to the political parties' election manifestos. The newly elected Sher-e-Bangla A K Fazlul Huq government paid special attention to implementing this programme. By 1947, the situation got better and many rivers retained navigability. 

Currently, water hyacinth is a problem mainly limited to beels and smaller rivers with little to no water flow. 

The catalysts

During a recent trip in several districts around Dhaka, i.e. Narayanganj, Narsingdi, Kishoreganj and Brahmanbaria, we saw water hyacinth in every river. However, the bigger rivers, the ones that were flowing, such as Shitalkhya, Meghna and Titas, were not clogged by it. On the other hand, the smaller rivers with little water are fully covered by it. 

While the invasive plant takes over very quickly, there are some catalysts that support their growth.

"On the 30 km stretch of Arial Khan River, there are 11 bridges. They have been impeding the journey of the plant towards Meghna. Ten years back, there were fewer of these plants in the river," said Joynal Abedin.

In Sonakhali River in Narayanganj's Araihazar Upazila, it is pollution and encroachment that promoted the growth of the plant. 

Seeing a bamboo net frame in the river, we approached a man who was working nearby. The man - a textile worker named Sohel - told us that there is no fishing activity in the river, not until monsoon comes, because the water was too polluted for any fish to survive.

In Rampur in Brahmanbaria, on the other hand, the unnamed branch of Titas River was affected when its confluence with the Titas River was filled by sand traders.  

Other rivers lost their vigour with the course time, due to a number of other reasons, and became an abode of water hyacinth.

The solution lies within

While the plant is rightly considered an aquatic pest, with time, many positive aspects of it were discovered. 

Use of water hyacinth in wastewater treatment has been demonstrated to be highly efficient and inexpensive. One study titled 'Use of Water Hyacinths in Wastewater Treatment' authored by Gian C Gupta, published in the Journal of Environmental Health, has shown that growing water hyacinth in a sewage lagoon system reduces BOD5 up to 95%, TSS ( Total suspended solids) up to 90%, nitrogen, phosphorus, heavy metals and pesticide.

Many of Bangladesh's water bodies suffer from overnourishment due to nitrogen and phosphorus brought in through municipal wastewater discharges and agricultural run-off, which causes algal bloom, killing fish population in the process. On the other hand, industrial waste disposal causes heavy metal pollution.

As long as the plant is removed on a regular basis, it can treat our surface water in an inexpensive way where needed.

Water hyacinth has been traditionally used as cattle feed during monsoon when grass becomes scarce due to flooding. It is not a great kind of feed though, as cattle rearers complain that the quality of the milk gets deteriorated if the cow is fed this plant.  It is also used as nutrient-rich fertiliser by farmers. 

But the plant has found new usage in the country in recent years. An organisation in Barisal district's Agailjhara Upazila is manufacturing handmade paper from the plant which people have a bitter-sweet relationship with. Gift items made from that paper are now exported to 25 countries, and thousands of local people are earning from it. The activity is also cleaning the water bodies.

In Kishoreganj, Narsingdi and Joypurhat, many handicraft factories have emerged, which are making products with water hyacinth. The products, which include baskets, placemats, square mats, square boxes etc, are also earning forex.

In Africa, countries greatly affected by water hyacinth invasion in Lake Victoria, have been using the plant to produce biofuel, fertiliser etc, creating employability for a lot of poor people.

More research is underway to turn this source of pollution into a solution.

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Water hyacinth essay.

This Water Hyacinth Essay example is published for educational and informational purposes only. If you need a custom essay or research paper on this topic, please use our writing services. EssayEmpire.com offers reliable custom essay writing services that can help you to receive high grades and impress your professors with the quality of each essay or research paper you hand in.

The World Conservation Union calls common water hyacinth ( Eichhorni a crassipes ) one of the worst weeds in the world. A floating aquatic plant, water hyacinth grows rapidly, causing extensive ecological and economic damage in water systems. The plant displaces other species, obstructs waterways, blocks water intake pipes, and interferes with fishing. Dense populations of the species damage fish spawning grounds, increase water evaporation rates, and deposit a great deal of organic matter in a system. When this organic matter decomposes, the oxygen level in the water is lowered, and fish populations suffer.

Water hyacinth grows in slow-moving or still water. Under ideal conditions, it doubles its mass every two weeks. The species survives a variety of environmental conditions. It tolerates a wide range of pH and temperatures, both fresh and brackish water, and fluctuations in water levels. It also survives some toxic substances. The plant has spikes of eight to 15 flowers and round, shiny leaves. Each flower has six purple to lavender petals, the uppermost of which has a bright yellow spot. Leaves are four to eight inches in length. Thick, upright stalks lift both the flowers and the leaves above the water surface. When the wind catches these upright leaves, plants are dispersed throughout the water body. Roots are four to 118 inches (10-300 centimeters) in length, make up about half of the mass of the plants, and contain compounds that may prevent predation from insects. The plant produces stolons, or short stems that develop into new plants. Stolons are the most common form of reproduction; seed production also occurs. Seeds maintain their viability for up to 20 years.

A native of Brazil, water hyacinth now thrives in most tropical and subtropical regions of the world. Because of its showy flowers, the plant was intentionally moved around the world for its ornamental qualities. It is believed to have been introduced to the United States in 1884 at an exhibition in Louisiana. It arrived in Africa in 1879, in Asia in 1888, and in Australia in 1890.

Water hyacinth populations have been managed with herbicides, hand pulling, mechanical harvesting and biological control. Hand pulling works for small infestations, but is too labor-intensive to control larger populations. Herbicides, including copper sulfate, 2,4-D, and glyphosate, reduce populations of water hyacinth but damage other organisms in the ecosystem. Several of water hyacinth’s natural enemies, including insects and fungi, have been used to control populations with varying degrees of success. Five of these biocontrol agents are used in the United States: Two weevils, a moth and two types of fungi. Attempts to use explosives and fire to keep populations in check have not been successful.

Some populations of water hyacinth have been successfully controlled. In the 1950s, water hyacinth occupied 126,000 acres of Florida’s waterways. A combination of herbicides, harvesting, and biocontrol methods reduced Florida’s water hyacinth population to 2,000 acres.

Although the harm caused by the species generally outweighs its benefits, a few uses have been found for water hyacinth. It has been fed to pigs, used to remove toxins from sewage, and made into paper. One study in Bangladesh found arsenic in water can be removed by water hyacinth, producing safer drinking water.

Bibliography:

• Michael Batcher, Element Stewardship Abstract for Eichhornia crassipes (Martius) Solms (The Nature Conservancy, 2000);
• Columbia University, “Introduced Species Summary Project: Water Hyacinth ( Eichhorinia crassipes ),” www.columbia.edu/itc/cerc/danoff-burg/invasion_bio/invbio_home.html ;
• Mir Misbahuddin and Atm Fariduddin, “Water Hyacinth Removes Arsenic from Arseniccontaminated Drinking Water,” Archives of Environmental Health (November-December 2002);
• World Conservation Union, “ Eichhornia crassipes (Aquatic Plant),” www.issg.org .
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Part of the book series: Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering ((LNCE,volume 310))

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Water hyacinth is a free-floating perennial aquatic plant native to tropical and subtropical South America. It is a bothersome plant due to its broad, thick, glossy, ovate leaves that can reach up to 1 meter above the water’s surface. Water hyacinth blooming in most rivers and lakes is the most visible effect of aggravating environmental pollution, a perennial problem that could have been controlled. Hence, the applications of water hyacinth should be explored, investigated, and promoted to motivate its harvesting to manage its growth. Besides being utilized as raw materials for handloom weaving livelihood programs, the feasibility of using this material in concrete production attracted many researchers’ attention. The literature review evaluates water hyacinth in liquid form, ash, and dried fibers to produce an environmentally friendly, blended concrete material. The experimental process conducted by different researchers shows significant improvements in the parameters of concrete. WHA demonstrates that ash is a potential pozzolanic substance that improves concrete durability and marginally affects its strength. It is also worth mentioning that concrete reinforced with water hyacinth fiber was light, making it suited for use in the building industry where lightweight concrete is desired. Moreover, finally, water hyacinth extract increases the slump value of concrete; thus, it can be employed as a superplasticizer in concrete with a lower water–cement ratio.

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Laguna Lake Development Authority, Quezon City, Philippines

Ernie D. Tombado

Graduate School, Polytechnic University of the Philippines, Manila, Philippines

Orlean G. Dela Cruz

School of Engineering, University of Guam, Mangilao, Guam, USA

Ernesto J. Guades

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Seri Iskandar, Perak, Malaysia

Mokhtar Awang

Faculty of Engineering Technology, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands

Seyed Sattar Emamian

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Tombado, E.D., Dela Cruz, O.G., Guades, E.J. (2023). Evaluation of Water Hyacinth Ash, Extract, and Fiber in Concrete: A Literature Review. In: Nia, E.M., Ling, L., Awang, M., Emamian, S.S. (eds) Advances in Civil Engineering Materials. Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering, vol 310. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-8024-4_5

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Published : 01 January 2023

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