case study of standard of living

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Home > Books > Improving Quality of Life - Exploring Standard of Living, Wellbeing, and Community Development

Standard of Living, Well-Being and Community Development: The Case of Botswana

Submitted: 07 October 2020 Reviewed: 12 April 2021 Published: 11 May 2021

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.97680

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There is considerable evidence in literature that suggests that the concept of standard of living has tended to be predicated on the notion of income alone. However, exploring this concept further, evidence suggests that the notion of standard of living goes beyond simply looking at income to include Gross Domestic Product (GDP), life expectancy, and economic opportunities available to individuals. This suggests that in a given country, when the above-mentioned ‘components’ are accessible to individuals, the expectation is that these will translate into realization of meaningful standards of living and wellbeing. This chapter seeks to explore how standard of living and well-being in Botswana have metamorphosed over time, from the pre-colonial period, through the early years of independence and the time of the discovery of diamonds, up to the present. Additionally, the article examines how community development initiatives across the country, have impacted standard of living and wellbeing of the population. The chapter concludes by suggesting strategies the government of Botswana could adopt in efforts to strengthen community development, with a view, ultimately, to further improve standard of living and wellbeing of the country’s population.

standard of living
community development
social protection

Author Information

Rodreck mupedziswa *.

Department of Social Work, University of Botswana, Gaborone, Botswana

Tumani Malinga

Poloko nuggert ntshwarang.

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

1. Introduction

There are many ways in which the standard of living and wellbeing of a population can be measured in a particular country. In the context of most states shelved under the category of developing countries, Botswana included, the level of community development activities is considered key in measuring the standard of living and wellbeing of the people. Incontrovertibly, there is an obvious link between standard of living and wellbeing. Let us commence by briefly unpacking the meanings of the concepts of wellbeing and standard of living, before we explore the link with community development.

Many authors confess that the concept of wellbeing is difficult to define, comprehend and measure [ 1 , 2 ]. This concept can however, be understood in varied ways [ 3 ]. According to Axford [ 4 ] the notion of wellbeing revolves around issues of needs, rights, poverty, quality of life, and social exclusion. Stratham and Chase [ 5 ] add that this notion can be comprehended in two broad ways: first, through objective indicators such as household income, health status and educational resources, and secondly, through subjective indicators which include perceptions of one’s quality of life, life satisfaction and happiness.

While the notion of wellbeing has traditionally tended to focus on the individual, some commentators take a broader perspective of this concept (wellbeing) and emphasize community rather than individual circumstances. Marshall et al. [ 6 ] observed that, “…wellbeing is a state of being where all members of a community have economic security; are respected, valued, and have personal worth; feel connected to those around them; are able to access necessary resources; and are able to participate in the decision-making process affecting them” (p. 1). Hence, viewed this way, wellbeing, as a concept, is envisioned to encompass economic, physical, social, emotional, environmental, spiritual and political factors. Deneulin and McGregor [ 7 ] corroborates this contention by the standpoint that wellbeing should be conceptualized and measured on the basis of psychological, political and social perspective within a specified socio-cultural context. The structural systems, especially the socio-economic and political spheres are important in assessing and defining wellbeing because there are varying levels of power embedded within them which is likely to empower or disempower people, and consequently exposing them to better or poor wellbeing respectively. In today’s world, attainment of meaningful wellbeing is considered a goal that is immensely valued, especially in development circles. The essence of this concept is succinctly captured in Goal 3 of the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), which contends thus: ‘Ensure healthy lives and promote wellbeing of all ages.’

The term standard of living (SL), on the other hand, basically refers to the amount and quality of material goods and services available to a given population [ 8 ]. Standard of living, as a concept, is apparently narrowly focused on the value of goods and services produced and consumed. Measurement of standard of living, therefore includes basic material factors such as income, gross domestic product (GDP), life expectancy, and economic opportunity [ 9 ]. The World Bank [ 10 ], put it more succinctly when it noted that standard of living is essentially measured by the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita. Each individual in any given society has a right to an adequate standard of living. This is a fundamental human right as stipulated in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights crafted by the United Nations in 1948. Basing on the above observations, it can be surmised that attaining a certain standard of living, therefore, does impact an individual’s wellbeing [ 11 ]. Thus the terms standard of living and wellbeing enjoy a symbiotic relationship. The current paper considers issues around standard of living, well-being and community development, with particular focus on Botswana’s experience.

The Community development and wellbeing cannot be disassociated because they tend to coalesce [ 12 ]. Community development is critical because in most instances it uses participatory methods that help people to have a sense of improved wellbeing. Participatory methods are important in the achievement of wellbeing because they empower people. The use of participatory methods makes people to have a sense of ownership of the end results; local needs are accurately identified and met. Participatory methods also enhance team work and provide space to challenge certain ideas that do not benefit the community [ 13 ].

2. Wellbeing: concepts and theory

Sen’s capabilities framework, as well as human needs, and adaptation theories have been used in efforts to understand the concept of wellbeing. Sen’s capabilities approach in particular emphasizes individual’s capability and functioning to achieve a state of wellbeing [ 14 ], while the theory of human needs considers needs as universal and important for health and people’s autonomy [ 15 ], Adaptation theory, on the other hand, shows that diverse components of wellbeing are dynamic and that people’s adaptation to similar situations differs [ 16 ] hence similar factors cannot be used to define wellbeing.

Fisher [ 17 ] criticized current theories of wellbeing for their failure to capture the psychological status, hence making them irrelevant for social or public policy. Most literature points to two dominant ideologies, namely: (one) objective and (two) subjective conceptual frameworks to wellbeing. An objective perspective of wellbeing is consistent with Sen’s capability model as it tends to focus on a variety of components or factors that have an impact on the quality of life such as physical health, emotional expressions, and one’s ability to use educational achievement to attain life goals as well as dignified life that gives one the right to autonomy and participation in societal platforms that are meaningful to the individual. According to Kuklys and Robeyns [ 14 ], the capability model describes wellbeing as a personal achievement that is determined by a person’s life choices and access to basic needs or rights. Sen’s capability model has, however, been criticized for being narrowly constructed, with limited consideration of the contribution of structural systems on people’s functioning or capabilities.

The subjective approach, on the other hand, tends to limit the conception of wellbeing to a few items that influence the quality of life such as income and employment status. According to Gasper [ 18 ], subjective wellbeing encompasses “feelings and/or judgements of the person whose wellbeing is estimated” (pp. 14). Western and Tomaszewski [ 19 ] argue that the definition of wellbeing should be inclusive of the socio-economic, political and environmental factors as they determine life satisfaction in one way or the other. The two authors further argue that measuring wellbeing from an objective perspective is not always fair because it often overlooks other important factors that interplays such as class, age and gender. In addition, wellbeing can be measured using social indicators, a framework which theorizes and measures wellbeing using social factors such as summative status of education, security, income and socio-political status. Theories of human need [ 15 ] consider wellbeing as the fulfillment of basic needs, health included. Gasper [ 18 ] argues that defining wellbeing from a need basis is normative and similar to the objective approach as emphasis is on external assessment and approval of subjective factors of a people’s lives such as mobility and morbidity.

In the paper, the authors adopt Sen’s theoretical (capabilities) approach to understanding wellbeing and standard of living as the paper focusses essentially on the government of Botswana’s efforts to improve the quality of life of the people through various platforms of community development.

3. Botswana – socioeconomic and political profile

Before considering the nature of standard of living and wellbeing with particular focus on Botswana over the years, it is perhaps pertinent to commence by providing a brief account of the historical evolution of Botswana, with particular focus on the country’s socio-political and economic factors. Botswana is a landlocked country situated in the southern part of Africa, covering 581,730 km 2 (see [ 20 ]). It is bordered by Zambia in the north, Zimbabwe in the northeast, Namibia to the northwest, and South Africa to the southeast. Botswana, which is a member of the 16 state economic block – the Southern African Development Community (SADC) - started off as a British Protectorate, before eventually gaining independence.

During the period 1895 to 1965 Botswana was administered by the British High Commission in Cape Town and Mafeking, South Africa. The country then attained Independence from Britain in 1966. As at 2014, the country’s population was estimated at 2,024,904, having risen exponentially from 550,000 in 1966 [ 21 ]. The majority of the population is concentrated in the southeastern and eastern regions of the country given that much of the western part of the country is a desert [ 21 ]. At independence (in 1966) Botswana was considered one of the poorest countries in the world, but as will be seen later, the situation changed dramatically over time. Let us commence by looking at standard of living prior to the arrival of the colonial power, Britain.

4. Socioeconomic status in pre-colonial period

During the pre-colonial period, Tswana societies were self-sufficient as the people relied on subsistence farming [ 22 ]. Parsons [ 23 ] observed that during the precolonial era, the economy of Tswana societies was based on cattle rearing and food crop production, supplemented by hunting (and gathering). Strong traditional structures existed and these were based on the notion of the extended family network and the community which both played a pivotal role in addressing individual and family needs [ 24 ]. Community obligation was the backbone of the social and economic fabric of the people, and this helped meet their needs. As indicated by Schapera [ 25 ], members of Tswana societies during that period were socialized within the norm of collective participation in family and communal activities. The family and the community ensured that every person received essential services such as food and shelter [ 25 ]. The community was compelled to care for the needy out of moral obligation. All these endeavors, predicated on the notion of botho (Ubuntu), ensured that the community’s standard of living was maintained at a reasonable level, with communal support helping to improve their wellbeing.

During the pre-colonial period, the institutionalized traditional frameworks and systems in place helped communities contain hunger and poverty. For example, there was the mafisa system whereby those with cattle would lend a number of beasts to the poor (without asking for payment in return), to allow them to use as draught power and to benefit from milk; the majako initiative whereby the poor would provide their labor to the rich during the plowing season in return for part of the harvest; go tshwara teu or bodisa, a system which allowed the rich to provide an opportunity to poor people to serve as cattle herders, and receiving as payment, a cow each year as a way of breaking the poverty cycle [ 26 , 27 , 28 ]. Furthermore, traditional ceremonies such as “ motshelo ” or “ molaletsa ” assisted the homeless to construct houses with assistance from the community [ 25 ]. Moreover, traditional leaders (diKgosi) collected levies from the community which would later be distributed during periods of drought and economic strife, to benefit the poor.

These traditional frameworks and systems benefited those who did not have such resources as land and cattle, as well as those living in poverty, hence the gesture helped improve their standard of living. The community in some instances, also relied to some extent, on the positive socio-cultural practice of volunteerism that enhanced solidarity and social protection [ 27 , 29 ].

5. Socioeconomic environment during colonial era

As noted earlier, in 1885, the British government colonized Botswana (naming it Bechuanaland Protectorate) and adopted indirect rule as its governance policy. The arrangement, as noted, involved the British controlling the country through Bogosi ( chieftainship ) [ 30 ]. During that time, the extended family network and the community ensured they continued to appreciate their obligation to care for their own. With time, the colonial government introduced taxes, which policy then radically transformed the traditional frameworks, which all along had relied on subsistence farming. The tax obligation meant a considerable segment of the population was obliged to go and work in the mines in South Africa [ 31 , 32 ]. This therefore, unsettled family welfare arrangements as able-bodied young men in particular, were forced by circumstances to relocate to South Africa in search of work [ 23 ]. As young men became economically independent, the dependence on the extended family became considerably reduced [ 25 ]. Agricultural activities that families had depended on were negatively affected as too were the institutionalized traditional frameworks and systems. Nthomang, Malinga-Musamba and Kubanga [ 24 ], have argued, “Thus, the erosion of the traditional welfare structures left many households vulnerable to poverty, hunger and in need of basic food, education, health, and housing services which the extended family used to provide but was now unable to” (pg. 58). The same sentiments were echoed by Parsons [ 23 ] who lamented that: “…by 1939, a Botswana child could look forward to a malnourished and uneducated childhood; grow up to spend his/her adult energies as a hired labourer for low wages; and at old age become impoverished and a burden on his/her children.”

The above observation has succinctly captured the reality that obtained in many Tswana societies during the colonial period. Many families during that period, struggled to sustain themselves and fell into poverty which development had negative effects on standard of living and wellbeing. Due to the socio-economic shocks that obtained in the country at the time, the social welfare approaches in place then failed to cushion communities from poverty and vulnerability. This disturbance of the economic structure of the Tswana traditional societies therefore, called for external intervention [ 24 ].

During the 1950s and 1960s, the colonial government introduced social policies meant to somewhat cushion the locals; and these initiatives included the Bechuanaland Soldiers Benefit Fund, introduced to help the loss of livelihood and impoverishment suffered by soldiers returning from world war; and the Grant-in-Aid meant to help the country meet its recurrent and related expenditure [ 33 , 34 ]. In addition, the Protectorate Five Year Development Plan which was launched during that period, provided a blueprint on socio-economic development in the emergent state of Botswana. This period marked the beginning of formal social welfare provision which is in place in Botswana today [ 24 ]. Furthermore, formal institutions for the provision of health services, education and social welfare services to address vulnerability to poverty and destitution, were also introduced. However, poverty remained an issue of some concern during this period.

Wass [ 35 ] explained that the main reason for the widespread poverty at the time was that there was lack of commitment on the part of the colonial administrators to develop the country in any meaningful way. In fact, British rule was apparently characterized by neglect, with only rudimentary health and education services in existence. Osei-Hwedie [ 36 ]: 80 corroborated this observation, and further explained that the services provided during this era did not develop into a coherent system of social protection across the country. Apparently the services were only rudimentary and most remarkably, were communally oriented and, as mentioned earlier, administered essentially by Dikgosi (i.e traditional chiefs).

Wass [ 35 ], further explained that while, during those early years, the country depended mostly on agriculture, however, over time the importance of agriculture began to decrease due to such factors as perennial drought, aridness of the land coupled with poor rainfall patterns. It is little wonder therefore, that during those days, the country served as a reservoir of cheap labour [ 37 ], with many young people opting to try their luck in the mines and plantations in neighboring South Africa. The country found itself in an untenable situation whereby many in the population, depended essentially on remittances from migrant labour. Obviously dependence on remittances does not always augur well for meaningful standard of living and wellbeing.

6. Socioeconomic environment in post-colonial era

As previously noted, at Independence in 1966, Botswana was one of the poorest countries in Africa, with a GDP per capita in the region of US$70 [ 38 , 39 , 40 ]. Economic opportunities were limited and the five-year drought period that hit the country severely impacted on subsistence agricultural production that many families had relied on. In an effort to move the country out of poverty, the new government had to make critical decisions regarding what social and economic policies to adopt in order to reduce extreme poverty at both national and household level. Chiepe [ 41 ] quotes the then President, Quett Masire as grappling with several questions: ‘Because Botswana is such a poor country, we can undertake only a few projects and the task of choosing is much harder. Do we provide more schools or more hospitals … Do we improve roads or water facilities. ’ Clearly, the government at the time had difficult decisions to make (regarding what to prioritize) particularly in the first couple of decades following Independence [ 42 ]. In many ways, the authorities were caught between a rock and a hard place. As such, during the Transitional Plan for Socio-Economic Development (1966–1969) [ 33 , 43 ], the government adopted a dual economic development strategy. This strategy allowed for investment in the productive sectors such as mining and agriculture [ 33 , 43 ].

Botswana’s fortunes turned around markedly in the 1970s following the discovery of large deposits of diamonds. This development led to the country, almost overnight, becoming one of the world’s development successes [ 44 ]. Diamond mining, and good governance together with a relatively small population, enabled Botswana to rise from poorest to upper middle income status. Incontrovertibly, prudent management of resources and political stability had combined to see the country realize and maintain a high economic growth rate. Mafela et al. [ 45 ] stated that the phenomenal economic growth trajectory which was achieved, paid off as it resulted in the country attaining upper middle income status in 1991. These authors added that today, Botswana is a shining example of democracy, with a stable government, peace and tranquility. They might as well have added, ‘with a stable economy’ which had facilitated realization of meaningful standard of living and wellbeing for the population.

Evidently, as a consequence of the discovery of diamonds, Botswana has, over the years, experienced stable economic growth, which has been supported by prudent policies [ 44 ]. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) rose from an estimated US $2.2 million at Independence to $2.6 million in 2007/08 and rocketed to US $18.34 Billion as at 2019 – a phenomenal jump indeed by any standard. Life expectancy too continued to improve through the years, moving from 46 years in 1965, through 55.5 years in 1971 to 65.3 years in 1991 and 68 years in 2011 [ 44 ]. Furthermore, the crude death rate per 1000 people fell from 13.7 in 1971, to 11.5 in 1991 and 6.25 in 2011. Even though the crude death rate rose to 12.4 in 2001 due to the impact of the HIV and AIDS pandemic, the government was quick to address this anomaly, inter alia , by introducing free antiretroviral therapy (when this became available), thereby considerably lowering the death rate once more.

Through the years, the country did experience serious challenges that threatened to reverse the improved standard of living and wellbeing. The country continued to struggle with such factors as drought and poverty, economic disparities, unemployment and HIV, and AIDS [ 30 , 46 ]. These challenges obviously impacted negatively on standard of living and wellbeing of the country’s population.

As the economy grew through reliance on wage employment and the cash based economy and formalized services guided by national state policies [ 47 ], traditional social structures became even more weakened and eroded mostly as a consequence of modernization and rural–urban migration [ 48 ]. These social changes affected family welfare practices such as volunteerism, communal spirit, and collective participation, which traditionally had enhanced solidarity and social protection [ 28 , 47 ]. Standard of living and individual wellbeing were therefore adversely affected. The government, however, continued to intensify and improve standard of living through innovative economic development strategies, which included the rolling out of fairly comprehensive social protection and welfare programmes. Provision of welfare programmes and a marked increase in provision of social services yielded positive results as shown by poverty reduction and increase in literacy rates, among other indicators [ 49 ]. Social and economic development in the country, lead to improved wellbeing and quality of life of the majority of people in the country.

7. Community development and citizen wellbeing

While the discovery of diamonds was a major game-changer as far as Botswana’s socioeconomic fortunes were concerned, it is common course that improved standards of living and wellbeing could not have been realized in the absence of meaningful community development. The Government appreciated that the wellbeing of the people could not be improved without community participation, hence in 1965, the authorities proceeded to establish a community development office [ 50 ] as a strategy to foster more sustained development of the country. The authorities indicated that community development would help build solidarity and agency by adhering to three practice principles namely, self-help, felt needs, and participation.

Thus the idea of introducing community development as a strategy for national socioeconomic advancement was a masterstroke given that almost all communities across the country believed in the main principles of communal or public participation and ownership of development. The government made the decision to create several community development positions to ensure that development would be balanced across the country. Consequently, as early as 1965, the country recruited and deployed community development workers across the country to facilitate all welfare activities [ 50 ]. The goal was that there would not be differing standards of living nationwide.

To a large extent, since Independence Botswana has performed extremely well in terms of improving both the standard of living and wellbeing of the people through community development approaches. However, implementation of this initiative has not been without hiccups; the strategy has always been accompanied by diverse and complex challenges that continue to threaten the wellbeing of the people. The early commentators on the history of socioeconomic development in Botswana such as Livingston [ 51 ] and Mitchison [ 52 ] highlighted that some people were unlikely to earn positive fruits out of the community development efforts being rolled out to improve the wellbeing and standard of living of the people. The reason for the failure realize benefits was that community development as a tool always tended to generate some social ills. For example, to improve the wellbeing of the people, community development efforts included the building of clinics, schools and also creation of white collar employment; but this led to diminished reliance on agricultural production. Whereas these developments met the main domains of education, health and material wellbeing that are used to measure standard of living [ 53 ], the initiatives also had negative outcomes in some instances, given that ordinary people’s way of life and even their eating habits had dramatically changed, creating new health challenges for the people in the process [ 51 ].

Other social ills that were noted to accompany community development, improved standard of living and wellbeing of the people included: disparities in rural and urban life, the tendency to put political interests ahead of the needs of the people, as well as poor implementation of policies and programmes meant to improve the wellbeing of the people [ 51 ]. The possibility that disparities in the wellbeing of the people would emerge in the country due to embracing of Western lifestyles introduced by foreigners, had been anticipated. And indeed this did come to pass. Mitchison [ 52 ] among others, highlighted the marked differences in lifestyle between people residing in urban (areas) and those based in rural contexts. Hesselberg and Wikan [ 54 ] too highlighted the widening gap in standard of living that had emerged between communities at the time, a pattern that apparently continues to exist even in present day Botswana.

To more clearly illustrate the rocky yet positive development pathways the country has trodden since Independence en-route to attaining upper middle income status, the next few paragraphs will now examine issues around how the standard of living and well-being of the population in Botswana have experienced drastic changes through the years, as well as the role played by community development in this regard.

8. Community development, standard of living and well-being in Botswana today

There is broad consensus that the government of Botswana has, over the years channeled a considerable amount of resources towards community development, thereby positively impacting the standard of living and wellbeing of the population [ 55 , 56 ]. The poverty headcount index, for example, declined from 59% in 1985/1986 to 30.2% in 2002/2003 [ 26 , 57 ] and then again to 23% in 2009/2010 [ 58 ]. Apparently, poverty in Botswana, as in many other developing countries, has mostly been measured using the poverty datum line (PDL), which is an estimate of the monthly cost of a basket of goods and services required to adequately meet the needs of a household. Currently, the country’s PDL is calculated at P878.87 ($97.65), and basing on this figure, nationally, a whopping 19.3% of the population lives below the PDL. While some of those living below the PDL have wages from employment, pensions, and remittances, those in extreme poverty are often unemployed or engage mostly in household and caregiving roles [ 59 ]. This group is the main target of the country’s social safety nets, otherwise called the social protection system. Let us consider the impact of the social protection initiative in some detail.

To ensure opportunities for healthy and sustainable livelihood, and improved standard of living and well-being, especially for those living below the PDL, the government of Botswana, as noted earlier, introduced a formal social protection system, which constitutes public measures to provide income security for individuals [ 27 , 47 ]. The social protection system is a public intervention mostly to support the poor and help households and communities to manage risk, and reduce poverty and vulnerability among the population [ 60 ]. Ntseane and Solo [ 28 ] concurred that, the government of Botswana, in an attempt to improve livelihoods and reduce poverty, introduced social safety nets for individuals, families and groups. The packages introduced included social allowance schemes (e.g. orphan care basket, school feeding programme, community home based care); social assistance schemes (e.g. destitute persons programme, needy students programme, labour based drought relief programme, ipelegeng ) and social insurance schemes (e.g. pension scheme, workman’s compensation) [ 27 ].

The various social protection schemes have played a major part in terms of preventing and protecting individuals against life cycle crises and helped many meet basic needs and enhance their welfare [ 27 , 28 ]. Over the years, the government of Botswana has invested a fair share of the national income towards social protection programmes, to shelter the said vulnerable and disadvantaged groups from poverty, even though spending has declined due to diverse challenges that the country has faced [ 61 ]. Well-managed mineral wealth and political stability have however made it possible for the government to promote these social protection measures to improve standard of living and wellbeing [ 42 , 62 ]. Even though the government has introduced social protection programmes to address the burden of poverty, apparently a considerable majority of the population continues to struggle in economic terms [ 42 , 57 , 63 ]. Even so, heavy social development investment by the government has paid tangible dividends in promoting social services, including literacy (education) and health.

Apparently literacy did not feature highly on the list of priorities in the precolonial and colonial eras; it was only 10 years after Independence that the government seriously took note of this need [ 64 ]. Ever since, education has been adjudged a critical developmental priority in Botswana. The government therefore has invested quite considerably in education through expanding infrastructure and services [ 65 ]. The heavy investment in education has been meant to ensure that all citizens have access to at least 10 years of basic education. The National Commission on Education of 1976, and the National Policy on Education of 1977 proposed changes in the education policy, to allow those who were illiterate to get back into the education system and access basic education [ 64 ]. According to The Revised National Policy on Education of 1994 Botswana’s priority is universal access to basic education (10 years in school) [ 66 ].

The increased education expenditure allowed free education in all public schools and reduced average distance to school). Furthermore, government efforts went into ensuring that vulnerable groups had access to education by introducing needy students assistance programme for children from poor families, as well as a school feeding programme [ 28 ]. Other than that, the government established a national literacy programme to improve literacy levels, as well as free distance learning programmes [ 28 ]. These improvements over the years have seen a rise in the adult literacy rate in Botswana, which as at 2014 was reported to stand at 85.9%, an increase from 68.58% in 1991 [ 40 , 67 ]. There is some consensus that those with higher education tend to have lower rates of poverty and a better standard of living. It would therefore not be far-fetched to assume that these efforts have had a positive impact where standard of living and wellbeing of the masses is concerned.

Health standards have been improving since Independence. However, it experienced a drawback when the country was hit by the HIV and AIDS pandemic in the 1990s, which caused a decline in economic growth as the government was forced to divert a considerable amount of resources to fighting HIV [ 46 ]. The government however, vigorously fought this scourge with all its might. HIV and AIDS awareness and education campaign measures were put in place and by 2002, free HIV Antiretroviral (ART) medication had been introduced to all HIV positive citizens. Currently, it is estimated that about 90% of those requiring ART do have access [ 68 , 69 ].

Even so, as can be imagined, these initiatives came at a cost in financial terms. The consequences of these challenges and the limitations of Botswana’s diamond-led development model became apparent: economic growth slowed down, while inequalities remained high and job creation became limited [ 10 ], threatening standard of living and wellbeing. Despite the challenges, the government has forged ahead with its commitment to ensuring better standard of living and wellbeing of its citizens. Evidently, the government’s commitment to the provision of social services to improve standard of living, remains unquestionable. This is confirmed by such indices as improved performance in universal access to health services, and also the fact that over 95% of the population live within 15 kilometers radius of a health facility [ 70 ].

Furthermore, apart from health, the government has also, over the years, invested heavily in such services as shelter [ 71 ], water and sanitation for the wellbeing of individuals [ 70 , 72 ]. Additionally, efforts at provision of social welfare services have continued. As indicated in the National Development Plan 11, ‘… existing social protection programmes were strengthened through enhancement of policies and strategies that aimed at cushioning the vulnerable and disadvantaged groups of the society, restoring their dignity, and improving their quality of life’ ([ 70 ]: 193). This clearly demonstrates that the government is seized with efforts to improve standard of living and wellbeing of the population.

9. Conclusion and way forward

The paper has demonstrated that in the context of Botswana, standard of living and well-being have varied by historical period, beginning from pre-colonial, through colonial, and post-colonial eras to the present. Also evident is the fact that community development has been a key tool for promoting social development, with a view to improving standard of living and wellbeing of the population. The variations in levels of social provision noted, have essentially been a function of the social and economic changes, and challenges that the country has experienced over the years, and which in some respects it continues to experience. However, despite the noted challenges, Botswana’s socioeconomic trajectory, including its social protection regime, remains quite robust and has, over the years, grown from strength to strength. Be that as it may, a number of shortfalls have been noted in regard to the social development efforts of the country, particularly if Sen’s capabilities framework is used to define standard of living and well-being.

Some commentators have expressed concern that the government’s approach to some community development initiatives has tended to be rather top-down, suggesting lack of participation of the masses in decision making. This of course does not augur well for successful community development. Ferguson-Brown [ 73 ], among others, argued that the top-down approach (to community development) which involves trying to change attitudes to suit national plans rather than identifying needs at community level may actually have alienated the people. Alienated people do not participate; they may become overly dependent on the government. The government does seem to admit that some of its strategies may have inadvertently created a dependency syndrome among the populace. The Ministry of Local Government, for instance, while addressing this theme, observed that emphasis on service delivery, rather than on strengthening community governance structures for economic empowerment, had led to unbridled dependency on government social support mechanisms [ 55 ].

The country’s social protection regime appears to be doing relatively well. According to the Regional Hunger and Vulnerability Programme (RHVP), Botswana boasts of one of the most comprehensive state-led social protection regimes in the southern African region. The same agency further noted that in Botswana, “Programming for poor, vulnerable and excluded groups is comprehensive by African standards….” ([ 62 ]: 1). The RSVP has gone so far as to claim that the social protection system in Botswana can serve as a ‘model for Africa’. Even so, concerns have been raised in respect of the social protection system, and these include the apparent tendency on the part of the relevant authorities to simply focus on ensuring that social protection services are made ‘available’ and ‘accessible’ to everyone who qualifies, without putting sufficient attention to whether indeed the services are actually ‘being utilized’ by all concerned. Apparently, this has essentially been a function of inadequate monitoring and evaluation measures in place [ 28 ]. Other areas of concern raised in regard to social protection initiatives in place include lack of clear mechanisms that are in place for effective redistribution of the national wealth. Such is bound to impact negatively on standards of living and wellbeing.

RHVP [ 62 ]: 3 has observed thus, “ While most Batswana have benefited from these achievements, the new wealth is very unevenly distributed and many individuals and groups are marginalized economically, socially and/or geographically ”. Other than that, there has been concern that the social protection schemes had tended to suffer from lack of coordination, poor implementation, ineffective utilization of resources and lack of accountability [ 28 ]. Concern has also been expressed to the effect that some of the schemes have promoted a dependency syndrome. Gadbolae [ 74 ], for instance, argued that one of the social protection schemes (Destitute Persons Programme) had ushered in a dependency syndrome. What was needed, he argued, are effective mechanisms to facilitate capacity building and empowerment with a view to facilitate self-reliance.

To its credit though, the government appears to be open to learn from experience, which in itself is a major plus. It (government) has continued to push ahead with its community development agenda, as well as expansion of its social protection regime meant to benefit mainly the needy. It is little wonder therefore that Statistics Botswana [ 75 ] reported a decline in the overall number of persons living below the poverty datum line from 499,467 in 2002/3 to 373, 388 in 2009/10. Though more recent figures were not immediately available, this positive trend appears to be continuing, suggesting the standard of living and wellbeing of the population (as defined by Sen,) continues on an upward trajectory, credit to the various community development initiatives currently in place across the country.

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Standard of Living Definition, How to Measure, Example

Investopedia / NoNo Flores

What Is Standard of Living?

Standard of living refers to the quantity and quality of material goods and services available to a given population.

Key Takeaways

Standard of living is the material well being of the average person in a given population.
It is typically measured using gross domestic product (GDP) per capita.
Standard of living and quality of life utilize some of the same data, but standard of living represents a more physical aspect of life while quality of life represents the more intangible aspects.
One alternative standard of living data set is the Human Development Index (HDI), which uses many factors from life expectancy and education, to gross national income (GNI), and homicide rates.

Understanding Standard of Living

Standard of living focuses on basic material factors such as income, gross domestic product (GDP) , life expectancy, and economic opportunity. It is closely related to quality of life , which can also explore factors such as economic and political stability, political and religious freedom, environmental quality, climate, and safety.

Standard of living is often used to compare geographic areas, such as the standard of living in the United States versus Canada, or the standard of living in St. Louis versus New York. Standard of living can also be used to compare distinct points in time.

For example, compared with a century ago, the standard of living in the United States has improved greatly. The same amount of work buys an increased quantity of goods, and items that were once luxuries, such as refrigerators and automobiles, are now widely available. Moreover, life expectancy has increased, and annual hours worked have decreased.

In a narrow sense, economists frequently measure standard of living using GDP. Per capita GDP provides a quick, rough estimate of the total amount of goods and services available per person. While numerous, more complex, and nuanced metrics of standard of living have been devised, many of them correlate highly with per capita GDP.

Standard of living is generally measured using per capita GDP.

Standards of living are usually higher in developed countries . In fact, basic measures of standard of living, such as per capita GDP, are often used to define the differences between more and less developed countries. Emerging market economies usually see rising standards of living over time as they grow and develop into modern, industrialized economies.

Standard of Living Example

One measure of standard of living is the United Nations' Human Development Index (HDI) , which scores 189 countries based on factors including life expectancy at birth, education, and income per capita . As of 2019, the countries with the five highest HDI scores are Norway (0.957), Ireland and Switzerland (0.955), Hong Kong and Iceland (0.949), and Germany (0.947).

Conversely, the countries with the five lowest 2019 HDI scores are Niger (0.394), Central African Republic (0.397), Chad (0.398), Burundi and South Sudan (0.433), and Mali (0.434). The United States came in at #17 while China was #85.

To exemplify the difference between the scores of 0.957 and 0.394, Norway has a life expectancy at birth of 82.4 years, 18.1 expected years of schooling per citizen, gross national income (GNI) per capita of $66,494 (purchasing power parity-adjusted currency units), and an internet usage rate of 96.5% of its population. Niger, meanwhile, has a life expectancy at birth of 62.4 years, 6.5 expected years of schooling, a GNI per capita of $1,201, and an internet usage rate of 5.3%.

The U.S. scored seventeenth on the list, with a combined score of 0.926, a life expectancy at birth of 78.9 years, 16.3 expected years of schooling, and GNI per capita of $63,826.

Standard of Living vs. Quality of Life

The terms standard of living and quality of life are often believed to mean the same. While they may overlap, there is a difference between the two.

Standard of living generally refers to wealth, comfort, material goods, and necessities of certain classes in certain areas—or, more objectively, measures of income and consumption.

Quality of life is more subjective and intangible. This happiness economic metric includes such things that impact human well-being. Items such as personal liberty or environmental quality are considered. Characteristics that make up a good quality of life for one person may not necessarily be the same for someone else.

United Nations Development Programme. ” Human Development Index (HDI) .”

Our World in Data. ” Working Hours .”

Economic History Association. ” A History of the Standard of Living in the United States .”

United Nations Development Programme. ” 2020 Human Development Report .”

United Nations Development Programme. " Norway ."

United Nations Development Programme. ” Niger .”

United Nations Development Programme. ” United States .”

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The Impact of Inflation on the Standard of Living: A Case Study of Navrongo in the Upper East Region of Ghana

The inflation rate of Ghana still remains high in absolute terms and by comparison with many other countries in the sub-region and the world in general. Inflation is simply the general increase in the level of prices of goods and services in an economy over a period of time. When the general price level grows; each unit of our currency buys less goods or services hence, the need for all to know the exact nature of the relationship that exists between inflation and living standards of people. This paper dealt with the effects of inflation on standard of living in terms of expenses on food and non-food items, income, savings, loan and recreation over the period (2010-2013). A sample of 100 heads of families was taken from Navrongo community in Ghana using stratified sampling. Structured questionnaire and interview schedule were used as tools for collecting data. The data was analysed using descriptive statistics and multiple regression model. From analysis of the data, inflation did highly affect the living standard of the people, compelling them to get loans and to do overtime work to meet their family expenditures. It was also revealed that the standard of living of the people worsen form year to year with 2013 been the lowest due to the high inflation.

Keywords: Inflation, Standard of living, Income, savings, Expenses, Navrongo, Ghana

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The Impact of Inflation on the Standard of Living: A Case Study of Navrongo in the Upper East Region of Ghana

2014, European Journal of Business and Management

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Purpose: Inflation is a concern in both developed and developing countries as it leads to a fall in profit margins and makes it difficult in drawing households’ budgets. The Medium Term Plan report (2008-2012) indicates that Mbita Division of Homa-Bay County has had the effects of inflation in recent times as many fish industries are closing down, an indicator of a fall in private domestic capital and also an increase in the unemployment rate. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of inflation on the household expenditures in Mbita Division, Kenya. Methodology: The study adopted exploratory and correlation research designs. Exploratory research design gave an insight into the households’ expenditure behavior while correlation research design facilitated the establishment of relationships among the research variables. A sample size of 374 heads of households was selected from a total of 13,789 households in the Division. The individual respondents were drawn by the us...

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Dit document bevat een samenvatting van de Koptische telwoorden: normaal, cursief, d.i., Epact, breukgetallen en de Feddan-oppervlakteeenheid. This document contains a summary of the Coptic numerals: normal, cursive i.e., Epact, fractions, and the Feddan area unit.

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Standard of Living

Where's the Best Standard of Living? It Depends Whom You Ask.

Erika Rasure is globally-recognized as a leading consumer economics subject matter expert, researcher, and educator. She is a financial therapist and transformational coach, with a special interest in helping women learn how to invest.

Definition of the Standard of Living

How the standard of living is measured, flaws in gdp per capita as measure of standard of living.

Factors That Determine a Nation's Standard of Living

Other Ways to Measure Quality of Life

Countries with the highest standard of living, frequently asked questions (faqs), what countries have a high standard of living, what are some of the effects of a low standard of living, has the u.s. standard of living improved.

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The standard of living is a measure of the material aspects of a national or regional economy. It counts the amount of goods and services that are produced and available for purchase by a person, family, group, or nation.

The standard of living is different from other measures of quality of life . These often include non-material characteristics, such as relationships, freedom, and satisfaction. Indices that attempt to measure quality of life also include the material standard of living measurement. Standard of living is narrowly focused on the value of goods and services produced and consumed.

Key Takeaways

Standard of living is the amount of goods and services available to purchase in a country.
Real GDP per capita and Gross National Income per capita are the two most common ways to measure the standard of living.
GDP measures all transactions within a country's boundary, while GNI includes those who live abroad.
Standard of living only measures the wealth of material things its citizens have, but not quality of life.
These measurements do not account for aspects such as environmental costs, non-economic contributing tasks, or income inequality.

The generally accepted measure of the standard of living is GDP per capita . This is a nation's gross domestic product divided by its population. The GDP is the total output of goods and services produced in a year by everyone within the country's borders.

Real GDP per capita removes the effects of inflation or price increases. Real GDP is a better measure of the standard of living than nominal GDP. A country that produces a lot will be able to pay higher wages. That means its residents can afford to buy more of its plentiful production.

GDP per capita doesn't count unpaid work. Unpaid work includes critical activities like in-home child or elder care, volunteer activities, and housework. Many activities that are included in GDP couldn't occur if there weren't these support activities.

GDP per capita doesn't effectively measure pollution, safety, and health. For example, the government may encourage the development of an industry that spews chemicals as part of its manufacturing process. Elected officials only see the jobs created, and the standard of living measurement only counts the value of the goods produced. The costs of polluted air and water may not be recognizable until decades later.

Finally, the GDP per capita measurement assumes that production, and its rewards, are divided equally among everyone. That's because it's an average and ignores income inequality. It can report a high standard of living for a country where only a few people at the top enjoy the wealth.

Factors That Determine a Nation's Standard of Living

The factors that affect the standard of living are the same ones that affect GDP. The most important is consumer spending, which makes up 68% of the U.S. economy. When people buy groceries, gasoline, and clothing, their lives improve. That activity helps businesses, which then hire more employees.

The other three components of GDP are business investment, government spending, and net exports. Business investment includes new plants and equipment, real estate, and products. If companies are investing, the economy improves.

The same is true of government spending. When governments build roads, bridges, and public transit, its citizens benefit from a higher standard of living. That's especially true for direct payments, such as Social Security and Medicare. People's lives are better because of these benefits.

Net exports improve a country's standard of living in less obvious ways. If a country exports more than it imports, it creates jobs.

The World Bank uses a very similar measure called Gross National Income per person (GNI per capita). It measures the level of income paid to all the country's citizens, no matter where they are in the world. GDP per capita only measures the income paid to those residing in the country’s borders. GNI per capita can raise a country’s standard of living. That’s because many citizens live in other countries to get better jobs. They also remit part of their wages back to their families at home.

The United Nations uses the Human Development Index. It includes the following four data points:

Life expectancy at birth
School enrollment
Adult literacy
Gross national income per capita

Since the U.N. compares GDP between countries, it uses purchasing power parity. That adjusts for differences in exchange rates.

The U.N. uses the index to question national priorities. It asks how two countries with similar GNIs per capita have different human development scores.

Gallup's Standard of Living Index is a U.S. survey. It asks Americans if they are satisfied with their current standard of living. It asks them whether it’s getting better or worse. This is an extremely subjective measure, since it’s an attitudinal measurement.

The standard of living by country depends on who's doing the measuring and how it's being measured.

The CIA World Factbook ranks every country in the world using GDP per capita. For 2017 the rankings revealed:

The highest was Luxembourg, at $117,846.1 per person.
The lowest was Burundi, at $771.2 per capita.
The United States ranked 11th at $63,206.5 per capita.

The World Bank's ranking uses gross national income per capita:

Macao SAR, China is highest at $117,450 per capita.
Burundi is the lowest at $780 per capita.
The United States is 11th at $64,210 per capita.

The U.N.'s Human Development Index offers a different result:

Norway is highest, with a score of 0.957.
Niger is the lowest with a score of just 0.394.
The United States is 17th, at 0.926.

Standard of living is measured in different ways, but some countries that consistently come up high include Switzerland, Denmark, Netherlands, Finland, Iceland, Austria, and Germany.

Issues that are brought on by a low standard of living include lack of access to nutrition, lack of medical care, poor sanitation, lack of transportation, inadequate housing, inability to access education opportunities, weak societal and family bonds, and mental health issues.

In the long term, the U.S. standard of living has improved. Still, there are some vital numbers to watch. After five years of the poverty rate going down in the U.S., it rose in 2020. The official U.S. poverty rate was 10.5% in 2019, but in 2020 it was up to 11.4%.

The World Bank. “ Beyond Economic Growth: an Introduction to Sustainable Development (English) .”

Federal Reserve Bank of Boston. “ How Do We Measure Standard of Living .”

Bureau of Economic Analysis. “ National Income and Product Accounts Tables ," Table 1.1.5. "Gross Domestic Product,” Select “Modify,” Select “First Year 2021,” Select “Series Annual,” Select “Refresh Table.”

World Bank. " Why Use GNI Per Capita to Classify Economies Into Income Groupings? "

United Nations Development Programme. “ Human Development Index (HDI) .”

The World Bank. “ GNI Per Capita, PPP (Current International $) .”

United Nations Development Programme. “ Global Human Development Indicators .”

Gallup. “ U.S. Standard of Living Index Climbs to Highest in 7 Years .”

World Bank. " GDP Per Capita, PPP (Current International $) ."

The World Bank. “ GNI per Capita, PPP (Current International $) .”

United Nations Development Programme. “ Human Development Data Center .”

U.S. Census Bureau. " Income and Poverty in the United States: 2020 ."

Standard of Living

Marina moskowitz.

Coined in 1902, the term "standard of living" grew popular in early twentieth-century America. Though its exact definition remained ambiguous, it most often reflected the middle class and material comfort. The term was not a precise measure of how people lived. Instead, it embodied the ideal of how middle-class Americans wanted to live. With increasing wages and the mass production of consumer goods, the standard of living became an important expression of the shared national culture that emerged in the Gilded Age and Progressive Era. But what material and social components constituted this...

In Standard of Living , Marina Moskowitz explores these questions, focusing on the relationship between middle-class identity and material culture through four case studies. In one, she examines the incorporation of silverplate flatware into the daily rituals of American life. Mass production made this former luxury item affordable, while advertising, etiquette books, and home advice columns stressed its value as a family heirloom and confirmed its place in the middle-class dining room. Moskowitz then turns her attention to the bathroom and the proliferation of indoor sanitation, bathroom fixtures, and a hygiene industry equally interested in profits and public health. Home ownership contributed an essential element of this standard, and Moskowitz next charts the mail-order home industry, which sold not just kit houses but also the very idea of owning a home. Concluding with a look at zoning and urban planning as a means of fostering and protecting the standard of living for whole communities, this book offers important evidence of and fresh insights into the history of the American middle class.

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A thoughtful contribution to understanding the forces that ushered in modern US culture, with all of its opportunities, limitations, and peculiarities.

Moskowitz offers important insights into the development of American middle-class ideals of material comfort, and of an emerging shared national culture.

An ambitious and far-reaching study with implications for material history, business history, and the study of the middle class in America.

Well-researched, well-written, and convincing... Will certainly influence future discussion of the expansion of the middle class and the consumer culture of the early twentieth century.

The strength of Marina Moskowtiz’s welcome addition to this body of work lies in the author’s choice of particular case studies, through which the book seeks to discover the role of material culture in defining the American middle class at the beginning of the last century.

Moskowitz has creatively connected the rise of national culture and middle-class America to the emergence of a generally accepted standard of living.

Imaginative, insightful, and lively... required reading for anyone interested in understanding how the United States became the quintessential middle-class nation.

In this well-researched monograph, Marina Moskowitz traces the evolution of the American concept of the standard of living from 1870 to the 1920s through fascinating case studies on silverplate flatware, bathroom fixtures, mail-order homes, and zoning plans.

Moskowitz's well-written and extensively researched book investigates how the concept of the 'standard of living' became the measure of middle-class well-being and the material expression of middle-class identity during the Gilded Age and Progressive Era.

Refusing to recognize boundaries between social science and the novel, this innovative history rejects divisions between cultural and business history. Marina Moskowitz probes the 'standard of living' as a liminal aspiration between production and consumption that defined the American 'middle class' through the objects and spaces of the home in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

At first glance, a study that offers in-depth case studies of such items as flatware and zoning plans might not sound like an energizing pageturner. However, Marina Moskowitz's book is both of these things and more. Moskowitz uses the stories of everyday items to craft a persuasive case for the emergence of a new, national standard of living in late-nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century America.

A compelling argument for the complexity and pervasiveness of a shared fascination with a standard of living.

Exceedingly well-written, clearly organized, and abundantly researched. There is nothing in the scholarly literature quite like this.

Book Details

Acknowledgements Introduction: The Standard of Living: Definitions, or Lack Thereof Chapter 1. The Standard of Etiquette: Silverplate Flatware Chapter 2. The Standard of Health and Decency: Bathroom

Acknowledgements Introduction: The Standard of Living: Definitions, or Lack Thereof Chapter 1. The Standard of Etiquette: Silverplate Flatware Chapter 2. The Standard of Health and Decency: Bathroom Fixtures Chapter 3. The Standard of Investment: Mail-Order Homes Chapter 4. The Standard of Management: Zoning Plans Conclusion: The Standard of Living, Revisited: Facts and Fictions Notes Essay on Sources Index Illustrations appear on page 105–128

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Canada’s living standards alarmingly on track to be the lowest in 40 years: study

'You’ve seen those signs that say, 'In emergency, break glass.' Well, it’s time to break the glass,' Bank of Canada's Carolyn Rogers said in March

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If Canada’s per-capita gross domestic product does not recover in 2024, the decline since mid-2019 may be the longest in the last four decades, a new study has found.

Canada’s living standards alarmingly on track to be the lowest in 40 years: study Back to video

“Despite claims to the contrary, living standards are declining in Canada,” said Grady Munro, policy analyst at the Fraser Institute and co-author of Changes in Per-Person GDP (Income): 1985 to 2023 .

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Released on Thursday, the study found that from April 2019 to the end of 2023, inflation-adjusted per-person GDP declined from $59,905 to $58,111 or by three per cent.

This decline is exceeded only by the decline in 1989 to 1992 (-5.3 per cent) and 2008 to 2009 (-5.2 per cent).

The study assessed changes in quarterly per-person GDP, focusing on periods of decline and recovery, including length, depth, and recovery time. It found Canada experienced nine such periods between 1985 and 2023.

The three most severe periods, based on length and depth, were Q2 1989 to Q3 1994, Q3 2008 to Q4 2011 and Q2 2019 to Q2 2022.

The decline starting in Q2 2019 is unique as it briefly recovered in Q2 2022 before declining again, remaining below Q2 2019 levels by Q4 2023.

While Canada’s GDP has grown in recent years, driven by high population growth and labour supply, GDP per person has fallen.

The latest decline (which comprises 18 fiscal quarters) is already the second-longest in the last 40 years, surpassed only by the decline from 1989 to 1994 (which lasted 21 quarters).

If not stabilized in 2024, the decline could be the steepest and longest in four decades, the study warns.

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“The severity of the decline in living standards should be a wake-up call for policymakers across Canada to immediately enact fundamental policy reforms to help spur economic growth and productivity,” said Jason Clemens, study co-author and executive vice-president at the Fraser Institute.

Per Statistics Canada data , labour productivity has followed a similar pattern. The fourth quarter of 2023 marked the first time productivity increased since the beginning of 2022, following six quarters of declining or stagnant labour productivity.

In a speech in March, Carolyn Rogers, Bank of Canada senior deputy governor, called for improved labour composition, enhanced multifactor productivity and increased investment in capital to boost productivity.

“You’ve seen those signs that say, ‘In emergency, break glass.’ Well, it’s time to break the glass,” Rogers said .

She stressed improved access to training and re-skilling programs for existing workers and ensuring new entrants are well-prepared by educational institutions would help boost productivity, as well as leveraging the skills of new immigrants effectively, rather than being stuck in low-wage jobs.

Rogers added that support for small and medium sized enterprises, which lack economies of scale, would increase competition within various sectors and drive innovation and efficiency.

Rogers also said that limited competition in Canada has been linked to weak business investment.

“Simply put, businesses become more productive when they’re exposed to competition,” she said. “Competition drives companies to become more productive by innovating and by finding ways to be more efficient. In doing so, competition can make the whole economy more productive.”

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Geospatial solution for sustainable waste management: a case study

Technical Paper
Published: 22 May 2024
Volume 9 , article number 218 , ( 2024 )

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Anushka Ashok Borase 1 ,
Shantini Bokil 1 &
Vishakha Sakhare ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6640-0603 1

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The development of any country relies on several factors, including a growing population, a robust economy marked by high-rise buildings, improved living standards, and heightened consumption levels. However, these positive developments also lead to a significant increase in solid waste generation, necessitating advanced techniques and technologies for effective management. It is a tedious job to reduce the amount of waste production, so it becomes essential to have an appropriate recovery and management system that helps mitigate the complications associated with a solid waste management system. The research leverages Geographic Information System (GIS) software to investigate this matter to determine, effective, and efficient solutions for managing waste operations. The assimilation of GIS into the discipline of solid waste management enhances the efficiency of the system, eases the burden of the work, ultimately saves time, and costs, and helps in decision-making. The basic objective of this paper is to propose a solution for the entire Pimpri village in the Thane district and to identify suitable sites required for the disposal of municipal solid waste generated daily. Additionally, the paper concludes by determining an optimized waste collection route that ensures complete waste collection with higher efficiency adhering to cost, time, and scope constraints.

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Applications of Geographic Information Systems to Site Waste Facilities in Saskatchewan—Phase 1

Application of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Remote Sensing (RS) in solid waste management in Southern Africa: a review

Mohammed FMA, Waheeja AQ, Siham F, Alazaiza MYD, Mohammad KY (2022) Site selection of municipal solid waste incineration plant using GIS and multicriteria decision analysis. J Air Waste Manag Assoc 72:1027–1039

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Acknowledgements

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Department of Civil Engineering, Dr. Vishwanath Karad MIT World Peace University, Kothrud, Pune, 411038, India

Anushka Ashok Borase, Shantini Bokil & Vishakha Sakhare

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Conceptualization: [Anushka Borase]; Methodology: [Anushka Borase]; Formal analysis and investigation: [Anushka Borase]; Writing—original draft preparation: [Anushka Borase]; Writing—review and editing: [Anushka Borase and Shantini Bokil, Vishakha Sakhare]; Funding acquisition: [NA]; Resources: [Anushka Borase, Vishakha Sakhare]; Supervision: [Shantini Bokil, Vishakha Sakhare].

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Borase, A.A., Bokil, S. & Sakhare, V. Geospatial solution for sustainable waste management: a case study. Innov. Infrastruct. Solut. 9 , 218 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41062-024-01539-w

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George Cadbury. standard of living, in social science, the aspirations of an individual or group for goods and services. Alternatively, the term is applied specifically to a measure of the consumption of goods and services by an individual or group, sometimes called "level of living" (what is) as opposed to "standard" (what is desired).
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This paper dealt with the effects of inflation on standard of living in terms of expenses on food and non-food items, income, savings, loan and recreation over the period (2010-2013). A sample of 100 heads of families was taken from Navrongo community in Ghana using stratified sampling.
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Standard of living is very germane to every economy. It gives a broad view of how the economy is fairing on a global scale. If an individual cannot get required basic necessities due to low purchasing power, his/her marginal propensity to consume (MPC) rises which makes it more difficult for the individual to live comfortably hence the standard of living dips Several researches have been ...
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A Standard of Living Case Study: Understanding Barriers to Development and Identifying Realistic Strategies for the future 1. Select one developing country to study from the list below: o Haiti (North America) o Burundi (Africa) o Pakistan (Asia) o Yemen (Middle East) 2. Research the current Standard of Living for this country's citizens ...
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Geospatial solution for sustainable waste management: a case study
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882. STANDARD OF LIVING, QUALITY OF LIFE AND PER CAPITA. GDP: A SOUTH AFRICAN EXPERIE NCE. Raphael Tabani Mpofu*. Abstract. This study looked at the phe nomenon of the quality of life (QoL) as ...
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The UK economic inactivity rate for people aged 16 to 64 years was estimated at 22.1% in January to March 2024, above estimates of a year ago, and increased in the latest quarter. The UK Claimant Count for April 2024 increased by 8,900 on the month and by 29,300 on the year, to 1.579 million.

Standard of Living, Well-Being and Community Development: The Case of Botswana

Improving Quality of Life - Exploring Standard of Living, Wellbeing, and Community Development

Author Information

Tumani Malinga

1. Introduction

2. Wellbeing: concepts and theory

3. Botswana – socioeconomic and political profile

4. Socioeconomic status in pre-colonial period

5. Socioeconomic environment during colonial era

6. Socioeconomic environment in post-colonial era

7. Community development and citizen wellbeing

8. Community development, standard of living and well-being in Botswana today

9. Conclusion and way forward

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The Impact of Inflation on the Standard of Living: A Case Study of Navrongo in the Upper East Region of Ghana

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