the little rock nine presentation

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Little Rock Nine

By: History.com Editors

Updated: February 1, 2023 | Original: January 29, 2010

The Little Rock Nine were a group of nine Black students who enrolled at formerly all-white Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas, in September 1957. Their attendance at the school was a test of Brown v. Board of Education , a landmark 1954 Supreme Court ruling that declared segregation in public schools unconstitutional. On September 4, 1957, the first day of classes at Central High, Governor Orval Faubus called in the Arkansas National Guard to block the Black students’ entry into the high school. Later that month, President Dwight D. Eisenhower sent in federal troops to escort the Little Rock Nine into the school. It drew national attention to the civil rights movement .

Desegregation of Schools

In its Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka decision, issued May 17, 1954, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that segregation of America’s public schools was unconstitutional.

Until the court’s decision, many states across the nation had mandatory segregation laws, or Jim Crow laws , requiring African American and white children to attend separate schools. Resistance to the ruling was so widespread that the court issued a second decision in 1955, known as Brown II, ordering school districts to integrate “with all deliberate speed.”

Little Rock Central High School

In response to the Brown decisions and pressure from the local chapter of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP ), the Little Rock, Arkansas , school board adopted a plan for gradual integration of its schools.

The first institutions to integrate would be the high schools, beginning in September 1957. Among these was Little Rock Central High School, which opened in 1927 and was originally called Little Rock Senior High School.

Two pro-segregation groups formed to oppose the plan: The Capital Citizens Council and the Mother’s League of Central High School.

Who Were the Little Rock Nine?

Despite the virulent opposition, nine students registered to be the first African Americans to attend Central High School. Minnijean Brown, Elizabeth Eckford, Ernest Green, Thelma Mothershed, Melba Patillo, Gloria Ray, Terrence Roberts, Jefferson Thomas and Carlotta Walls had been recruited by Daisy Gaston Bates, president of the Arkansas NAACP and co-publisher of the Arkansas State Press , an influential African American newspaper.

Daisy Bates and others from the Arkansas NAACP carefully vetted the group of students and determined they all possessed the strength and determination to face the resistance they would encounter. In the weeks prior to the start of the new school year, the students participated in intensive counseling sessions guiding them on what to expect once classes began and how to respond to anticipated hostile situations.

The group soon became famous as the Little Rock Nine.

Orval Faubus

On September 2, 1957, Governor Orval Faubus announced that he would call in the Arkansas National Guard to prevent the African American students’ entry to Central High, claiming this action was for the students’ own protection. In a televised address, Faubus insisted that violence and bloodshed might break out if Black students were allowed to enter the school.

The Mother’s League held a sunrise service at the school on September 3 as a protest against integration. But that afternoon, federal judge Ronald Davies issued a ruling that desegregation would continue as planned the next day.

Elizabeth Eckford

The Little Rock Nine arrived for the first day of school at Central High on September 4, 1957. Eight arrived together, driven by Bates.

Elizabeth Eckford’s family, however, did not have a telephone, and Bates could not reach her to let her know of the carpool plans. Therefore, Eckford arrived alone.

The Arkansas National Guard, under orders of Governor Faubus, prevented any of the Little Rock Nine from entering the doors of Central High. One of the most enduring images from this day is a photograph of Eckford, alone with a notebook in her hand, stoically approaching the school as a crowd of hostile and screaming white students and adults surround her.

Eckford later recalled that one of the women spat on her. The image was printed and broadcast widely in the United States and abroad, bringing the Little Rock controversy to national and international attention.

Ronald Davies

In the following weeks, federal judge Ronald Davies began legal proceedings against Governor Faubus, and President Dwight D. Eisenhower attempted to persuade Faubus to remove the National Guard and let the Little Rock Nine enter the school.

Judge Davies ordered the Guard removed on September 20, and the Little Rock Police Department took over to maintain order. The police escorted the nine African American students into the school on September 23, through an angry mob of some 1,000 white protesters gathered outside. Amidst ensuing rioting, the police removed the nine students.

The following day, President Eisenhower sent in 1,200 members of the U.S. Army’s 101st Airborne Division from Fort Campbell, Kentucky, and placed them in charge of the 10,000 National Guardsmen on duty. Escorted by the troops, the Little Rock Nine attended their first full day of classes on September 25.

Numerous legal challenges to integration continued throughout the year, and Faubus repeatedly expressed his wish that the Little Rock Nine be removed from Central High.

Although several of the Black students had positive experiences on their first day of school, according to a September 25, 1957, report in The New York Times , they experienced routine harassment and even violence throughout the rest of the year.

Melba Patillo, for instance, was kicked, beaten and had acid thrown in her face. At one point, white students burned an African American effigy in a vacant lot across from the school. Gloria Ray was pushed down a flight of stairs, and the Little Rock Nine were barred from participating in extracurricular activities.

Minnijean Brown was expelled from Central High School in February 1958 for retaliating against the attacks. Harassment went beyond the students: Gloria Ray’s mother was fired from her job with the State of Arkansas when she refused to remove her daughter from the school. The 101st Airborne and the National Guard remained at Central High School for the duration of the year.

Ernest Green

On May 25, 1958, Ernest Green, the only senior among the Little Rock Nine, became the first African American graduate of Central High.

In September 1958, one year after Central High was integrated, Governor Faubus closed all of Little Rock’s high schools for the entire year, pending a public vote, to prevent African American attendance. Little Rock citizens voted 19,470 to 7,561 against integration and the schools remained closed.

Other than Green, the rest of the Little Rock Nine completed their high school careers via correspondence or at other high schools across the country. Eckford joined the Army and later earned her General Education Equivalency diploma. Little Rock’s high schools reopened in August 1959.

Did you know? Civil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr. attended graduation ceremonies at Central High School in May 1958 to see Ernest Green, the only senior among the Little Rock Nine, receive his diploma.

Little Rock Nine Aftermath

Several of the Little Rock Nine went on to distinguished careers.

Green served as assistant secretary of the federal Department of Labor under President Jimmy Carter . Brown worked as deputy assistant secretary for workforce diversity in the Department of the Interior under President Bill Clinton . Patillo worked as a reporter for NBC.

The group has been widely recognized for their significant role in the civil rights movement . In 1999, President Clinton awarded each member of the group the Congressional Gold Medal. The nine also all received personal invitations to attend the inauguration of President Barack Obama in 2009.

Jefferson Thomas became the first of the Little Rock Nine to die when he succumbed to pancreatic cancer at the age of 67 on September 5, 2010. After graduating from Central High, Thomas served in the Army in Vietnam, earned a business degree and worked as an accountant for private companies and the Pentagon .

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The Lasting Impact of the Little Rock Nine

Under the glare of an angry mob of white students, 1,200 armed soldiers, media cameras and pro-segregationist governor Orval Faubus, the Little Rock Nine made their way to Central High. The students were: Minnijean Brown, Ernest Green, Thelma Mothershed, Gloria Ray, Melba Pattillo, Terrence Roberts, Jefferson Thomas, Carlotta Walls and Elizabeth Eckford.

President Eisenhower had to employ military force to keep the peace

Eight of the students carpooled together, but because her family didn't have a phone, Eckford couldn't be reached. Thus, she arrived by herself, which is how the famous photograph transpired of her coolly walking towards the school entrance with a notebook in hand as a screaming crowd surrounded her.

The weeks leading up to September 25th were trying for the Little Rock Nine, who were counseled and hand-selected by Bates. Although they tried to attend Central High earlier, the continual threats of violence and bloodshed prevented them from attending classes. It was only when President Dwight Eisenhower sent 1,200 armed soldiers from the 101st Airborne to keep the peace that the Little Rock Nine were able to complete a full day of school.

They faced constant harassment while in school

Once they were in school, their lives were difficult. For the rest of the school year, they faced constant verbal and physical harassment — Pattillo had acid thrown in her face, Ray was pushed down the stairs and Brown was expelled for retaliating after a group of girls threw a purse full of combination locks at her. Brown's mother was even fired from her job because she wouldn't give in to pressure to pull her daughter out of the school.

On May 25, 1958, Green was the only one of the Nine that graduated from Central High. He was the first African American to walk out of the school with a diploma. As for the rest of the students, they either received their diplomas through correspondence programs or from other high schools.

The Little Rock Nine left a lasting legacy

The Little Rock Nine went on to accomplish great things in their professional careers, some of them serving in the areas of higher education, mental health, and the criminal justice system. Green served under President Jimmy Carter as his assistant secretary in the Department of Labor. Pattillo became a reporter for NBC. Brown worked under President Bill Clinton in the Department of the Interior as the deputy assistant secretary for workforce diversity.

In 1999, President Clinton awarded the Little Rock Nine with the Congressional Gold Medal for their important role in the civil rights movement. Ten years later, President Barack Obama invited them to his inauguration.

Of the Nine, Thomas was the first to pass away. He died in 2010 from pancreatic cancer.

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Reflections of the Little Rock Nine 1957 - 2017

The Little Rock Nine was the name given to the nine students who bravely integrated Little Rock’s Central High School in the fall of 1957. On September 26, the Museum honored the tremendous courage and sacrifice of those students and their families 60 years ago, acknowledging the great achievements in their careers with an evening of programming, "Reflections of the Little Rock Nine 1957 - 2017".

Watch an archive presentation of the moderated panel discussion with members of the group as they share the circumstances and decisions that led them to enter the doors of Central High School on September 25, 1957 and the lasting impact of this experience. The group also shared their thoughts about the state of public education in the United States and the re-segregation of public schools.

Learn more about Carlotta Walls, one of the Little Rock Nine, in our Collection Story, Dress for the Occasion .

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• Modern History

The Little Rock Nine: How children became the centre of the civil rights struggle

In 1957, nine black students were brave enough to attend an all-white school in Little Rock, Arkansas.

These students, known as the Little Rock Nine, were faced with abuse and violence from both the white community and the school administration.

The Little Rock Nine's story is one of courage and determination in the face of adversity.

The history of school segregation in the United States is a long and complicated one.

Segregation in schools was made legal by the Plessy v. Ferguson Supreme Court case in 1896, which ruled that "separate but equal" facilities were constitutional.

This ruling allowed states to pass laws mandating segregated schools, and many did so.

In the South, schools were segregated by race, with white students attending one set of schools and black students attending another.

This practice was known as "separate but equal."

However, the reality was that the separate facilities for black students were usually inferior to those for white students.

This was especially true in the South, where funding for black schools was often inadequate.

The situation in Little Rock before desegregation was one of tension and conflict. The black community had been working for years to end segregation in the city's schools.

In 1954, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that segregation in public schools was unconstitutional.

This ruling, known as Brown v. Board of Education, mandated that schools be integrated "with all deliberate speed."

In response to this ruling, Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus began to resist integration efforts in Little Rock.

He did this by calling out the National Guard to prevent the black students from attending the newly integrated school.

The nine children

The nine children who were chosen to integrate Little Rock Central High School were Ernest Green, Elizabeth Eckford, Jefferson Thomas, Terrence Roberts, Carlotta Walls, Minnijean Brown, Gloria Ray Karlmark, Thelma Mothershed, and Melba Pattillo.

These students were chosen because they had good grades and were well-behaved.

They were also considered to be 'test cases' for integration; that is, their success or failure would be used to determine whether or not other schools should be integrated.

The Little Rock Nine were prepared for their first day at the new school by a number of people and organizations. First, they met with their parents to discuss what to expect.

Then, they attended a workshop on dealing with racism. At the workshop, they learned how to deal with hostile classmates and adults.

Finally, they met with the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) legal team, who advised them on their rights and what to do if they were arrested.

First day of school

The night before the teens were to face their first day at the school, Arkansas governor, Orval Faubus, ordered the state's National Guard troops to stand at the front door of the school and to prevent these nine children from entering the buildings. 

When the nine students arrived on the 4th of September, 1957, at the Little Rock Central High School, they were met with a hostile crowd of white students and adults.

The mob shouted racial slurs and threats at the children.

Some of the white students tried to physically block the black students from entering the school.

While eight of the nine black students had arrived together, 15-year-old Elizabeth Eckford had arrived by herself and faced the abuse alone. 

Regardless, the National Guard stopped all of the nine African-American students from entering the building and they were forced to go home.

They were not able to enter the school for more than two weeks.

The president intervenes

On the 14th of September, Governor Faubus was asked to meet with President Dwight Eisenhower to resolve the situation.

Six days later, it was announced that Faubus had used the Arkansas National Guard unlawfully and they were ordered to leave the school.

This created the opportunity for the nine students to attempt to attend the school again.

So, on September 23rd, the Little Rock Nine managed to enter the high school.

However, rioting occurred outside the school and the students were subjected to abuse inside.

They were spat on, pushed downstairs, and had garbage thrown at them.

Consequently, the Little Rock police arrived at the school and removed the nine students for their own safety. 

President Eisenhower decided that he had to intervene to guarantee the safety of the teenagers.

On the 24th of September, the President ordered the US Army’s 101st Airborne Division to travel to Little Rock.

Then, on the 25th of September, these soldiers acted as the personal bodyguard of the nine students and escorted them to and from classes.

As a result, the Little Rock Nine were able to complete their first full day of school. 

The first year of school

While the soldiers were commissioned to walk with the students between classes, they were not allowed to stay in the classroom with them.

This meant that the Little Rock Nine were still subjected to a lot of abuse from their fellow students.

Then, the 101st Airborne left in November 1957. By that stage, President Eisenhower had issued Executive Order 10730, which federalized the Arkansas National Guard. 

So, when the 101st Airborne departed, the president sent in the Arkansas National Guard to protect the children.

The rest of their year at school was not an easy one for the black children. They constantly received death threats and there were even attempted bombings of their homes.

One of the students, Minnijean Brown, was suspended and then expelled in the middle of the school year.

The reason given was that she had poured a cup of chili on the head of a boy who had been harassing her.

The other students also continued to face racism and discrimination.

Despite the difficulties of the year, the nine students managed to complete their year of study in May 1958.

The 'lost year' of 1958-9

The integration of Little Rock Central High School by the Little Rock Nine in 1957 was met with fierce resistance by many white residents and politicians, including Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus.

Despite the successful integration with the help of federal troops, tensions remained high.

In an attempt to block further integration, the Little Rock School Board, under pressure from the state legislature and Governor Faubus, voted to close all four of Little Rock's public high schools for the entire 1958-1959 school year.

This decision affected more than 3,600 students.

The closure had a profound impact on both black and white students in Little Rock. Many students missed a full year of education, leading to long-term academic and professional setbacks.

Some white families were able to send their children to hastily organized private schools, known as "segregation academies," but these were often substandard.

In comparison, black students generally had fewer alternatives. Some moved to other districts or even out of state to continue their education, but many simply missed the entire year.

Overall, the closure created a sense of chaos and uncertainty in the community and deepened racial divisions.

How the school was reopened

The decision to close the schools led to legal battles. A group of local mothers, both black and white, known as the "Women's Emergency Committee to Open Our Schools" (WEC), played a key role in challenging the closure and advocating for the reopening of the schools.

After a year of closure, the schools were reopened for the 1959-1960 school year. However, the legacy of the Lost Year lingered, with ongoing challenges to integration and educational disparities between black and white students.

The next few years were relatively calm compared to the first year. By 1960, many of the white students had begun to accept the presence of African American students in the school.

In 1961, Terrence Roberts was elected senior class president, becoming the first black student to hold this position.

The long-term effects

Although the Little Rock Nine were able to integrate Little Rock Central High School, their story does not have a happy ending.

The experience took a toll on all of them, both mentally and physically. Some of them even required therapy to deal with what they had been through.

In addition, many of their families also suffered because they received death threats and their homes were bombed. 

Despite this, the Little Rock Nine are still considered heroes. They paved the way for other African American students to have equal access to education.

In addition, they also proved that desegregation could be peacefully achieved if there was enough support from the government.

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Little Rock Nine: the day young students shattered racial segregation

Sixty years ago, nine teens braved violent protests to attend school after the supreme court outlawed segregation – but racial separation is not over in the US

Minnijean Brown Trickey didn’t intend to make a political statement when she set off with two friends for her first day in high school. She was, after all, only 15. “I mean, part of growing up in a segregated society is that it’s a little sort of enclave and you know everybody,” says Trickey, who is African American. “So, I was thinking: ‘Wow! I can meet some other kids.’”

Central high school in Little Rock, Arkansas, seemed to have a lot going for it. “The black school was kind of far away and there was no bus,” she says. “We went to get new shoes and we were really trying to decide what to wear. So we were very teenage-esque about it, just totally naive.”

It was September 1957, the Jim Crow era of racial segregation, and nine black pupils little guessed they were about to plant a milestone in the struggle for civil rights to follow those of Emmett Till , a 14-year-old lynched in Mississippi in 1955, and Rosa Parks, who refused to give up her seat to a white passenger on a bus in Alabama later the same year.

Brown v Board of Education, the landmark 1954 supreme court ruling that segregated schools were unconstitutional, should have meant she and fellow pupils could take their places at Central High . But Governor Orval Faubus of Arkansas, in the deep south, remained defiant and used the national guard to block their enrollment. The African American children were left in limbo for three weeks.

On the first day of term, the national guard were there to stop the nine entering Central High, where all 1,900 attendees were white. Three weeks later, on 25 September, the group braved a hostile white crowd, climbed the school steps and were escorted to class by US army troops. They became known and revered as the Little Rock Nine .

Eight of the nine are still living and will return to Little Rock on Monday to mark the 60th anniversary of the US’s first major battle over school segregation. A day later, several will be in Washington to speak at the Smithsonian National Museum of African American History and Culture . It will be a moment to reflect on how far the US has come in unravelling educational apartheid – and whether, in recent years, progress has stalled or even reversed.

The share of “intensely segregated” black schools has trebled over the past 25 years, according to research by the Civil Rights Project at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), which warns of a “resegregation” taking hold. Trickey, who turned 76 earlier this month, asks bleakly: “What kind of country doesn’t see education for all children to be the primary value? I think the US has two values: segregation, which they do so well, and violence.”

Speaking by phone from her longtime home in Canada, she can still remember vividly the combination of segregation and violence that left her “whole body shaking with fear and shock” as a teenager six decades ago.

On 23 September 1957, the group did get into the building with police protection. But an angry mob of more than a thousand white people had gathered in front of the school, chanting racist abuse such as “Go back to Africa”.

“I really think that we were afraid to look at the mob; at least I was,” says Trickey. “So we just heard it and it was like a sports event, that sound, the roar, but it was a roar of hatred, and just thinking about it makes me shake.”

She says of her young self: “I’m nobody. I’ve never been hated. I’ve been loved all my life. I’m beautiful. I’m smart. I just can’t believe this. So I kind of describe it as having my heart broken. Of course, you know as an ‘American’ even living in a segregated society you do all the anthems and the pledges and you’re hiding under the desk from the Russians, and so brainwashing works well. So the heartbreak was: ‘I’m supposed to be living in a democracy. What? These people hate me. They don’t know me. They want to kill me.’”

The mob started a riot and police decided to remove the students for their own safety. “At about 10am they said: ‘You’ve got to come down to the office,’ and we went down into the basement. They put us in these cars and the cops driving the cars were shaking. They had the guns and sticks and they were scared. ‘Oh wow, this is scary.’ Some of us were told to keep our heads down.

“Melba Pattillo Beals [another of the nine] says she overheard a person saying: ‘Once you drive, do not stop.’ So they quickly drove us out from the side, then later we watched TV and could see the mob was going to go inside.”

The crisis was cause for Washington to intervene. President Dwight Eisenhower sent in 1,200 paratroopers from the 101st airborne division. The soldiers escorted the students single file into the school for their first full day of classes and dispersed the demonstrators. The US’s racial shame had been exposed, shown on TV and reported in newspapers around the world. “Negroes escorted into school,” reported the Manchester Guardian, noting that two white protesters clashed with the soldiers and were injured.

Richard Kahlenberg, a senior fellow at progressive thinktank Century Foundation, says he regards it as a turning point for the country: “We were accustomed to having schools segregated by race. We in essence had a system of apartheid in our schools that had been widely accepted in the south. The Little Rock Nine were an incredibly courageous group of African Americans that stood up and said this system of apartheid, which had been struck down by a supreme court decision, could not stand.

But although 25 September is the date people remember, troops remained at Central high school for the rest the school year and the Little Rock Nine ran the gauntlet of hatred every day. They were taunted, assaulted and spat upon by their white counterparts; a straw effigy of a black person was hung from a tree. They were kept apart in different classes so they could not vouch for each other’s claims.

“It’s the going back: that’s the bravery, that’s the courage,” Trickey says. “It’s the going home and saying: ‘Wow, they’re not stopping me, I’ll go back no matter what.’ There is no courage at the outset: the courage kicks in later.”

Trickey was first suspended, and then expelled, for retaliating against tormentors who went unpunished. She was invited to New York to live in the home of Kenneth and Mamie Clark, social psychologists whose groundbreaking work showed the negative impact of segregation on African American children , and finished her secondary education. She eventually became an activist, environmentalist and social worker with a spell in the Bill Clinton administration.

Beals became a journalist and author and lives in San Francisco; Carlotta Walls LaNier, the youngest of the nine, became a property broker in Denver; Elizabeth Eckford served in the army, became a probation officer and lives in Little Rock; Ernest Green served in the Jimmy Carter administration and worked for Lehman Brothers in Washington DC; Gloria Ray Karlmark worked as an aerospace research technician and lives in the Netherlands and Sweden; Terrence Roberts became a psychologist and management executive in Pasadena, California; Thelma Mothershed Wair had a career as a teacher and worked with young offenders and the homeless, then moved back to Little Rock; Jefferson Thomas fought in Vietnam, became an accounting clerk with the defence department and died in Columbus, Ohio, from pancreatic cancer in 2010.

The nine were awarded the Congressional Gold Medal by Clinton in 1999 and have met for reunions, particularly on anniversaries. “We’re on conference calls and we’re giggling and we say about ourselves that, when we get together, we become teenagers again,” says Trickey.

A cause for optimism – and caution

But the legacy of Little Rock is non-linear, and cause for both optimism and caution. While significant strides were made towards desegregation in the 70s and 80s, a series of decisions by the supreme court between 1991 and 2007 authorized the termination of cross-district bussing, local court supervision of desegregation plans and limited use of race-based admissions. An interplay of race, class and geography is at work, including the middle class’s ability to self-replicate by buying homes near the best-funded schools.

The Civil Rights Project at UCLA reported last year a “striking rise” in double segregation by race and poverty for African American and Latino students concentrated in schools that “rarely attain the successful outcomes typical of middle-class schools with largely white and Asian student populations”. The year 1988 was the “high point” of desegregation for black students in terms of the share of students in majority white schools, it found, but since then the proportion of “intensely segregated nonwhite schools” (those with 10% or less white students) rose from 5.7% to 18.6% of all public schools. There is little sign Donald Trump and his education secretary, Betsy DeVos, regard this as a priority.

Speaking from the steps of Central high school for the 40th anniversary in 1997, Clinton warned: “Segregation is no longer the law, but too often separation is still the rule. Today, children of every race walk through the same door, but then they often walk down different halls. Not only in this school, but across America, they sit in different classrooms, they eat at different tables. They even sit in different parts of the bleachers at the football game.”

The Little Rock Nine could be forgiven a sense of frustration at such uneven progress. “It’s all institutional and it’s all centuries old,” says Trickey, “so we’re seeing the result of policies that have been made over time. It has become more visible because the people who are running the country now are profoundly intentionally ignorant.”

After the first black US president was succeeded by a man supported by white supremacists and the Ku Klux Klan, Trickey sees history coming full circle. “People went into their basements and pulled out the old signs that they used in Little Rock, in Selma, across the country. “Integration is a sin”, “Integration is an abomination against God”, “Integration is communism”. They’re using the same ones they used 60 years ago. But there will be young people like the Little Rock Nine who are gonna keep going; I’m trying to train as many of them as I can.”

The US capital offers one glimpse of the wider trends. New research by the Albert Shanker Institute shows that, in Washington DC, 86.1% of the typical black student’s peers are also black, and more than half the private school student population is white compared with less than 10% of public school.

DC Scholars public charter school , which opened in 2012, is just five miles from the dome of the US Capitol and the most powerful legislative body in the world. The school’s bright, colourful walls include photos of the “scholar of the month!”, a table showing percentages of students who improved their maths and reading scores and a series of university pennants including Harvard and Yale. There are 512 pupils, of whom 31% have disabilities – for example, learning disorders or ADHD – which is treble the national average. The student body is 100% African American.

Tanesha Dixon, principal of the middle school, explains this as being largely down to geography: “We are east of the river. This is a very black community. We have middle-class children and lower-class children; not every student is a ‘latchkey kid’ or from a broken home. We have a diversity because the black experience is not a monolithic experience.”

She adds: “I’m not even thinking of the colour of their skin; I’m thinking of the quality of the education they’re getting. The fact we’ve been able to provide a high quality of education east of the river every day is one of the reasons I keep coming to work.”

Asked how the Little Rock Nine would react if they visited, Dixon says: “I would hope they would be shocked in a very good way, amazed at the calibre of discussion that schools are having. I would put my school against any in the city to read, write and do arithmetic. It’s kind of cool to be a nerd here. Kids of colour are going to a school where they have access to great teachers and great resources.”

The debates remain complex, progress uneven, the answers elusive. Justin Reid , director of African American programmes at the Virginia Foundation for the Humanities, says: “Little Rock was definitely a flashpoint in the civil rights movement and inspired activists, but it also galvanised many southern states in how they attacked integration efforts. They did it in a quiet, subversive way; they didn’t want the media attention that was attracted in Little Rock. You saw legislators think carefully: how can we block integration?”

He adds: “I think the Little Rock Nine would have to be disappointed. We’re regressing. The peak time for integration was the 70s and 80s. We now live in a society where there is more segregation than ever before.”

Speaking by phone from Little Rock, Ernest Green, now 75, admits he is “disappointed” but insists he is also “pleased” by the evolution of the past 60 years.

“The US is still segregated by housing and employment, which are the two pillars we still have to struggle with,” he says. “But I believe our experience will act as an inspiration to many young people. It may inspire some on the other side: there’s probably a crowd that wants to go back to slavery, but we won’t let them.

“I survived a year of Orval Faubus, the Arkansas governor, in 1957. If we pace ourselves according to what Trump wants, obviously we’ll go backwards. The idea is to continue the fight and push for equity in this country.”

Green recalls a little-remembered line from Martin Luther King’s “I have a dream” speech in Washington in 1963, in which the civil rights leader argued that America had defaulted on its constitutional promise to citizens of colour, like a check that comes back marked “insufficient funds”.

But King refused to believe the bank of justice is bankrupt.

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60 Years Later, Remembering The Little Rock Nine And School Integration

Debbie Elliott

The eight living members of the Little Rock Nine join former President Clinton to commemorate 60 years since Central High School was the nation's battleground over school integration. In 1957, the segregationist governor of Arkansas called up the state's National Guard to keep nine African-American students out of Central High. President Eisenhower federalized the guard and sent in the 101st Airborne to escort the students to class.

ROBERT SIEGEL, HOST:

Sixty years ago today, federal troops forced the integration of Little Rock Central High School.

(SOUNDBITE OF ARCHIVED RECORDING)

UNIDENTIFIED MAN: (Unintelligible).

SIEGEL: A segregationist governor and angry protesters tried to block nine African-American students from attending all-white Central High, so President Dwight Eisenhower sent in Army paratroopers to escort the black teens to class.

DWIGHT EISENHOWER: Mob rule cannot be allowed to override the decisions of our courts.

SIEGEL: Members of the Little Rock Nine were back at Central High today along with NPR's Debbie Elliott.

DEBBIE ELLIOTT, BYLINE: Sixty years after being yelled at, spit on, taunted and at times physically attacked, members of the Little Rock Nine were welcomed with a standing ovation as they took the stage of Central High's packed auditorium.

UNIDENTIFIED WOMAN: Ladies and gentlemen, the Little Rock Nine.

ELLIOTT: Eight are still living, all now in their 70s. An empty chair was draped in the school's black and gold in memory of the ninth, the late Jefferson Thomas. Historian Henry Louis Gates marked the occasion, likening Central High to a religious shrine.

HENRY LOUIS GATES: And if this is a shrine, ladies and gentlemen, these are the saints that we are here to honor.

ELLIOTT: Each had an opportunity to reflect. Gloria Ray Karlmark recalled the last day of school and a classmate's inscription in her yearbook.

GLORIA RAY KARLMARK: She wrote, in a different age, we could've been friends.

ERNEST GREEN: None of us 60 years ago as we arrived in the back of Army jeeps knew that we would be standing here today.

ELLIOTT: Ernest Green was the first to earn a diploma from Central High. He says they didn't aspire to make history but were simply pursuing a constitutional education. Melba Pattillo Beals talked about how much different things are today than when she was a child in Little Rock.

MELBA PATTILLO BEALS: It's a joy to come back to Arkansas and sit in a taxi. It's a joy to see women policemen, who are - whose skin is all sorts of colors.

ELLIOTT: Here to honor the legacy of the Little Rock Nine is former president and former governor of Arkansas Bill Clinton. In keynote remarks at the ceremony, he said the group made a great sacrifice for the nation.

BILL CLINTON: All they wanted to do was to live their lives and be a part of America.

ELLIOTT: Clinton says today the country is in jeopardy because of the politics of resentment.

CLINTON: So I wanted to say, you did 60 years. Take a victory lap. Put on your dancing shoes. Have a good time. But instead I have to say, you've got to put on your marching boots and lead us again.

ELLIOTT: The theme of this anniversary event, reflections on progress, has drawn some backlash from parents and others who say Little Rock schools have re-segregated. The state has taken over the local school system, and there's been a proliferation of charter schools some fear pull resources from traditional classes. Little Rock Judge Wendell Griffen...

WENDELL GRIFFEN: I'm not denying that what they did 60 years ago was not only historic and courageous but was radically revolutionarily progressive. My point is that this community, this state, this nation has not kept faith with their sacrifice.

ELLIOTT: Ernest Green of the Little Rock Nine says the work has to continue because there are new civil rights battles today.

GREEN: Emmett Till turns to Heather Heyer in Charlottesville protesting Nazis. Muhammad Ali turns to Colin Kaepernick taking a knee for injustice.

GREEN: And the Little Rock Nine turns to the Charleston nine paying the ultimate sacrifice for peacefully assembling in a church.

ELLIOTT: Debbie Elliott, NPR News, Little Rock, Ark.

(SOUNDBITE OF SONG, "LIFT EVERY VOICE AND SING")

UNIDENTIFIED CHOIR: (Singing) Lift every voice, and sing.

UNIDENTIFIED SINGER: (Singing) Let our rejoicing rise high as the listening skies. Let it resound loud as the rolling sea.

UNIDENTIFIED CHOIR: (Singing) Lift every voice, and sing. Lift every voice, and sing a song. Lift every voice, and sing a song full of...

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AT THE SMITHSONIAN

The youngest of the little rock nine speaks about holding on to history.

Carlotta Walls LeNier, whose school dress is in the Smithsonian, says much was accomplished and now we need to hold onto it

Allison Keyes

Museum Correspondent

In the galleries of the Smithsonian’s National Museum of African American History and Culture , a singular black dress, printed with blue, white and sea-green letters and patterns, is on display . It seems more than appropriate attire for a young lady’s first day of school.

The dress once belonged to Carlotta Walls LaNier , who with eight other African Americans integrated Little Rock’s Central High school for the first time in September of 1957—an act that made the Little Rock Nine an indelible part of this nation’s contentious history.

“It was not an easy task, but we didn’t expect it to be as it turned out,” LaNier recalls. “You have to learn how to deal with adversity, and I think we all did.”

Adversity doesn’t seem quite a strong enough word to describe the experience of black teenagers braving an angry white mob of segregationists to go to school the morning of September 4, 1957, only to be turned away by armed Arkansas National Guardsmen under orders from Governor Orval Faubus .

After a legal battle, and a judge’s order to remove the National Guard, the Little Rock Police Department escorted the nine African American students into Central High through a furious mob of some 1,000 whites on September 23. But the students were removed after a few hours amidst chaos and rioting. LaNier wore her dress for both of what she calls the “two first days” of her sophomore year in high school.

“I want you to think about the fact that I was 14, number one. Number two, the underlying theme here in the foundation of this whole thing is really we had a right based on  Brown v. Board of Education  . . . and this was a Supreme Court decision,” LaNier explains. “My parents had always said to me ‘Be prepared to go through the door whether there’s a crack in the door or the door is flung wide open.’”

LaNier, now 74, was the youngest of the nine black students recruited by Arkansas NAACP President  Daisy Bates  to be the first African Americans to attend Central High School. This was in the wake of the landmark 1954 Brown v. Board of Education case, in which the U. S. Supreme Court ruled that segregation in public schools was unconstitutional. In a related decision, the court ruled that all public schools in the nation be integrated  “with all deliberate speed.”  As Arkansas prepared to integrate the high school, LaNier and the eight other students received  intensive counseling  to ensure that they had the determination to endure likely hostile situations. She knew a new black high school was going to open, but LaNier wanted to go to Central High because it had better resources.

“It would at least give you that opportunity to have those books . . . . the most recent books. You have access to a better education, is what it boils down to. It had nothing to do with the fact that we had poor teachers. We had great teachers. They just didn’t have what was equal to what was over at Little Rock Central High School,” LaNier says.

Her parents didn’t even know she had signed up to attend Central High until her registration card arrived in the mail in July. LaNier remembers it as just a normal thing to do according to how she had been raised by her brick mason father and homemaker mother.

“My father’s eyes got large when he saw the postcard. . . . It was no big deal to me, and they were both rather proud of the fact that I had done that,” LaNier says. But her choice of school and the racial tensions surrounding the nine students did affect her family. “My father lost every job . . .  once they found out who he really was. One thing after another. So it was tough on them, but they remained supportive. I’ve said so often in presentations that the real heroes and sheroes are the parents.”

She says until you become a parent, you don’t know what kinds of things you will allow your child to be part of, and whether you will allow them to participate.

“Now my folks really didn’t know and neither did the other parents, but they supported us. They didn’t want to be quitters either,” LaNier explains. “We were kids going to school, being harassed, being bullied from one extreme to another but we persevered.”

LaNier and the other students,  Minnijean Brown ,  Elizabeth Eckford ,  Ernest Green ,  Thelma Mothershed ,  Melba Pattillo ,  Gloria Ray ,  Terrence Roberts  and  Jefferson Thomas , endured a plethora of daily insults and worse. Pattillo was kicked and beaten, white students burned a black effigy in a vacant lot across from the school, and Ray was pushed down a flight of stairs. But simply getting into the school building was a challenge LaNier says few expected because Little Rock was considered to be a moderate city.

Two days before school was set to open, Governor Faubus announced he was calling in the Arkansas National Guard to protect citizens from the violence he feared would break out if the black students were allowed inside. LaNier remembers her father going to work September 4, and her mother dropping her off with a group of ministers the NAACP had enlisted to escort the teens to the school. Eight arrived together. But Eckford didn’t know about the plans and arrived alone. There’s  a picture  of her, notebook in hand, approaching the school surrounded by a screaming crowd of white adults and students.

“Then, once we got to the corner of the school, that’s when the National Guard closed ranks. Then finally the commanding officer came up and said . . .‘take these kids back home,’” Lanier says, still sounding furious. “‘Well what do you mean?’ we asked. That’s when we knew they were really there to keep us out, not to protect the citizens of Little Rock.”

After a federal court battle raged for weeks, led by NAACP lawyer (and eventual U.S. Supreme Court Justice) Thurgood Marshall, federal  Judge Richard Davies  ordered the National Guard removed from the school. On September 23, LaNier’s second first day, Little Rock Police escorted the nine black students through a frothing crowd of about 1,000 whites.

“We went in through a side door, some field marshals of the NAACP and some fathers of the Little Rock Nine. . . . That was like 8:30 in the morning, and by 11:30 they had spirited us out of there. . .  The city sent Little Rock’s finest there, which was about 17 of them. That’s all they had to be around the school, and they couldn’t hold back that many people,” LaNier remembers. “Kids were jumping out of windows and others were saying ‘Get one of them, let’s hang them.’”

LaNier was in the rear of the school in geometry class when the police came to remove her, and she says she didn’t see any of that until it was on the evening news.

“It was on the radio, too, I guess because my mother was standing in the yard when the policeman dropped me off. She had gotten a number of phone calls from her sister and from my great aunts and so forth to ‘go up and get (me),’ but there was no way she could have done that anyway. And the gray hair she has on her head. . . started that day,” LaNier says.

On September 24, President Dwight D. Eisenhower  sent  in 1,200 members of the U-S Army’s 101 st  Airborne Division and put them in charge of the 10,000 National Guardsmen on duty. The Little Rock Nine were escorted by troops to their first full-day of classes on September 25.

“We were taken to school every day in a military station wagon with a Jeep in front and a Jeep in the back. Guns, they were all up and down the hallways,” LaNier says. “I tell kids today I had a helicopter buzzing over my school. Twelve hundred troopers bivouacked on campus. . .  I don’t ever want to see that happen for them or any other educational institution. That’s not the way to go to school.”

In May of 1958, Ernest Green  became  the first African American graduate of Central High. But Governor Faubus closed Little Rock’s high schools for the entire year to keep blacks from attending, and they didn’t reopen until August of 1959. LaNier returned to Central High and graduated in 1960.

LaNier says the dress she wore on September 4 and 23   was store-bought, rather than one of the garments made by her mother, an expert seamstress who made clothes for everyone in the family. Her great-uncle Emerald Holloway felt that she should have something special for her first day integrating the formerly all-white Central High.

“Uncle Em came by the house and gave my mother $20, and he said ‘I want you to buy her a store-bought dress. I want you to take her downtown and buy her a new dress to go to school.’ . . . I went downtown with her to pick it out,” LaNier says.

But LaNier didn’t discover her mother had kept the dress until around 1976. LaNier loaned it to the  Charles H. Wright Museum of African American History  in Detroit for a time, and considered several other options. But then, she decided to donate it to the National Museum of African American History and Culture in Washington, DC, along with her diploma and a report card from Little Rock Central High. She says she thought about how her children and so many others around the country visited the Smithsonian museums to learn about the nation’s history.

“I think these kids need to know this history. You know they don’t have civics in school anymore. They don’t have history, and they don’t make them take history classes,” LaNier says. “When you really look at the history of this country, we know we live here 335 years in one way in this country and Brown v. Board of Education in 1954, it changed all of that.”

LaNier says the progress in this nation, including the Civil Rights Act and other legislation including the Voting Rights act, all stem from that foundation.

“Yes, we had it rough. We could’ve been killed. My home was bombed. I mean, I’ve been through a lot,” LaNier says. “So here we are, 63 years later. You compare 63 years to 330-plus years of living one way, and you see we have accomplished a great deal. Now we have to hold onto it.”

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Allison Keyes is an award-winning correspondent, host and author. She can currently be heard on CBS Radio News, among other outlets. Keyes, a former national desk reporter for NPR, has written extensively on race, culture, politics and the arts.

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The little rock nine.

Lyuba Bogan

The End of Legal Segregation 

In 1954, the Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka Supreme Court decision outlawed segregation in public education. Little Rock School District Superintendent Virgil Blossom devised a plan of gradual integration that would begin at Central High School in 1957. The school board called for volunteers from all-black Dunbar Junior High and Horace Mann High School to attend Central. 

Prospective students were told they would not be able to participate in extracurricular activities if they transferred to Central such as football, basketball, or choir. Many of their parents were threatened with losing their jobs, and some students decided to stay at their own schools.

 “[Blossom said] you’re not going to be able to go to the football games or basketball games. You’re not going to be able to participate in the choir or drama club, or be on the track team. You can’t go to the prom. There were more cannots…” Carlotta Walls LaNier 

“When my tenth-grade teacher in our Negro school said there was a possibility of integration, I signed up. We all felt good. We knew that Central High School had so many more courses, and dramatics and speech and tennis courts and a big, beautiful stadium.” Minnijean Brown to Look Magazine, June 24, 1958

The First Day of School 

On September 3, 1957, the Little Rock Nine arrived to enter Central High School, but they were turned away by the Arkansas National Guard. Governor Orval Faubus called out the Arkansas National Guard the night before to, as he put it, “maintain and restore order…” The soldiers barred the African American students from entering. 

"I was not prepared for what actually happened." Elizabeth Eckford

“I thought he [Faubus] was there to protect me. How wrong I was.”  Thelma Mothershed Wair 

The students arrived at Central alone on the first day. By prior arrangement, they gathered at the 16th Street entrance with several local ministers who accompanied them. Elizabeth Eckford arrived at the other end of the block by herself. She was met by a mob screaming obscenities and threats, chanting, “Two, four, six, eight, we ain’t gonna integrate!” 

“We didn’t know that his [Faubus’] idea of keeping the peace was keeping the blacks out.”  Jefferson Thomas 

More than two weeks went by before the Little Rock Nine again attempted to enter Central High School. On September 23, 1957, the Little Rock Nine entered the school. Outside, rioting broke out and the Little Rock police removed the Nine for their safety. 

The President Becomes Involved 

On September 24, 1957, President Dwight D. Eisenhower ordered units of the U.S. Army’s 101st Airborne Division -the “Screaming Eagles”- into Little Rock and federalized the Arkansas National Guard. In a televised speech delivered to the nation, President Eisenhower stated, “Mob rule cannot be allowed to override the decisions of the courts.” 

On September 25, 1957, under federal troop escort, the Little Rock Nine made it inside for their first full day of school. The 101st Airborne left in October and the federalized Arkansas National Guard troops remained throughout the year. 

Inside the School  

The Little Rock Nine had assigned guards to walk them from class to class. The guards could not accompany the students inside the classrooms, bathrooms, or locker rooms. They would stand outside the classrooms during class time. In spite of this, the Little Rock Nine endured verbal and physical attacks from some of their classmates throughout the school year. Although some white students tried to help, few white students befriended any of the Nine. Those who did received similar treatment as the Nine, such as hate mail and threats. 

One of the Little Rock Nine, Minnijean Brown, was suspended in December for dropping chili on some boys after they refused to let her pass to her seat in the cafeteria. She was later expelled in February 1958 for calling a girl who had hit her with a purse “white trash.” After Brown’s expulsion, students passed around cards that read, “One Down, Eight to Go.” 

Brown finished high school at New Lincoln School in New York City, while living with Drs. Kenneth and Mamie Clark. The Clarks were the social psychologists whose “doll test” work demonstrated for the Supreme Court in Brown that racial prejudice and segregation caused African-American children to develop a sense of inferiority. 

The remaining eight students completed the school year at Central. Senior Ernest Green was the first African American student to graduate from Central High School. 

“It’s been an interesting year. I’ve had a course in human relations first hand.”  Ernest Green, Life Magazine, June, 1958 

The Aftermath 

The following year, the city’s high schools were closed to prevent further desegregation while the NAACP continued to pursue the legal case to integrate Little Rock’s schools. 

When the schools reopened, Carlotta Walls and Jefferson Thomas returned to Central and graduated in 1960. Thelma Mothershed received her diploma from Central High School by taking correspondence courses to complete her studies. 

The rest of the Little Rock Nine completed their high school educations at different schools. The Little Rock Nine have received numerous accolades and awards, from the renowned NAACP Spingarn Medal to the nation’s highest civilian honor, the Congressional Gold Medal. 

Little Rock Nine Biographies 

Minnijean Brown Trickey graduated from New Lincoln High School in 1959. She received a Bachelor of Social Work degree in Native Human Services from Laurentian University and a Master of Social Work degree at Carleton University, in Ontario Canada.  Brown Trickey has worked in various settings committed to peacemaking, gender and social justice advocacy, youth leadership, diversity education and training, cross-cultural communication, and environmental issues. She served in Clinton Administration as Deputy Assistant Secretary for Workforce Diversity in the Department of the Interior. Brown Trickey continues to work as a teacher, writer, and motivational speaker; she is the subject of the critically acclaimed documentary, Journey to Little Rock: The Untold Story of Minnijean Brown Trickey . 

After 60 years, the infamous photo of Elizabeth Eckford walking through the mob in front of Little Rock Central High School still serves as a symbol of white resistance against integration in the Civil Rights Movement. Along with the other eight students, Elizabeth faced her share of adversity within the walls of Central High and can recall numerous incidents of harassment and hostility at the hands of her white peers. After Governor Faubus closed all public high schools in Little Rock to prevent further integration during the 1958-1959 school year, Elizabeth moved to St. Louis, Missouri where she obtained a GED. Eckford served in the U.S. Army as a pay clerk, information specialist, and newspaper writer. She holds a Bachelor of Arts in History from Central State University in Wilberforce, Ohio. For her great contributions to social justice, Eckford has received many prestigious awards such as the Congressional Gold Medal, the NAACP Spingarn Medal, and the Humanitarian Award presented by the National Conference for Community and Justice. Today, Eckford is still a strong proponent of tolerance in every aspect of life. 

Ernest Green is the first African American to graduate from Little Rock Central High School (May 1958). He holds a Bachelor of Science in Social Science and Master of Science in Sociology from Michigan State University as well as honorary doctorates from Michigan State University, Tougaloo College, and Central State University. Green served as Assistant Secretary of Labor for Employment and Training during the Carter Administration. He was appointed to Chairman of the African Development Foundation by President Bill Clinton and by Secretary of Education Richard W. Riley to serve as Chairman of the Historically Black Colleges and Universities Capital Financing Advisory Board. Green is a recipient of the NAACP’s Spingarn Medal, the Boy Scouts of America’s Distinguished Eagle Scout Award, the Urban League’s Frederick Douglass Freedom Medal, the John D. Rockefeller Public Service Award, and the Congressional Gold Medal.  

Thelma Mothershed Wair received her diploma from Little Rock Central High School in 1960 after completing correspondence courses and transferrable summer school credits. She earned a bachelor’s degree in Home Economics Education from Southern Illinois University-Carbondale and received a master’s degree in Guidance and Counseling plus an Administrative Certificate in Education from Southern Illinois University-Edwardsville. Wair worked in the East St. Louis school system for 28 years – 10 years as a Home Economics teacher and 18 years as a counselor for elementary career education - before retiring in 1994. She also served at the St. Clair County Jail/Juvenile Detention Center in St. Clair County, Illinois and was an instructor of survival skills for women at the American Red Cross. In addition to the NAACP’s Spingarn Medal and the Congressional Gold Medal, Wair has received numerous awards for her professional contributions and community service including the Outstanding Role Model award from the East St. Louis Chapter of the Top Ladies of Distinction and an award from the Early Childhood/Pre-Kindergarten staff from the East St. Louis School District. She collaborated with Richard J. Hansen for a book narrating her experiences from Central High School entitled Education Has No Color: The Story of Thelma Mothershed Wair, One of the Little Rock Nine.

Dr. Melba Pattillo Beals finished her high school education at Montgomery High School in Santa Rosa, California. Beals earned a bachelor’s degree in Journalism from San Francisco State University, a Master of Arts in Communications from Columbia University, and a Ph.D. in International Multicultural Studies from the University of San Francisco. She has worked as an on-camera television reporter for KQED’s Newsroom, as an NBC-TV news reporter, and as a radio news talk show host for KGO, ABC radio, San Francisco. Dr. Beals founded the Department of Communications and Media Studies at the Dominican University of California. She has written four books based on her experiences at Central High School.   Warriors Don’t Cry: A Searing Memoir of the Battle to Integrate Little Rock’s Central High is a firsthand account of the experience that Beals and the Little Rock Nine encountered at Central High School. Other works include  March Forward, Girl , the prequel to Warriors Don’t Cry ; White is a State of Mind , the sequel to Warriors Don’t Cry ; and I Will Not Fear , an examination of her faith through her journey of terror, oppression, and persecution. Dr. Beals is the recipient of the Robert F. Kennedy Book Award, the Spingarn Medal, the Congressional Gold Medal, and is a communications consultant and motivational speaker. 

Gloria Ray Karlmark graduated from Kansas City Central High School in 1960. She earned a bachelor’s degree in Chemistry and Mathematics from the Illinois Institute of Technology (IIT); post-graduation, she joined the ITT Research Institute as Assistant Mathematician on the APT IV Project (robotics, numerical control, and online technical documentation) and collaborated with Boeing in Seattle, McDonnell-Douglas in Santa Monica, and the NASA Automation center in St. Louis. Karlmark has served as a teacher, mathematician, systems analyst, and technical writer. She founded and served as the Editor-in-Chief for Computers in Industry , an international journal of computer science and engineering. Karlmark also worked in the Netherlands for Philips Telecommunications in Hilversum and Philips Lighting in Eindhoven.

Dr. Terrence Roberts graduated from Los Angeles High School in 1959. He earned a bachelor’s degree in Sociology from California State University and a master’s degree in Social Welfare from the University of California at Los Angeles. In 1976, Roberts was awarded a Ph.D. in psychology from Southern Illinois University and later became Department Chair of the Psychology program at Antioch University, Los Angeles. He is the author of Lessons from Little Rock , a memoir of the 1957-58 school year at Central, and Simple, Not Easy , a reflection on community, social responsibility, and tolerance. Dr. Roberts is CEO of Terrence J. Roberts & Associates, a management consultant firm devoted to fair and equitable practices. He maintains a private psychology practice, conducts lectures, and presents workshops and seminars on a wide variety of topics. Dr. Roberts is the recipient of the Spingarn Medal and the Congressional Gold Medal.  

Jefferson Thomas returned to graduate from Little Rock Central High School in 1960. He received a Bachelor of Business Administration degree from Los Angeles State College and served as a staff sergeant in South Vietnam with the 9th Infantry Division, United States Army.  Thomas, with his father, operated the family-owned Retail Sales Business, worked as an Accounting Clerk and Supervisor for Mobil Oil Corporation - Los Angeles Credit Card Center, and later as an Accounting Clerk with the Department of Defense.  He was the recipient of an Honorary Doctorate of Humane Letters from Ohio Dominican University in recognition of his life-long efforts in human rights and equality.  Jefferson Allison Thomas died on September 5, 2010 in Columbus, Ohio.

Carlotta Walls LaNier returned to graduate from Little Rock Central High School in 1960. LaNier attended Michigan State University for two years before moving with her family to Denver. In 1968, she earned a Bachelor of Science from Colorado State College, now the University of Northern Colorado. In 1977, she founded LaNier and Company, a real estate brokerage firm. LaNier serves as president of the Little Rock Nine Foundation and is a member of the Denver Chapter of The Links, Incorporated, and the Johnson Legacy, Inc. Board of Directors. In addition to the NAACP’s Spingarn Medal and the Congressional Gold Medal awarded to her as a member of the Little Rock Nine, LaNier is the recipient of an Honorary Doctorate of Humane Letters from the University of Northern Colorado and is an inductee in the Colorado Woman’s Hall of Fame, the Girl Scouts Women of Distinction and the National Women's Hall of Fame. She is the author of A Mighty Long Way: My Journey to Justice at Little Rock Central High School . 

Little Rock Central High School National Historic Site

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Last updated: April 15, 2021

Little Rock Nine

Mar 22, 2019

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Little Rock Nine. Who were the Little Rock Nine. The Little Rock Nine were the nine African-American students involved in the desegregation of Little Rock Central High School in 1957. Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus prevented the students from entering the racially segregated school.

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Presentation Transcript

Who were the Little Rock Nine • The Little Rock Nine were the nine African-American students involved in the desegregation of Little Rock Central High School in 1957. • Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus prevented the students from entering the racially segregated school. • Segregationist councils threatened to hold protests at the school and physically block the students from entering the school.

The Nine • Ernest Green • Elizabeth Eckford • Jefferson Thomas • Terrence Roberts • Carlotta Walls Lanier • Minnijean Brown Trickey • Gloria Ray Karlmark • Thelma Mothershed-Wair

National Guard Blockade • Several segregationist councils threatened to hold protests at Central High and physically block the black students from entering the school • Governor Faubus' support for segregation may have been politically an racially motivated.  • Faubus risked losing political support if he showed support for integration. • Elizabeth Eckford, recalled ‘’They moved closer and closer ... Somebody started yelling ... I tried to see a friendly face somewhere in the crowd someone who maybe could help. I looked into the face of an old woman who seemed to have a kind face, but when I looked at her again, she spat on me.’’

The 101st Airbourne • Woodrow Mann, who was the Mayor of Little Rock, noticed the racism happening in his town. As a result, he asked President Eisenhower to send federal troops in order to enforce the integration of them into the school and to protect the nine students from any harm. • On September 24th, Eisenhower ordered the 101st Airbourne Division of the US army to Little Rock and federalized the entire group of the Arkansas National Guard which consisted of 10 000 members • taking it out of the hands of the racist Governor Faubus. The 101st took their positions and successfully escorted the 9 students into the school • Each student had their own patroller to walk with them to school and during school, but Whites still beat them. The segregationists stabbed Melba Patillo and sprayed acid into her eyes. If it weren’t for the 101st patroller throwing water over her eyes she would have been blind for the rest of her life.

A Tense Year • Even though the nine were admitted to Little Rock Central High under the protection of the U.S Army, the students were still subjected to year a of physical and verbal abuse by many of the white students. • Minnijean Brown was suspended for dumping her lunch on two white males because they were insulting her. • After a few weeks the patrollers left the nine students to fend for themselves. • Minnijean Brown said ‘’I was one of the kids 'approved' by the school officials. We were told we would have to take a lot and were warned not to fight back if anything happened. One girl ran up to me and said, 'I'm so glad you’re here. Won’t you go to lunch with me today?' I never saw her again.’’

Fauber Fights • Earnest Green of the nine black students, was the first black student to graduate out of Little Rock High. Segregationists in Arkansas wanted to stop the other black students from graduating. • Governor Faubus signs a package of segregation bills that were then passed by the legislature of Arkansas. Bills such as granting Fauber power to shut down Little rock high. • The family of the nine started to worry due to having to choose being fired from their jobs or resigning because of whats happening at the school. • The summer of 1959 approached and Faubus's act has become unconstitutional. Faubus not giving up decides to work on a new law to take its place. • In August 1959 only two originally black students from Little Rock Nine were attending Central High: Jefferson Thomas and Carlotta Walls.

The Future of the Nine • Ernest Green In 1958, he became the first black student to graduate from Central High School. He graduated from Michigan State University and served as Assistant Secretary of Housing and Urban Affairs under President Jimmy Carter. • Elizabeth Eckford The only one of the nine still living in Little Rock, Elizabeth made a career of the U.S. Army that included work as a journalist. In 1974, she returned to the home in which she grew up and is now a part-time social worker and mother of two sons. • Jefferson Thomas graduated from Central in 1960, following a year in which Little Rock's public high schools were ordered closed by the legislature to prevent desegregation. Today, he is an accountant with the U.S. Department of Defense and lives in Anaheim, Calif. • Dr. Terrence Roberts Following the historic year at Central, his family moved to Los Angeles where he completed high school. He earned a doctorate degree and teaches at the University of California at Los Angeles and Antioc College. He also is a clinical psychologist. • Carlotta Walls Lanier One of only three of the nine who eventually graduated from Central, she and Jefferson Thomas returned for their senior year in 1959. She graduated from Michigan State University and presently lives in Englewood, Colorado, where she is in real estate. • Minnijean Brown Trickey was expelled from Central High in February, 1958, after several incidents, including her dumping a bowl of chili on one of her antagonists in the school cafeteria. She moved with her husband to Canada during the Vietnam War of the 1960s and today is a writer and social worker in Ontario. • Gloria Ray Karlmark graduated from Illinois Technical College and received a post-graduate degree in Stockholm, Sweden. She was a prolific computer science writer and at one time successfully published magazines in 39 countries. Now retired, she divides her time between homes in Amsterdam, The Netherlands, and Stockholm. • Thelma Mothershed-Wair graduated from college, then made a career of teaching. She lives in Belleville, Illinois, where she is a volunteer in a program for abused women. • Melba Pattillo Beals is an author and former journalist for People magazine and NBC and lives in San Francisco.

Bibliography • http://library.thinkquest.org/J0112391/little_rock_nine.htm • http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Rock_Nine • http://encyclopediaofarkansas.net/encyclopedia/entry-detail.aspx?entryID=723 • http://www.centralhigh57.org/The_Little_Rock_Nine.html • http://littlerock.about.com/cs/centralhigh/a/Integration.htm

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Kirk to Give Talk on Little Rock Nine at Eisenhower Presidential Library

• June 12, 2023
• Angelita Faller
• Featured Homepage News Research
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Dr. John Kirk, George W. Donaghey Distinguished Professor of History at UA Little Rock, will give a virtual presentation on the Little Rock Nine at the Dwight D. Eisenhower President Library, Museum, and Boyhood Home on Tuesday, June 13.

In his talk, “ Difficult Decisions: The Little Rock 9 ,” Kirk will discuss the nine teenagers who were the central figures in the 1957 school desegregation crisis at Little Rock’s Central High School.

In September 1957,  Gov. Orval Faubus ordered the Arkansas National Guard to surround Central High School to prevent the nine students from entering. President Eisenhower later ordered the 101st Airborne Division to Little Rock to make sure that the students could attend school.

The Little Rock Nine collectively faced a number of difficult decisions. In the first instance, they decided to attend an historically white school and break down the barriers of segregation. After desegregation, they decided to stay at Central High despite experiencing extreme provocation and intimidation from white students.

It was the Little Rock Nine’s determination to stay the course that forced the hands of the federal courts and President Eisenhower to take action in response.

Kirk is an expert on the civil rights movement and has published 10 books. His works include Beyond Little Rock: The Origins and Legacies of the Central High Crisis and The Civil Rights Movement: A Documentary Reader.

The 2023 program series is made possible courtesy of the Eisenhower Foundation with generous support from the Jeffcoat Memorial Foundation.

Kirk’s talk will begin at 7 p.m. June 13. The event will be shown in the inner courtyard of the Eisenhower Presidential Library in Abilene, Kansas, and virtually via YouTube .

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William J. Clinton

Remarks on presenting congressional gold medals to the little rock nine.

The President. Thank you very much. Thank you, Mr. Speaker, Senator Daschle, Leader Gephardt, Senator Hutchison, Senator Lincoln, Members of Congress, Secretary Riley, and members of the Cabinet and administration; a special word of thanks to Congressman Thompson and to my good friend Senator Bumpers.

The great privilege of speaking last is that you get the last word. [ Laughter ] The great burden is that everything that needs to be said has been said. [ Laughter ]

I would like to begin by introducing some people who have not yet been introduced but whose presence here is altogether fitting. The story of the Little Rock Nine, in the end, is the story of the triumph of the rule of law and the American Constitution which was given expression not only by a decision of the United States Supreme Court but by a decision of a President determined to enforce the rule of law.

A couple of hours ago I had the great honor of signing legislation naming the Old Executive Office Building the Dwight D. Eisenhower Executive Office Building. President Eisenhower's son, daughter-in-law, and granddaughter are here, and I would like to ask General John Eisenhower, Joanne, and Susan to stand and be recognized and thank them for their presence here. [ Applause ]

I want to thank all the previous speakers for their very moving words. This is a special day for me, a happy day and a sad day, an emotional day. I thank all of you for what you said about Daisy Bates who, in my years of service in Arkansas, became a good friend to Hillary and to me. I was privileged to go to the Civil Rights Museum in Memphis, which is built around the Lorraine Motel, when we dedicated the exhibit on Central High School, with the statue of Governor Faubus on one side and Daisy on the other. [ Laughter ] And even though by then she had to get around in a wheelchair, she got a big laugh out of that. [ Laughter ] And what a wonderful laugh she had.

So I ask you all to remember her today, her smiling self, for that gave a lot of confidence to those whom we honor. Secretary Slater is representing the administration at her funeral today, and I thank him for that, because he would dearly love to be here with his friends.

I think it was Senator Hutchison who first mentioned that we are celebrating the 10th anniversary of the Berlin Wall's fall today, and it is fitting that we, on this same day, recognize what these people did to make the walls of bigotry and prejudice fall in America. For when they marched up the steps to school, a simple act, they became foot soldiers for freedom, carrying America to higher ground.

You know, when Little Rock happened, I was 11 years old, living 50 miles away. Like every schoolchild in Arkansas, except those in Charleston—all six of them—[ laughter ]—I was—how I miss you. I miss doing this. [ Laughter ] When Little Rock happened, all the kids in Arkansas, white and black, we all went to segregated schools, with very few exceptions. And these people, they just burst in on our lives. And I feel like I've been walking along with them for 42 years now, because they forced everybody to think, you know? Before then, oh, why, you know, I was 11 years old, and my grandparents believed in school integration, and they taught me about that, and I though it was a great thing.

But the truth is nobody really thought about it very much because segregation was a way of life, and most people just got up and went through their lives, and nobody questioned it. Nobody challenged it. It was just the way things were. It was unfortunate, but that's the way things were.

And all of a sudden, they showed up, and it wasn't the way things were anymore. And then everyone had to decide, everyone, everyone in everybody's little life. You had to decide: Where do you stand on this; what do you believe; how are we going to live? So these people, when they were young, they changed the way we were.

I would like to say to all of you that they paid a price for doing that. And they look real fine sitting up here today, and they have this vast array of family and supporters here, and they have lived good lives and accomplished remarkable things. But we're giving them this medal because they paid the price.

Daisy said what they endured was a volcano of hatred. And like Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego, they walked out without being burned. But they have their scars. They taught us that you can turn your cheek from violence without averting your eyes to injustice, and they taught us that they could pay their price and go on.

On this journey that started 42 years ago, I could never have known that life would bring us in contact. But 12 years ago, on the 30th anniversary of the Central High incident, I invited them all to come to the Governor's Mansion, and I showed them around in the rooms where Governor Faubus plotted all the stratagems to keep them out of school. [ Laughter ] They got a kick out of that, and so did I. Ten years later, as President, I had the profound honor of going to Central High School to hold the doors open for them as they walked in, without incident. And it was great.

That school now has a very diverse student body, and a faculty, one of the best records of academic excellence in our home State. It had then an African-American student body president, which it frequently does, and in all the years I was Governor, it was the only high school in my State and one of the few in the country where you could still study Greek.

Now, we open the doors of this house. And I want to say a special word of thanks to the Speaker and the other congressional leaders for allowing us to make this presentation—let's not forget, this is the Congressional Gold Medal— which the President always participates in, but usually we do it in their House, now on Pennsylvania Avenue. But because of our relationship, the Speaker and the other leaders have agreed for us to come here. And I thank them for that, for personal reasons, for our friends.

Today we celebrate the faiths of our Founders, the faith of parents in their children, the faith of children in their future. We celebrate it because we can, and we can because these nine people helped us to keep it alive and to redeem it. And now, as others have said, it is for us to take that faith into a new millennium, once again to redeem the promise of our country by giving all of our children a worldclass education and all of our people a chance to be part of our prosperity and by giving all of our increasingly diverse citizens a chance to be a part of one America.

So in addition to giving them a medal, we ought to make that commitment, for like all people, we—and I certainly include myself in this—we all find it easy to condemn yesterday's wrongdoing. But these people stood up as children to condemn today's. And so let us learn from them and honor their example.

The Speaker joined me in Chicago the other day, in the common cause of giving economic opportunity to those who haven't had it in this most remarkable of economic recoveries. Many of you have committed yourselves to opening the doors of quality education to all of our children.

But the most important thing we have to do is to truly build one America in the 21st century. I want to read you something that Melba Pattillo Beals put in her book. "If my Central High experience taught me one lesson," she wrote, "it is that we are not separate. The effort to separate ourselves, whether by race, creed, color, religion, or status, is as costly to the separator as to those who would be separated. The task that remains is to see ourselves reflected in every other human being and to respect and honor our differences."

A couple of months ago in this very room— or a couple of weeks ago, actually—Hillary hosted one of our Nation's top scientists and one of the founders of the Internet. And they discussed the remarkable convergence of the explosion in computer advances with the unlocking of the mysteries of the human gene and the gene structure, the so-called genome.

And the scientist said that if you put all the people together, and you had a genetic map of every individual on Earth, you would find that we are 99.9 percent the same genetically. Then, even more surprising perhaps, the scientist said, if you took a representative group of people of different races—if you took 100 African-Americans and 100 Chinese-Americans and 100 Hispanic-Americans and 100 Irish-Americans—and you put them in these little groups, you would find that the genetic differences within each group, from individual to individual, are greater than the genetic differences of one group to another. Now, Melba knew that before the scientists found it out. [ Laughter ]

I say that to make this point: Every one of us, in some way or another, almost every day, is guilty in some way, large or small, of forgetting that we are 99.9 percent the same. Every person, every family, every group, every nation is guilty from time to time of trying to give meaning to life by denigrating someone else who is different in some way. Honest and real differences can only be explored, confronted, and worked through, and diversity can only be celebrated when we recognize that the most important fact of life is our common humanity. They all knew that in some instinctive way.

The truth is almost all children know that. They have to be taught differently. Because so many were taught differently, it fell to these nine Americans when they were young, as children, to become our teachers. And because they taught us well, we are a better country. And we honor them today, but let us not forget to heed their lessons.

The Book of Job says, "My foot has held fast. I have not turned aside. And when tried, I shall come forth as gold." For holding fast to their steps, for not turning aside, we now ask these nine humble children, grown into strong adults, to come forth for their gold.

Major, please read the resolution.

[ At this point, Maj. William Mullen III, USMC, Marine Corps Aide to the President, read the citations, and the President presented the medals. ]

The President. Now we have a special treat to cap off this event. But before I introduce the final presenter, I want to say again how much I appreciate the very large delegation from Congress from both parties who are here and particularly the fact that every Representative from our home State is here, Representative Hutchinson, Representative Dickey, Representative Berry, and Congressman Vic Snyder, the Congressman from Central High School. Thank you all for being here.

And I want to thank the really large number of people from our home State, from Arkansas, who are here, many who live in Washington, many who have come up here from Arkansas to be here, and thank all of you for coming.

And now I would like to ask Reverend Wintley Phipps to come forward to sing us on our way, a great gift to America. And thank you for sharing your time and your gift with us. God bless you, sir.

NOTE: The President spoke at 3:55 p.m. in the East Room at the White House. In his remarks, he referred to gospel singer Rev. Wintley Phipps; the late Daisy Bates, civil rights activist; Vinton G. Cerf, senior vice president of Internet architecture and technology, MCI WorldCom; and Eric Lander, director, Whitehead Institute/MIT Center for Genome Research. The Congressional Gold Medals were presented to Ernest Green, Elizabeth Eckford, Jefferson Thomas, Dr. Terrence Roberts, Carlotta Walls Lanier, Minnijean Brown Trickey, Gloria Ray Karlmark, Thelma Mothershed-Wair, and Melba Pattillo Beals, collectively known as the Little Rock Nine.

William J. Clinton, Remarks on Presenting Congressional Gold Medals to the Little Rock Nine Online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, The American Presidency Project https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/228780

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Date/Time Date(s) - 02/12/2018 7:00 pm Add event to your calendar

Dr. Carlos Richard will give a powerful presentation on the legacy of the Little Rock Nine incident of the Civil Rights Era.

_____________________________________________________________

Dr. Richard has an extensive career in public sector work, serving twenty-two years with the State of Oregon in the Department of Human Services in holistic family services, management, diversity practitioner, and union president. He also served three years as a Program Manager with Multnomah County in Community Corrections. Dr. Richard was honored to serve as the Chair and Commissioner of the Oregon State Commission on Black Affairs for four years and has an extensive background in diversity, cultural competency, leadership, and received training as an Intercultural Development Inventory Administrator (IDI).

Dr. Richard had the privilege of serving as Co-Chair of the 2010-2011 State of Oregon Diversity Conference representing thirteen state agencies, and has been a featured speaker at MLK, Jr. and Black History Month events around the State of Oregon and various cities in the country. Dr. Richard currently serves as Director of the Successful Families 2020 Initiative with the United Way of the Columbia-Willamette and Adjunct Professor of Leadership, Diversity, and Human Spirituality with Warner Pacific College. Dr. Richard is also a published author of the book entitled, “Intimate Partner Violence in the Black Church, Bridging the Gap Between Awareness and Policy Development”.

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Custom Fireplace Contractors & Installers in Elektrostal'

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• Elektrostal', Moscow Oblast, Russia

Professional Category (1)

• Accessory Dwelling Units (ADU)

Featured Reviews for Custom Fireplace Contractors & Installers in Elektrostal'

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• Electric Fireplace Repair

What should you know about buying a fireplace in Elektrostal'?

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For the first time Rosatom Fuel Division supplied fresh nuclear fuel to the world’s only floating nuclear cogeneration plant in the Arctic

The fuel was supplied to the northernmost town of Russia along the Northern Sea Route.

The first in the history of the power plant refueling, that is, the replacement of spent nuclear fuel with fresh one, is planned to begin before 2024. The manufacturer of nuclear fuel for all Russian nuclear icebreakers, as well as the Akademik Lomonosov FNPP, is Machinery Manufacturing Plant, Joint-Stock Company (MSZ JSC), a company of Rosatom Fuel Company TVEL that is based in Elektrostal, Moscow Region.

The FNPP includes two KLT-40S reactors of the icebreaking type. Unlike convenient ground-based large reactors (that require partial replacement of fuel rods once every 12-18 months), in the case of these reactors, the refueling takes place once every few years and includes unloading of the entire reactor core and loading of fresh fuel into the reactor.

The cores of KLT-40 reactors of the Akademik Lomonosov floating power unit have a number of advantages compared to the reference ones: a cassette core was used for the first time in the history of the unit, which made it possible to increase the fuel energy resource to 3-3.5 years between refuelings, and also reduce the fuel component of the electricity cost by one and a half times. The FNPP operating experience formed the basis for the designs of reactors for nuclear icebreakers of the newest series 22220. Three such icebreakers have been launched by now.

For the first time the power units of the Akademik Lomonosov floating nuclear power plant were connected to the grid in December 2019, and put into commercial operation in May 2020. The supply of nuclear fuel from Elektrostal to Pevek and its loading into the second reactor is planned for 2024. The total power of the Akademik Lomonosov FNPP, supplied to the coastal grid of Pevek without thermal energy consumption on shore, is about 76 MW, being about 44 MW in the maximum thermal power supply mode. The FNPP generated 194 million kWh according to the results of 2023. The population of Pevek is just a little more than 4 thousand, while the FNPP has a potential for supplying electricity to a city with a population of up to 100 thousand people. After the FNPP commissioning two goals were achieved. These include first of all the replacement of the retiring capacities of the Bilibino NPP, which has been operating since 1974, as well as the Chaunskaya TPP, which has already been operating for more than 70 years. Secondly, energy is supplied to the main mining companies in western Chukotka in the Chaun-Bilibino energy hub a large ore and metal cluster, including gold mining companies and projects related to the development of the Baimsk ore zone. In September 2023, a 110 kilovolt power transmission line with a length of 490 kilometers was put into operation, connecting the towns of Pevek and Bilibino. The line increased the reliability of energy supply from the FNPP to both Bilibino consumers and mining companies, the largest of which is the Baimsky GOK. The comprehensive development of the Russian Arctic is a national strategic priority. To increase the NSR traffic is of paramount importance for accomplishment of the tasks set in the field of cargo shipping. This logistics corridor is being developed due regular freight voyages, construction of new nuclear-powered icebreakers and modernization of the relevant infrastructure. Rosatom companies are actively involved in this work. Rosatom Fuel Company TVEL (Rosatom Fuel Division) includes companies fabricating nuclear fuel, converting and enriching uranium, manufacturing gas centrifuges, conducting researches and producing designs. As the only nuclear fuel supplier to Russian NPPs, TVEL supplies fuel for a total of 75 power reactors in 15 countries, for research reactors in nine countries, as well as for propulsion reactors of the Russian nuclear fleet. Every sixth power reactor in the world runs on TVEL fuel. Rosatom Fuel Division is the world’s largest producer of enriched uranium and the leader on the global stable isotope market. The Fuel Division is actively developing new businesses in chemistry, metallurgy, energy storage technologies, 3D printing, digital products, and decommissioning of nuclear facilities. TVEL also includes Rosatom integrators for additive technologies and electricity storage systems. Rosenergoatom, Joint-Stock Company is part of Rosatom Electric Power Division and one of the largest companies in the industry acting as an operator of nuclear power plants. It includes, as its branches, 11 operating NPPs, including the FNPP, the Scientific and Technical Center for Emergency Operations at NPPs, Design and Engineering as well as Technological companies. In total, 37 power units with a total installed capacity of over 29.5 GW are in operation at 11 nuclear power plants in Russia. Machinery Manufacturing Plant, Joint-Stock Company (MSZ JSC, Elektrostal) is one of the world’s largest manufacturers of fuel for nuclear power plants. The company produces fuel assemblies for VVER-440, VVER-1000, RBMK-1000, BN-600,800, VK-50, EGP-6; powders and fuel pellets intended for supply to foreign customers. It also produces nuclear fuel for research reactors. The plant belongs to the TVEL Fuel Company of Rosatom.

Rosatom obtained a license for the first land-based SMR in Russia

On April 21, Rosenergoatom obtained a license issued by Rostekhnadzor to construct the Yakutsk land-based SMR in the Ust-Yansky District of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia).

ROSATOM and FEDC agree to cooperate in the construction of Russia's first onshore SNPP

ROSATOM and FEDC have signed a cooperation agreement to build Russia's first onshore SNPP in Yakutia.

Rosatom develops nuclear fuel for modernized floating power units

Rosatom has completed the development of nuclear fuel for the RITM-200S small modular reactor designed for the upgraded floating power units.