physics modification essay

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SPM Physics Notes (Form 4, 5) : Modifications And Explanations

• SPM Physics Notes (Form 4, 5) : Modifications And Explanations (21)

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Physics education research for 21 st century learning

• Lei Bao   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3348-4198 1 &
• Kathleen Koenig 2  

Disciplinary and Interdisciplinary Science Education Research volume  1 , Article number:  2 ( 2019 ) Cite this article

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Education goals have evolved to emphasize student acquisition of the knowledge and attributes necessary to successfully contribute to the workforce and global economy of the twenty-first Century. The new education standards emphasize higher end skills including reasoning, creativity, and open problem solving. Although there is substantial research evidence and consensus around identifying essential twenty-first Century skills, there is a lack of research that focuses on how the related subskills interact and develop over time. This paper provides a brief review of physics education research as a means for providing a context towards future work in promoting deep learning and fostering abilities in high-end reasoning. Through a synthesis of the literature around twenty-first Century skills and physics education, a set of concretely defined education and research goals are suggested for future research, along with how these may impact the next generation physics courses and how physics should be taught in the future.

Introduction

Education is the primary service offered by society to prepare its future generation workforce. The goals of education should therefore meet the demands of the changing world. The concept of learner-centered, active learning has broad, growing support in the research literature as an empirically validated teaching practice that best promotes learning for modern day students (Freeman et al., 2014 ). It stems out of the constructivist view of learning, which emphasizes that it is the learner who needs to actively construct knowledge and the teacher should assume the role of a facilitator rather than the source of knowledge. As implied by the constructivist view, learner-centered education usually emphasizes active-engagement and inquiry style teaching-learning methods, in which the learners can effectively construct their understanding under the guidance of instruction. The learner-centered education also requires educators and researchers to focus their efforts on the learners’ needs, not only to deliver effective teaching-learning approaches, but also to continuously align instructional practices to the education goals of the times. The goals of introductory college courses in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) disciplines have constantly evolved from some notion of weed-out courses that emphasize content drilling, to the current constructivist active-engagement type of learning that promotes interest in STEM careers and fosters high-end cognitive abilities.

Following the conceptually defined framework of twenty-first Century teaching and learning, this paper aims to provide contextualized operational definitions of the goals for twenty-first Century learning in physics (and STEM in general) as well as the rationale for the importance of these outcomes for current students. Aligning to the twenty-first Century learning goals, research in physics education is briefly reviewed to provide a context towards future work in promoting deep learning and fostering abilities in high-end reasoning in parallel. Through a synthesis of the literature around twenty-first Century skills and physics education, a set of concretely defined education and research goals are suggested for future research. These goals include: domain-specific research in physics learning; fostering scientific reasoning abilities that are transferable across the STEM disciplines; and dissemination of research-validated curriculum and approaches to teaching and learning. Although this review has a focus on physics education research (PER), it is beneficial to expand the perspective to view physics education in the broader context of STEM learning. Therefore, much of the discussion will blend PER with STEM education as a continuum body of work on teaching and learning.

Education goals for twenty-first century learning

Education goals have evolved to emphasize student acquisition of essential “21 st Century skills”, which define the knowledge and attributes necessary to successfully contribute to the workforce and global economy of the 21st Century (National Research Council, 2011 , 2012a ). In general, these standards seek to transition from emphasizing content-based drilling and memorization towards fostering higher-end skills including reasoning, creativity, and open problem solving (United States Chamber of Commerce, 2017 ). Initiatives on advancing twenty-first Century education focus on skills that converge on three broad clusters: cognitive, interpersonal, and intrapersonal, all of which include a rich set of sub-dimensions.

Within the cognitive domain, multiple competencies have been proposed, including deep learning, non-routine problem solving, systems thinking, critical thinking, computational and information literacy, reasoning and argumentation, and innovation (National Research Council, 2012b ; National Science and Technology Council, 2018 ). Interpersonal skills are those necessary for relating to others, including the ability to work creatively and collaboratively as well as communicate clearly. Intrapersonal skills, on the other hand, reside within the individual and include metacognitive thinking, adaptability, and self-management. These involve the ability to adjust one’s strategy or approach along with the ability to work towards important goals without significant distraction, both essential for sustained success in long-term problem solving and career development.

Although many descriptions exist for what qualifies as twenty-first Century skills, student abilities in scientific reasoning and critical thinking are the most commonly noted and widely studied. They are highly connected with the other cognitive skills of problem solving, decision making, and creative thinking (Bailin, 1996 ; Facione, 1990 ; Fisher, 2001 ; Lipman, 2003 ; Marzano et al., 1988 ), and have been important educational goals since the 1980s (Binkley et al., 2010 ; NCET, 1987 ). As a result, they play a foundational role in defining, assessing, and developing twenty-first Century skills.

The literature for critical thinking is extensive (Bangert-Drowns & Bankert, 1990 ; Facione, 1990 ; Glaser, 1941 ). Various definitions exist with common underlying principles. Broadly defined, critical thinking is the application of the cognitive skills and strategies that aim for and support evidence-based decision making. It is the thinking involved in solving problems, formulating inferences, calculating likelihoods, and making decisions (Halpern, 1999 ). It is the “reasonable reflective thinking focused on deciding what to believe or do” (Ennis, 1993 ). Critical thinking is recognized as a way to understand and evaluate subject matter; producing reliable knowledge and improving thinking itself (Paul, 1990 ; Siegel, 1988 ).

The notion of scientific reasoning is often used to label the set of skills that support critical thinking, problem solving, and creativity in STEM. Broadly defined, scientific reasoning includes the thinking and reasoning skills involved in inquiry, experimentation, evidence evaluation, inference and argument that support the formation and modification of concepts and theories about the natural world; such as the ability to systematically explore a problem, formulate and test hypotheses, manipulate and isolate variables, and observe and evaluate consequences (Bao et al., 2009 ; Zimmerman, 2000 ). Critical thinking and scientific reasoning share many features, where both emphasize evidence-based decision making in multivariable causal conditions. Critical thinking can be promoted through the development of scientific reasoning, which includes student ability to reach a reliable conclusion after identifying a question, formulating hypotheses, gathering relevant data, and logically testing and evaluating the hypothesis. In this way, scientific reasoning can be viewed as a scientific domain instantiation of critical thinking in the context of STEM learning.

In STEM learning, cognitive aspects of the twenty-first Century skills aim to develop reasoning skills, critical thinking skills, and deep understanding, all of which allow students to develop well connected expert-like knowledge structures and engage in meaningful scientific inquiry and problem solving. Within physics education, a core component of STEM education, the learning of conceptual understanding and problem solving remains a current emphasis. However, the fast-changing work environment and technology-driven world require a new set of core knowledge, skills, and habits of mind to solve complex interdisciplinary problems, gather and evaluate evidence, and make sense of information from a variety of sources (Tanenbaum, 2016 ). The education goals in physics are transitioning towards ability fostering as well as extension and integration with other STEM disciplines. Although curriculum that supports these goals is limited, there are a number of attempts, particularly in developing active learning classrooms and inquiry-based laboratory activities, which have demonstrated success. Some of these are described later in this paper as they provide a foundation for future work in physics education.

Interpersonal skills, such as communication and collaboration, are also essential for twenty-first Century problem-solving tasks, which are often open-ended, complex, and team-based. As the world becomes more connected in a multitude of dimensions, tackling significant problems involving complex systems often goes beyond the individual and requires working with others who are increasingly from culturally diverse backgrounds. Due to the rise of communication technologies, being able to articulate thoughts and ideas in a variety of formats and contexts is crucial, as well as the ability to effectively listen or observe to decipher meaning. Interpersonal skills can be promoted by integrating group-learning experiences into the classroom setting, while providing students with the opportunity to engage in open-ended tasks with a team of peer learners who may propose more than one plausible solution. These experiences should be designed such that students must work collaboratively and responsibly in teams to develop creative solutions, which are later disseminated through informative presentations and clearly written scientific reports. Although educational settings in general have moved to providing students with more and more opportunities for collaborative learning, a lack of effective assessments for these important skills has been a limiting factor for producing informative research and widespread implementation. See Liu ( 2010 ) for an overview of measurement instruments reported in the research literature.

Intrapersonal skills are based on the individual and include the ability to manage one’s behavior and emotions to achieve goals. These are especially important for adapting in the fast-evolving collaborative modern work environment and for learning new tasks to solve increasingly challenging interdisciplinary problems, both of which require intellectual openness, work ethic, initiative, and metacognition, to name a few. These skills can be promoted using instruction which, for example, includes metacognitive learning strategies, provides opportunities to make choices and set goals for learning, and explicitly connects to everyday life events. However, like interpersonal skills, the availability of relevant assessments challenges advancement in this area. In this review, the vast amount of studies on interpersonal and intrapersonal skills will not be discussed in order to keep the main focus on the cognitive side of skills and reasoning.

The purpose behind discussing twenty-first Century skills is that this set of skills provides important guidance for establishing essential education goals for modern society and learners. However, although there is substantial research evidence and consensus around identifying necessary twenty-first Century skills, there is a lack of research that focuses on how the related subskills interact and develop over time (Reimers & Chung, 2016 ), with much of the existing research residing in academic literature that is focused on psychology rather than education systems (National Research Council, 2012a ). Therefore, a major and challenging task for discipline-based education researchers and educators is to operationally define discipline-specific goals that align with the twenty-first Century skills for each of the STEM fields. In the following sections, this paper will provide a limited vision of the research endeavors in physics education that can translate the past and current success into sustained impact for twenty-first Century teaching and learning.

Proposed education and research goals

Physics education research (PER) is often considered an early pioneer in discipline-based education research (National Research Council, 2012c ), with well-established, broad, and influential outcomes (e.g., Hake, 1998 ; Hsu, Brewe, Foster, & Harper, 2004 ; McDermott & Redish, 1999 ; Meltzer & Thornton, 2012 ). Through the integration of twenty-first Century skills with the PER literature, a set of broadly defined education and research goals is proposed for future PER work:

Discipline-specific deep learning: Cognitive and education research involving physics learning has established a rich literature on student learning behaviors along with a number of frameworks. Some of the popular frameworks include conceptual understanding and concept change, problem solving, knowledge structure, deep learning, and knowledge integration. Aligned with twenty-first Century skills, future research in physics learning should aim to integrate the multiple areas of existing work, such that they help students develop well integrated knowledge structures in order to achieve deep leaning in physics.

Fostering scientific reasoning for transfer across STEM disciplines: The broad literature in physics learning and scientific reasoning can provide a solid foundation to further develop effective physics education approaches, such as active engagement instruction and inquiry labs, specifically targeting scientific inquiry abilities and reasoning skills. Since scientific reasoning is a more domain-general cognitive ability, success in physics can also more readily inform research and education practices in other STEM fields.

Research, development, assessment, and dissemination of effective education approaches: Developing and maintaining a supportive infrastructure of education research and implementation has always been a challenge, not only in physics but in all STEM areas. The twenty-first Century education requires researchers and instructors across STEM to work together as an extended community in order to construct a sustainable integrated STEM education environment. Through this new infrastructure, effective team-based inquiry learning and meaningful assessment can be delivered to help students develop a comprehensive skills set including deep understanding and scientific reasoning, as well as communication and other non-cognitive abilities.

The suggested research will generate understanding and resources to support education practices that meet the requirements of the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS), which explicitly emphasize three areas of learning including disciplinary core ideas, crosscutting concepts, and practices (National Research Council, 2012b ). The first goal for promoting deep learning of disciplinary knowledge corresponds well to the NGSS emphasis on disciplinary core ideas, which play a central role in helping students develop well integrated knowledge structures to achieve deep understanding. The second goal on fostering transferable scientific reasoning skills supports the NGSS emphasis on crosscutting concepts and practices. Scientific reasoning skills are crosscutting cognitive abilities that are essential to the development of domain-general concepts and modeling strategies. In addition, the development of scientific reasoning requires inquiry-based learning and practices. Therefore, research on scientific reasoning can produce a valuable knowledge base on education means that are effective for developing crosscutting concepts and promoting meaningful practices in STEM. The third research goal addresses the challenge in the assessment of high-end skills and the dissemination of effective educational approaches, which supports all NGSS initiatives to ensure sustainable development and lasting impact. The following sections will discuss the research literature that provides the foundation for these three research goals and identify the specific challenges that will need to be addressed in future work.

Promoting deep learning in physics education

Physics education for the twenty-first Century aims to foster high-end reasoning skills and promote deep conceptual understanding. However, many traditional education systems place strong emphasis on only problem solving with the expectation that students obtain deep conceptual understanding through repetitive problem-solving practices, which often doesn’t occur (Alonso, 1992 ). This focus on problem solving has been shown to have limitations as a number of studies have revealed disconnections between learning conceptual understanding and problem-solving skills (Chiu, 2001 ; Chiu, Guo, & Treagust, 2007 ; Hoellwarth, Moelter, & Knight, 2005 ; Kim & Pak, 2002 ; Nakhleh, 1993 ; Nakhleh & Mitchell, 1993 ; Nurrenbern & Pickering, 1987 ; Stamovlasis, Tsaparlis, Kamilatos, Papaoikonomou, & Zarotiadou, 2005 ). In fact, drilling in problem solving may actually promote memorization of context-specific solutions with minimal generalization rather than transitioning students from novices to experts.

Towards conceptual understanding and learning, many models and definitions have been established to study and describe student conceptual knowledge states and development. For example, students coming into a physics classroom often hold deeply rooted, stable understandings that differ from expert conceptions. These are commonly referred to as misconceptions or alternative conceptions (Clement, 1982 ; Duit & Treagust, 2003 ; Dykstra Jr, Boyle, & Monarch, 1992 ; Halloun & Hestenes, 1985a , 1985b ). Such students’ conceptions are context dependent and exist as disconnected knowledge fragments, which are strongly situated within specific contexts (Bao & Redish, 2001 , 2006 ; Minstrell, 1992 ).

In modeling students’ knowledge structures, DiSessa’s proposed phenomenological primitives (p-prim) describe a learner’s implicit thinking, cued from specific contexts, as an underpinning cognitive construct for a learner’s expressed conception (DiSessa, 1993 ; Smith III, DiSessa, & Roschelle, 1994 ). Facets, on the other hand, map between the implicit p-prim and concrete statements of beliefs and are developed as discrete and independent units of thought, knowledge, or strategies used by individuals to address specific situations (Minstrell, 1992 ). Ontological categories, defined by Chi, describe student reasoning in the most general sense. Chi believed that these are distinct, stable, and constraining, and that a core reason behind novices’ difficulties in physics is that they think of physics within the category of matter instead of processes (Chi, 1992 ; Chi & Slotta, 1993 ; Chi, Slotta, & De Leeuw, 1994 ; Slotta, Chi, & Joram, 1995 ). More details on conceptual learning and problem solving are well summarized in the literature (Hsu et al., 2004 ; McDermott & Redish, 1999 ), from which a common theme emerges from the models and definitions. That is, learning is context dependent and students with poor conceptual understanding typically have locally connected knowledge structures with isolated conceptual constructs that are unable to establish similarities and contrasts between contexts.

Additionally, this idea of fragmentation is demonstrated through many studies on student problem solving in physics and other fields. It has been shown that a student’s knowledge organization is a key aspect for distinguishing experts from novices (Bagno, Eylon, & Ganiel, 2000 ; Chi, Feltovich, & Glaser, 1981 ; De Jong & Ferguson-Hesler, 1986 ; Eylon & Reif, 1984 ; Ferguson-Hesler & De Jong, 1990 ; Heller & Reif, 1984 ; Larkin, McDermott, Simon, & Simon, 1980 ; Smith, 1992 ; Veldhuis, 1990 ; Wexler, 1982 ). Expert’s knowledge is organized around core principles of physics, which are applied to guide problem solving and develop connections between different domains as well as new, unfamiliar situations (Brown, 1989 ; Perkins & Salomon, 1989 ; Salomon & Perkins, 1989 ). Novices, on the other hand, lack a well-organized knowledge structure and often solve problems by relying on surface features that are directly mapped to certain problem-solving outcomes through memorization (Chi, Bassok, Lewis, Reimann, & Glaser, 1989 ; Hardiman, Dufresne, & Mestre, 1989 ; Schoenfeld & Herrmann, 1982 ).

This lack of organization creates many difficulties in the comprehension of basic concepts and in solving complex problems. This leads to the common complaint that students’ knowledge of physics is reduced to formulas and vague labels of the concepts, which are unable to substantively contribute to meaningful reasoning processes. A novice’s fragmented knowledge structure severely limits the learner’s conceptual understanding. In essence, these students are able to memorize how to approach a problem given specific information but lack the understanding of the underlying concept of the approach, limiting their ability to apply this approach to a novel situation. In order to achieve expert-like understanding, a student’s knowledge structure must integrate all of the fragmented ideas around the core principle to form a coherent and fully connected conceptual framework.

Towards a more general theoretical consideration, students’ alternative conceptions and fragmentation in knowledge structures can be viewed through both the “naïve theory” framework (e.g., Posner, Strike, Hewson, & Gertzog, 1982 ; Vosniadou, Vamvakoussi, & Skopeliti, 2008 ) and the “knowledge in pieces” (DiSessa, 1993 ) perspective. The “naïve theory” framework considers students entering the classroom with stable and coherent ideas (naïve theories) about the natural world that differ from those presented by experts. In the “knowledge in pieces” perspective, student knowledge is constructed in real-time and incorporates context features with the p-prims to form the observed conceptual expressions. Although there exists an ongoing debate between these two views (Kalman & Lattery, 2018 ), it is more productive to focus on their instructional implications for promoting meaningful conceptual change in students’ knowledge structures.

In the process of learning, students may enter the classroom with a range of initial states depending on the population and content. For topics with well-established empirical experiences, students often have developed their own ideas and understanding, while on topics without prior exposure, students may create their initial understanding in real-time based on related prior knowledge and given contextual features (Bao & Redish, 2006 ). These initial states of understanding, regardless of their origin, are usually different from those of experts. Therefore, the main function of teaching and learning is to guide students to modify their initial understanding towards the experts’ views. Although students’ initial understanding may exist as a body of coherent ideas within limited contexts, as students start to change their knowledge structures throughout the learning process, they may evolve into a wide range of transitional states with varying levels of knowledge integration and coherence. The discussion in this brief review on students’ knowledge structures regarding fragmentation and integration are primarily focused on the transitional stages emerged through learning.

The corresponding instructional goal is then to help students more effectively develop an integrated knowledge structure so as to achieve a deep conceptual understanding. From an educator’s perspective, Bloom’s taxonomy of education objectives establishes a hierarchy of six levels of cognitive skills based on their specificity and complexity: Remember (lowest and most specific), Understand, Apply, Analyze, Evaluate, and Create (highest and most general and complex) (Anderson et al., 2001 ; Bloom, Engelhart, Furst, Hill, & Krathwohl, 1956 ). This hierarchy of skills exemplifies the transition of a learner’s cognitive development from a fragmented and contextually situated knowledge structure (novice with low level cognitive skills) to a well-integrated and globally networked expert-like structure (with high level cognitive skills).

As a student’s learning progresses from lower to higher cognitive levels, the student’s knowledge structure becomes more integrated and is easier to transfer across contexts (less context specific). For example, beginning stage students may only be able to memorize and perform limited applications of the features of certain contexts and their conditional variations, with which the students were specifically taught. This leads to the establishment of a locally connected knowledge construct. When a student’s learning progresses from the level of Remember to Understand, the student begins to develop connections among some of the fragmented pieces to form a more fully connected network linking a larger set of contexts, thus advancing into a higher level of understanding. These connections and the ability to transfer between different situations form the basis of deep conceptual understanding. This growth of connections leads to a more complete and integrated cognitive structure, which can be mapped to a higher level on Bloom’s taxonomy. This occurs when students are able to relate a larger number of different contextual and conditional aspects of a concept for analyzing and evaluating to a wider variety of problem situations.

Promoting the growth of connections would appear to aid in student learning. Exactly which teaching methods best facilitate this are dependent on the concepts and skills being learned and should be determined through research. However, it has been well recognized that traditional instruction often fails to help students obtain expert-like conceptual understanding, with many misconceptions still existing after instruction, indicating weak integration within a student’s knowledge structure (McKeachie, 1986 ).

Recognizing the failures of traditional teaching, various research-informed teaching methods have been developed to enhance student conceptual learning along with diagnostic tests, which aim to measure the existence of misconceptions. Most advances in teaching methods focus on the inclusion of inquiry-based interactive-engagement elements in lecture, recitations, and labs. In physics education, these methods were popularized after Hake’s landmark study demonstrated the effectiveness of interactive-engagement over traditional lectures (Hake, 1998 ). Some of these methods include the use of peer instruction (Mazur, 1997 ), personal response systems (e.g., Reay, Bao, Li, Warnakulasooriya, & Baugh, 2005 ), studio-style instruction (Beichner et al., 2007 ), and inquiry-based learning (Etkina & Van Heuvelen, 2001 ; Laws, 2004 ; McDermott, 1996 ; Thornton & Sokoloff, 1998 ). The key approach of these methods aims to improve student learning by carefully targeting deficits in student knowledge and actively encouraging students to explore and discuss. Rather than rote memorization, these approaches help promote generalization and deeper conceptual understanding by building connections between knowledge elements.

Based on the literature, including Bloom’s taxonomy and the new education standards that emphasize twenty-first Century skills, a common focus on teaching and learning can be identified. This focus emphasizes helping students develop connections among fragmented segments of their knowledge pieces and is aligned with the knowledge integration perspective, which focuses on helping students develop and refine their knowledge structure toward a more coherently organized and extensively connected network of ideas (Lee, Liu, & Linn, 2011 ; Linn, 2005 ; Nordine, Krajcik, & Fortus, 2011 ; Shen, Liu, & Chang, 2017 ). For meaningful learning to occur, new concepts must be integrated into a learner’s existing knowledge structure by linking the new knowledge to already understood concepts.

Forming an integrated knowledge structure is therefore essential to achieving deep learning, not only in physics but also in all STEM fields. However, defining what connections must occur at different stages of learning, as well as understanding the instructional methods necessary for effectively developing such connections within each STEM disciplinary context, are necessary for current and future research. Together these will provide the much needed foundational knowledge base to guide the development of the next generation of curriculum and classroom environment designed around twenty-first Century learning.

Developing scientific reasoning with inquiry labs

Scientific reasoning is part of the widely emphasized cognitive strand of twenty-first Century skills. Through development of scientific reasoning skills, students’ critical thinking, open-ended problem-solving abilities, and decision-making skills can be improved. In this way, targeting scientific reasoning as a curricular objective is aligned with the goals emphasized in twenty-first Century education. Also, there is a growing body of research on the importance of student development of scientific reasoning, which have been found to positively correlate with course achievement (Cavallo, Rozman, Blickenstaff, & Walker, 2003 ; Johnson & Lawson, 1998 ), improvement on concept tests (Coletta & Phillips, 2005 ; She & Liao, 2010 ), engagement in higher levels of problem solving (Cracolice, Deming, & Ehlert, 2008 ; Fabby & Koenig, 2013 ); and success on transfer (Ates & Cataloglu, 2007 ; Jensen & Lawson, 2011 ).

Unfortunately, research has shown that college students are lacking in scientific reasoning. Lawson ( 1992 ) found that ~ 50% of intro biology students are not capable of applying scientific reasoning in learning, including the ability to develop hypotheses, control variables, and design experiments; all necessary for meaningful scientific inquiry. Research has also found that traditional courses do not significantly develop these abilities, with pre-to-post-test gains of 1%–2%, while inquiry-based courses have gains around 7% (Koenig, Schen, & Bao, 2012 ; Koenig, Schen, Edwards, & Bao, 2012 ). Others found that undergraduates have difficulty developing evidence-based decisions and differentiating between and linking evidence with claims (Kuhn, 1992 ; Shaw, 1996 ; Zeineddin & Abd-El-Khalick, 2010 ). A large scale international study suggested that learning of physics content knowledge with traditional teaching practices does not improve students’ scientific reasoning skills (Bao et al., 2009 ).

Aligned to twenty-first Century learning, it is important to implement curriculum that is specifically designed for developing scientific reasoning abilities within current education settings. Although traditional lectures may continue for decades due to infrastructure constraints, a unique opportunity can be found in the lab curriculum, which may be more readily transformed to include hands-on minds-on group learning activities that are ideal for developing students’ abilities in scientific inquiry and reasoning.

For well over a century, the laboratory has held a distinctive role in student learning (Meltzer & Otero, 2015 ). However, many existing labs, which haven’t changed much since the late 1980s, have received criticism for their outdated cookbook style that lacks effectiveness in developing high-end skills. In addition, labs have been primarily used as a means for verifying the physical principles presented in lecture, and unfortunately, Hofstein and Lunetta ( 1982 ) found in an early review of the literature that research was unable to demonstrate the impact of the lab on student content learning.

About this same time, a shift towards a constructivist view of learning gained popularity and influenced lab curriculum development towards engaging students in the process of constructing knowledge through science inquiry. Curricula, such as Physics by Inquiry (McDermott, 1996 ), Real-Time Physics (Sokoloff, Thornton, & Laws, 2011 ), and Workshop Physics (Laws, 2004 ), were developed with a primary focus on engaging students in cognitive conflict to address misconceptions. Although these approaches have been shown to be highly successful in improving deep learning of physics concepts (McDermott & Redish, 1999 ), the emphasis on conceptual learning does not sufficiently impact the domain general scientific reasoning skills necessitated in the goals of twenty-first Century learning.

Reform in science education, both in terms of targeted content and skills, along with the emergence of knowledge regarding human cognition and learning (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000 ), have generated renewed interest in the potential of inquiry-based lab settings for skill development. In these types of hands-on minds-on learning, students apply the methods and procedures of science inquiry to investigate phenomena and construct scientific claims, solve problems, and communicate outcomes, which holds promise for developing both conceptual understanding and scientific reasoning skills in parallel (Trowbridge, Bybee, & Powell, 2000 ). In addition, the availability of technology to enhance inquiry-based learning has seen exponential growth, along with the emergence of more appropriate research methodologies to support research on student learning.

Although inquiry-based labs hold promise for developing students’ high-end reasoning, analytic, and scientific inquiry abilities, these educational endeavors have not become widespread, with many existing physics laboratory courses still viewed merely as a place to illustrate the physical principles from the lecture course (Meltzer & Otero, 2015 ). Developing scientific ideas from practical experiences, however, is a complex process. Students need sufficient time and opportunity for interaction and reflection on complex, investigative tasks. Blended learning, which merges lecture and lab (such as studio style courses), addresses this issue to some extent, but has experienced limited adoption, likely due to the demanding infrastructure resources, including dedicated technology-intensive classroom space, equipment and maintenance costs, and fully committed trained staff.

Therefore, there is an immediate need to transform the existing standalone lab courses, within the constraints of the existing education infrastructure, into more inquiry-based designs, with one of its primary goals dedicated to developing scientific reasoning skills. These labs should center on constructing knowledge, along with hands-on minds-on practical skills and scientific reasoning, to support modeling a problem, designing and implementing experiments, analyzing and interpreting data, drawing and evaluating conclusions, and effective communication. In particular, training on scientific reasoning needs to be explicitly addressed in the lab curriculum, which should contain components specifically targeting a set of operationally-defined scientific reasoning skills, such as ability to control variables or engage in multivariate causal reasoning. Although effective inquiry may also implicitly develop some aspects of scientific reasoning skills, such development is far less efficient and varies with context when the primary focus is on conceptual learning.

Several recent efforts to enhance the standalone lab course have shown promise in supporting education goals that better align with twenty-first Century learning. For example, the Investigative Science Learning Environment (ISLE) labs involve a series of tasks designed to help students develop the “habits of mind” of scientists and engineers (Etkina et al., 2006 ). The curriculum targets reasoning as well as the lab learning outcomes published by the American Association of Physics Teachers (Kozminski et al., 2014 ). Operationally, ISLE methods focus on scaffolding students’ developing conceptual understanding using inquiry learning without a heavy emphasis on cognitive conflict, making it more appropriate and effective for entry level students and K-12 teachers.

Likewise, Koenig, Wood, Bortner, and Bao ( 2019 ) have developed a lab curriculum that is intentionally designed around the twenty-first Century learning goals for developing cognitive, interpersonal, and intrapersonal abilities. In terms of the cognitive domain, the lab learning outcomes center on critical thinking and scientific reasoning but do so through operationally defined sub-skills, all of which are transferrable across STEM. These selected sub-skills are found in the research literature, and include the ability to control variables and engage in data analytics and causal reasoning. For each targeted sub-skill, a series of pre-lab and in-class activities provide students with repeated, deliberate practice within multiple hypothetical science-based scenarios followed by real inquiry-based lab contexts. This explicit instructional strategy has been shown to be essential for the development of scientific reasoning (Chen & Klahr, 1999 ). In addition, the Karplus Learning Cycle (Karplus, 1964 ) provides the foundation for the structure of the lab activities and involves cycles of exploration, concept introduction, and concept application. The curricular framework is such that as the course progresses, the students engage in increasingly complex tasks, which allow students the opportunity to learn gradually through a progression from simple to complex skills.

As part of this same curriculum, students’ interpersonal skills are developed, in part, through teamwork, as students work in groups of 3 or 4 to address open-ended research questions, such as, What impacts the period of a pendulum? In addition, due to time constraints, students learn early on about the importance of working together in an efficient manor towards a common goal, with one set of written lab records per team submitted after each lab. Checkpoints built into all in-class activities involve Socratic dialogue between the instructor and students and promote oral communication. This use of directed questioning guides students in articulating their reasoning behind decisions and claims made, while supporting the development of scientific reasoning and conceptual understanding in parallel (Hake, 1992 ). Students’ intrapersonal skills, as well as communication skills, are promoted through the submission of individual lab reports. These reports require students to reflect upon their learning over each of four multi-week experiments and synthesize their ideas into evidence-based arguments, which support a claim. Due to the length of several weeks over which students collect data for each of these reports, the ability to organize the data and manage their time becomes essential.

Despite the growing emphasis on research and development of curriculum that targets twenty-first Century learning, converting a traditionally taught lab course into a meaningful inquiry-based learning environment is challenging in current reform efforts. Typically, the biggest challenge is a lack of resources; including faculty time to create or adapt inquiry-based materials for the local setting, training faculty and graduate student instructors who are likely unfamiliar with this approach, and the potential cost of new equipment. Koenig et al. ( 2019 ) addressed these potential implementation barriers by designing curriculum with these challenges in mind. That is, the curriculum was designed as a flexible set of modules that target specific sub-skills, with each module consisting of pre-lab (hypothetical) and in-lab (real) activities. Each module was designed around a curricular framework such that an adopting institution can use the materials as written, or can incorporate their existing equipment and experiments into the framework with minimal effort. Other non-traditional approaches have also been experimented with, such as the work by Sobhanzadeh, Kalman, and Thompson ( 2017 ), which targets typical misconceptions by using conceptual questions to engage students in making a prediction, designing and conducting a related experiment, and determining whether or not the results support the hypothesis.

Another challenge for inquiry labs is the assessment of skills-based learning outcomes. For assessment of scientific reasoning, a new instrument on inquiry in scientific thinking analytics and reasoning (iSTAR) has been developed, which can be easily implemented across large numbers of students as both a pre- and post-test to assess gains. iSTAR assesses reasoning skills necessary in the systematical conduct of scientific inquiry, which includes the ability to explore a problem, formulate and test hypotheses, manipulate and isolate variables, and observe and evaluate the consequences (see www.istarassessment.org ). The new instrument expands upon the commonly used classroom test of scientific reasoning (Lawson, 1978 , 2000 ), which has been identified with a number of validity weaknesses and a ceiling effect for college students (Bao, Xiao, Koenig, & Han, 2018 ).

Many education innovations need supporting infrastructures that can ensure adoption and lasting impact. However, making large-scale changes to current education settings can be risky, if not impossible. New education approaches, therefore, need to be designed to adapt to current environmental constraints. Since higher-end skills are a primary focus of twenty-first Century learning, which are most effectively developed in inquiry-based group settings, transforming current lecture and lab courses into this new format is critical. Although this transformation presents great challenges, promising solutions have already emerged from various research efforts. Perhaps the biggest challenge is for STEM educators and researchers to form an alliance to work together to re-engineer many details of the current education infrastructure in order to overcome the multitude of implementation obstacles.

This paper attempts to identify a few central ideas to provide a broad picture for future research and development in physics education, or STEM education in general, to promote twenty-first Century learning. Through a synthesis of the existing literature within the authors’ limited scope, a number of views surface.

Education is a service to prepare (not to select) the future workforce and should be designed as learner-centered, with the education goals and teaching-learning methods tailored to the needs and characteristics of the learners themselves. Given space constraints, the reader is referred to the meta-analysis conducted by Freeman et al. ( 2014 ), which provides strong support for learner-centered instruction. The changing world of the twenty-first Century informs the establishment of new education goals, which should be used to guide research and development of teaching and learning for present day students. Aligned to twenty-first Century learning, the new science standards have set the goals for STEM education to transition towards promoting deep learning of disciplinary knowledge, thereby building upon decades of research in PER, while fostering a wide range of general high-end cognitive and non-cognitive abilities that are transferable across all disciplines.

Following these education goals, more research is needed to operationally define and assess the desired high-end reasoning abilities. Building on a clear definition with effective assessments, a large number of empirical studies are needed to investigate how high-end abilities can be developed in parallel with deep learning of concepts, such that what is learned can be generalized to impact the development of curriculum and teaching methods which promote skills-based learning across all STEM fields. Specifically for PER, future research should emphasize knowledge integration to promote deep conceptual understanding in physics along with inquiry learning to foster scientific reasoning. Integration of physics learning in contexts that connect to other STEM disciplines is also an area for more research. Cross-cutting, interdisciplinary connections are becoming important features of the future generation physics curriculum and defines how physics should be taught collaboratively with other STEM courses.

This paper proposed meaningful areas for future research that are aligned with clearly defined education goals for twenty-first Century learning. Based on the existing literature, a number of challenges are noted for future directions of research, including the need for:

clear and operational definitions of goals to guide research and practice

concrete operational definitions of high-end abilities for which students are expected to develop

effective assessment methods and instruments to measure high-end abilities and other components of twenty-first Century learning

a knowledge base of the curriculum and teaching and learning environments that effectively support the development of advanced skills

integration of knowledge and ability development regarding within-discipline and cross-discipline learning in STEM

effective means to disseminate successful education practices

The list is by no means exhaustive, but these themes emerge above others. In addition, the high-end abilities discussed in this paper focus primarily on scientific reasoning, which is highly connected to other skills, such as critical thinking, systems thinking, multivariable modeling, computational thinking, design thinking, etc. These abilities are expected to develop in STEM learning, although some may be emphasized more within certain disciplines than others. Due to the limited scope of this paper, not all of these abilities were discussed in detail but should be considered an integral part of STEM learning.

Finally, a metacognitive position on education research is worth reflection. One important understanding is that the fundamental learning mechanism hasn’t changed, although the context in which learning occurs has evolved rapidly as a manifestation of the fast-forwarding technology world. Since learning is a process at the interface between a learner’s mind and the environment, the main focus of educators should always be on the learner’s interaction with the environment, not just the environment. In recent education developments, many new learning platforms have emerged at an exponential rate, such as the massive open online courses (MOOCs), STEM creative labs, and other online learning resources, to name a few. As attractive as these may be, it is risky to indiscriminately follow trends in education technology and commercially-incentivized initiatives before such interventions are shown to be effective by research. Trends come and go but educators foster students who have only a limited time to experience education. Therefore, delivering effective education is a high-stakes task and needs to be carefully and ethically planned and implemented. When game-changing opportunities emerge, one needs to not only consider the winners (and what they can win), but also the impact on all that is involved.

Based on a century of education research, consensus has settled on a fundamental mechanism of teaching and learning, which suggests that knowledge is developed within a learner through constructive processes and that team-based guided scientific inquiry is an effective method for promoting deep learning of content knowledge as well as developing high-end cognitive abilities, such as scientific reasoning. Emerging technology and methods should serve to facilitate (not to replace) such learning by providing more effective education settings and conveniently accessible resources. This is an important relationship that should survive many generations of technological and societal changes in the future to come. From a physicist’s point of view, a fundamental relation like this can be considered the “mechanics” of teaching and learning. Therefore, educators and researchers should hold on to these few fundamental principles without being distracted by the surfacing ripples of the world’s motion forward.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Abbreviations

American Association of Physics Teachers

Investigative Science Learning Environment

Inquiry in Scientific Thinking Analytics and Reasoning

Massive open online course

New Generation Science Standards

• Physics education research

Science Technology Engineering and Math

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Acknowledgements

The research is supported in part by NSF Awards DUE-1431908 and DUE-1712238. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this paper are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.

The research is supported in part by NSF Awards DUE-1431908 and DUE-1712238.

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I. INTRODUCTION

Ii. methods, iii. results and discussion, iv. conclusions, supplementary material, acknowledgments, author declarations, conflict of interest, author contributions, data availability, modification of transition pathways in polarized resonance raman spectroscopy for carbon nanotubes by highly confined near-field light.

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Yuto Fujita , Norihiko Hayazawa , Maria Vanessa Balois-Oguchi , Takuo Tanaka , Tomoko K. Shimizu; Modification of transition pathways in polarized resonance Raman spectroscopy for carbon nanotubes by highly confined near-field light. J. Appl. Phys. 21 May 2024; 135 (19): 193101. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0204121

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We observed a modification of transition pathways in polarized resonance Raman spectroscopy during tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (TERS) analysis of metallic carbon nanotubes (CNTs). At a spatial resolution reaching up to the sub-nanometer regime, the signal intensity of the typical D-band is observed to be even higher than the intensity of the G-band all over the probed CNTs in TERS imaging. The measured D-band is attributed to the non-vertical transitions of electrons in k -space that are facilitated by highly confined near-field light at the tip–sample junction of our scanning tunneling microscope based TERS system. The D-band signal was observed even when the CNTs were excited by light polarized perpendicular to the tube axis that corresponds to electronic excitations between different cutting line numbers of a CNT. By combining the electron pathways brought about by both the near-field light and its polarization, we found a unique optical transition of electrons of CNTs in near-field Raman spectroscopy.

Among the various methods to analyze the physical and chemical properties of materials, Raman spectroscopy stands out as a valuable technique because it enables non-contact and non-invasive characterization under ambient conditions. 1–4 However, conventional far-field Raman spectroscopy when used with a traditional light microscope could not analyze materials with nanometer scale dimensions due to the diffraction limit and the small scattering cross section in Raman scattering. Tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (TERS) provides a solution to overcome these challenges by utilizing the near-field light generated through local surface plasmon resonance at the apex of a sharp metallic tip that has a diameter of only a few tens of nanometers to both go beyond the diffraction limit and enhance the relatively weak Raman signal. 5,6 Raman spectroscopy with nanoscale spatial resolution is achieved by the confinement of near-field light at the probe tip apex and signal enhancement resulting from plasmon resonance. 7–9  

A consequence of such optical field confinement using metal nanostructures is the modification of transition pathways due to the breakdown of the dipole approximation. 10–17 Initial works reported observations of infrared (IR) active modes that were usually inactive during Raman experiments due to their complementary selection rules and explained this phenomenon through a theory called the “electric field gradient effect” that is caused by the near-field light. 12 In early studies employing TERS, the typical reported spatial resolution was limited to around 10 nm or larger. During this time, analysis on the data obtained was discussed based on the transition pathways of conventional far-field Raman spectroscopy. 18,19 As TERS technology continues to improve, the spatial resolution has also improved reaching the quantum size of less than 10 nm and even into sub-nanometer regime. 20–22 In this spatial resolution range, modification of the transition pathways occurred as well, not only in the detection of IR active modes, 13–15 but also Raman modes that should not be excited based on the Raman selection rules (called “Raman forbidden modes”) were detected. 16 Balois et al. reported the observation of defect-related Raman peaks in defect-free areas of graphene using sub-nanometer TERS analysis. 16 They attributed the appearance of these forbidden modes to the modification of the transition pathways by the high wavenumber of the near-field light at the tip-sample junction in a scanning tunneling microscope based TERS (STM-TERS) system. So far, the samples that have been studied in previous works related to the modification of transition pathways are mostly isotropic in nature, 15,16 and few works have investigated anisotropic materials that have strong polarization dependence. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) offer an opportunity to explore the transition pathways along with the polarization effect. They are good examples of anisotropic materials exhibiting strong polarization dependence 23,24 and a comparison with previous studies allows us to discuss the modification of Raman transition pathways in detail.

Here, we report the modification of transition pathways in TERS analysis of CNTs. TERS spectroscopic imaging with a spatial resolution of less than 1 nm under ambient conditions revealed D-band Raman signals across entire CNTs. The non-locality of the D-band is attributed to the modification of the transition pathways that is distinct from the defect-related features discussed in previous studies. 25 We propose that the modification is a result of non-vertical transitions of electrons in the electronic band structure of CNTs induced by highly confined near-field light. Furthermore, we delve into the mechanism behind the appearance of the D-band, considering excitation polarization.

Metallic carbon nanotubes (Meijo Nano Carbon Co., Ltd, diameter distribution 1.3–1.6 nm) were used in all the experiments. The CNTs were initially dispersed in 1,2-dichloroethene solvent and then spin-coated on a ∼200 nm-thick Au(111) thin film grown on a mica substrate (PHASIS Sàrl), followed by annealing in a low vacuum environment at 120 °C for 45 min twice to desorb residual solvent.

We used a home-built STM-TERS system for both far-field and near-field (TERS) Raman spectroscopy experiments 26 [ Fig. 1(a) ]. An electrochemically etched Au tip with a tip diameter of ∼40 nm (Fig. S1 in the supplementary material ) was used 27 for the STM and TERS experiments. Laser light ( λ  = 633 nm) polarized along the shaft of the tilted Au tip (30° tilt from normal of the substrate surface) was illuminated onto the sample at a 60° angle of incidence using a microscope objective lens (NA = 0.6, 50×, working distance = 11 mm, Nikon) as shown in Fig. 1(b) . The lens was used for focusing the incident laser light and collecting the backscattered light from the sample. The backscattered Raman was led into a spectrometer (grating = 600 g/mm, focal length = 30 cm, slit width = 100  μ m) and detected by a thermoelectrically cooled charge-coupled device (CCD) camera (1340 × 400 pixels, 20  μ m/pixel). For both far-field and TERS experiments, the laser power was set to 130  μ W at the sample. The integration time in the far-field point measurement was 600 s, whereas in the TERS experiments (both tip retracted and tip tunneling) was 0.5 s. TERS imaging was performed by scanning the sample with a step size of 1 nm/pixel using a XY piezo scanner. The tunneling current and the bias voltage were set to 40 pA and 300 mV, respectively, in all the STM and TERS measurements.

The experimental system. (a) Schematic of the STM-TERS system enclosed in an environment-controlled chamber. The objective lens and the optics ensemble (cyan box) are mounted on a movable XYZ stage, whereas the STM unit is mounted on a fixed damper stage. (b) Configuration of the tip, the sample, and the laser illumination in the STM-TERS system. The tip is tilted 30° from the normal of the substrate surface. The laser light is polarized along the tip shaft with an incident angle of 60°.

For the peak fitting, a single Voigt line shape was employed. We removed the contribution of the spectrometer that has a Gaussian shape with a full width at half maximum (FWHM) of 10 cm −1 and used only the Lorentzian component for the TERS spectroscopic imaging data.

To determine the electric field distribution at the tip–substrate junction, we used a commercially available finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) solver (Lumerical, Ansys). A three-dimensional FDTD model whose simulation space spans 2500 nm in the x , y , and z directions was used. Perfectly matched layers were introduced for the boundary conditions. Mesh sizes of 0.25 nm/pixel was used for the z direction, while 0.5 nm/pixel was used for the x – y directions. A conical Au structure with a length of 500 nm, a radius of 20 nm, a cone angle of 5°, and tilted 30° from the normal of the substrate surface was assumed to simulate the TERS tip, while a flat rectangular substrate with a thickness of more than 100 nm was used to simulate the Au substrate. The mica substrate was not included in the FDTD simulations. For the light source, we used a wavelength of 633 nm with an incident angle of 60° and polarized along the tip shaft.

Figure 2(a) shows the STM image of an isolated CNT on the Au(111) substrate obtained by our STM-TERS system. The diameter of the CNT was estimated to be ∼1.8 nm from the apparent height in the STM image [ Fig. 2(b) ]. Although the specifications of our sample stated that the diameter distribution is within the range of 1.3–1.6 nm, we confirmed that CNTs with larger diameters were also present in the bulk sample by conducting radial breathing mode (RBM) measurements using a separate confocal Raman system (Fig. S2 in the supplementary material ).

STM and TERS measurements. (a) 40 × 40 nm 2 STM image of a CNT on a Au(111) thin film grown on a mica substrate. Light blue rectangle is the scanned area for TERS imaging in Fig. 3 . Scale bar indicates 10 nm. (b) Height profile along the red line in (a). (c) Three spectra taken from designated points shown in (a): TERS spectrum at the CNT (point A: blue line), TERS spectrum at the bare substrate (point B: green line), and far-field Raman spectrum (point A: purple line). The integration time is 0.5 s. (d) Far-field Raman spectrum of the sample. The integration time is 600 s.

We measured TERS and far-field Raman spectra at specific areas of the scanned region as indicated in Fig. 2(a) . In both the TERS and the far-field Raman spectra of the CNTs [as shown in Fig. 2(c) , blue spectrum, and Fig. 2(d) , purple spectrum, respectively], a broad background continuum was observed. This broad background continuum gives us an important guideline for efficient tip-enhancement through the change of its spectral line shape. The broad background mainly originates from the substrate since its spectral shape is similar to the far-field Raman spectrum of the substrate itself (Fig. S3 in the supplementary material ). We initially associated the broad background continuum to electronic Raman scattering 28,29 or photoluminescence 30 from the Au(111) substrate. But upon further comparison of the broad background continuum from the TERS and the far-field Raman spectra, we found that there was a notable shift in the position of the line shapes' centers of mass. The center of mass in the far-field Raman spectrum is initially at ∼300 cm −1 , whereas in the TERS spectra its position shifts to ∼1150 cm −1 . This shift indicates that along with the substrate there are other sources of the background. One suspect would be the CNTs, as they can exhibit electronic Raman scattering. 31 However, when we compared the TERS spectrum of the CNT and the bare Au surface [blue and green spectra, respectively, in Fig. 2(c) ], we observed almost no difference in the broad background continuum. This observation suggests that the peak shift does not originate from the CNT. Another possible source is the TERS tip that is always present during TERS measurements and would consistently contribute to the TERS signal. We attribute the center of mass shift to the plasmonic response of the gap mode between the Au tip and the Au(111) substrate. 26 This broad, enhanced and shifted background line shape originating from the plasmonic response of the gap overlaps well with the Raman fingerprint region and is a good indicator for effective tip-enhancement of Raman signals from CNTs.

The blue TERS spectrum in Fig. 2(c) acquired at point A on the CNT in Fig. 2(a) exhibits two main Raman peaks characteristic to CNTs, namely, the D-band ( ω D  = 1318 cm −1 ) and the G-band ( ω G  = 1595 cm −1 ). While the D-band is normally correlated to the presence of defects, the G-band is an intrinsic peak of CNTs. We did not observe the 2D-band at ∼2640 cm −1 , which is also an intrinsic characteristic peak of CNTs. Note that our STM-TERS system cannot observe the RBM mode due to the cutoff frequency of the dichroic edge filters. To confirm that the observed peaks were not from contaminants on the tip or the substrate, a TERS spectrum was also measured on a bare surface of the substrate [point B in Fig. 2(a) ], as shown by the green spectrum in Fig. 2(c) . The featureless TERS spectrum verifies the clean tip and the substrate. Furthermore, the observed CNT TERS peaks taken at point A in Fig. 2(a) disappeared when the tip was retracted, thus verifying that these peaks indeed arise from the tip-enhanced effect.

Comparison of the Raman peak's relative intensities in the TERS and the far-field Raman spectra provides valuable insights into the governing transition pathways of TERS. A noticeable difference arises in the relative intensities of the D-band. The far-field Raman spectrum in Fig. 2(d) exhibits the G-band ( ω G  = 1593 cm −1 ) and the 2D-band ( ω 2D  = 2642 cm −1 ) with comparable intensities, while the D-band is small or almost negligible (see also Fig. S4 in Sec. IV of the supplementary material ). In contrast, in the TERS spectrum, the intensity of the D-band is significantly higher than that of the G-band, while the 2D-band is absent. The disappearance of the 2D-band in the TERS spectra is a manifestation of the competitive nature between the D-band and the 2D-band since their excitation pathways are both double resonance processes, 23 i.e., when the D-band is strong, the 2D-band is weak and vice versa.

To examine the spatial distribution of each peak in the CNT, TERS images were acquired within the scanned area [light blue rectangle in Fig. 2(a) , step size of 1 nm/pixel]. Figure 3 shows the TERS images of intensity ( I ), Raman shift ( ω ), and spectral width (Γ) of the D-, G-, and 2D-band. Since we used the same STM-TERS system described in our previous work, 16 wherein the spatial resolution of less than 1 nm was demonstrated, we estimated the resolution of our TERS experiments to also be less than 1 nm. Based on the detected TERS and far-field Raman intensities as well as the detected volumes for G-band, the estimated enhancement factor is ∼10 8 (Sec. V in the supplementary material ). Figures 3(a) – 3(c) and Figs. 3(d) – 3(f) show homogeneous D-band and G-band images, respectively, while Figs. 3(g) – 3(i) show almost no 2D-band signals. Interestingly, intense D-bands across the entire CNT were also found for all the probed CNTs located at different areas of the sample (Figs. S6 and S7 in the supplementary material ). Since the CNTs dispersed onto the substrate were prepared using the same processed solution, defect densities should be similar in all CNTs. If the observed D-band in the TERS measurements came from defects, an appreciable D-band signal should be detectable in the far-field measurements due to the averaging effect of all these CNTs. However, almost no D-band was detected in the far-field Raman spectrum [ Fig. 2(d) ]. Therefore, another source for the D-band must be present aside from defects. A possible origin is the modification of the transition pathways for the D-band during TERS measurements.

TERS imaging of scanned region (light blue rectangle) in Fig. 2(a) with a step size of 1 nm/pixel. (a) intensity ( I D ), (b) Raman shift ( ω D ), (c) spectral width (Γ D ) of the D-band; (d) intensity ( I G ), (e) Raman shift ( ω G ), (f) spectral width (Γ G ) of the G-band; and (g) intensity ( I 2D ), (h) Raman shift ( ω 2D ), (i) spectral width (Γ 2D ) of the 2D-band. The scale bar corresponds to 10 nm.

We attribute the activation of unusual D-bands to the non-vertical transitions of electrons in the k -space, theoretically predicted by Pratama et al. 17 To discuss this mechanism, we recall the typical activation of the D-band and polarization dependence of CNTs. The Au(111) substrate we used is originally an inert metal 29 and its surface is covered by molecules (mainly water) from the surroundings that works as a decoupling layer. Thus, the interaction between CNTs and the Au(111) substrate could be negligible and it is possible to discuss our experimental data based on the intrinsic properties of the CNTs. The typical activation of the D-band is when defects are present and is based on double resonance Raman scattering in conventional far-field Raman spectroscopy as illustrated in Fig. 4(a) . 32 When laser light with appropriate excitation energy excites a CNT, (1) a photon is absorbed as the first resonance and (2) the excited electron gives rise to phonon emission by electron–phonon scattering as the second resonance. It is followed by (3) electron scattering with exchanged momentum by defects and (4) a photon is emitted as Raman scattering after electron-hole recombination through the vertical transition. When no defect exists, the aforementioned process cannot satisfy momentum conservation due to the lack of process (3); thus, the D-band should not be observed.

Mechanisms of the D-band activation. The left column shows the schematic of various experimental configurations and the right column shows the corresponding energy diagrams of electron transitions in a CNT. (a) Vertical transition process with defects excited by light polarized parallel to the CNT axis (conventional far-field Raman spectroscopy); (b) vertical transition process with defects excited by light polarized perpendicular to the CNT axis (conventional far-field Raman spectroscopy); (c) vertical transition process with defects excited by plasmon resonance enhanced (SERS) near-field light polarized perpendicular to the CNT axis; (d) non-vertical transition and plasmon-mediated transition process without defects excited by plasmon resonance enhanced (STM-TERS) highly confined near-field light polarized perpendicular to the CNT axis.

During the double resonance process, the polarization of the incident light must be taken into account. This is because the excitation from the valence band v n v to the conduction band c n c in CNTs (represented as Δ = n c − n v ⁠ , where n c and n v are integers) depends on whether the incident light is polarized parallel or perpendicular to the tube axis. 33 In most reported cases, the incident electric field parallel to the tube axis is assumed. This situation corresponds to the resonance of Δ = 0 ⁠ , in which the electrons are excited, e.g., from v 1 to c 1 [ Fig. 4(a) ]. In contrast, the electronic transition of Δ = ± 1 occurs when the polarization is perpendicular to the tube axis, resulting in excited electrons, e.g., from v 1 to c 2 [ Fig. 4(b) ]. However, the Raman signal is too weak to be observed when the polarization is perpendicular to the tube axis due to the depolarization effect 23 in far-field Raman measurements. Thus, the Raman signals are observed only when the CNTs are excited with light polarized parallel to the tube axes. 34  

By using signal enhancement at a nanogap between metal nanostructures, the Raman signal from CNTs oriented perpendicular to the excitation polarization can be observed. This phenomenon was reported by Takase et al. using the nanogap in surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) 10 [ Fig. 4(c) ]. A similar discussion can be applied to our gap mode TERS, in which the dominant near-field polarization is perpendicular to the tube axis as shown in Fig. 4(d) .

In order to understand the behavior of the electric field at the junction between the tip and the substrate, the electric field distribution at the tip–substrate junction was calculated by FDTD simulations [ Fig. 5 ]. Figures 5(a) – 5(c) show the x , y , and z -components, respectively, of the tip-enhanced electric field for a tip–substrate distance of 2.8 nm that corresponds to the sum of the tunneling gap of ∼1 nm and the CNT height of ∼1.8 nm (see also Fig. S8 in the supplementary material ). The axis of the CNT was set along the y -direction. Based on the FDTD simulations, the z -component of the enhanced electric field is considerable due to the gap mode configuration, while the x -component is relatively weaker. The y -component that is parallel to the CNT's axis is almost negligible. Both the z - and x -directions that contribute to the enhanced electric field are perpendicular to the CNT's axis. Therefore, from the simulations, we expect that the CNTs are pre-dominantly excited by near-field light polarized perpendicular to the tube axes, and this configuration enables the observation of Raman peaks with a resonance condition of the Δ = ± 1 electronic transition [ Fig. 4(d) ].

Scaled (to the | E z | 2 component) electric field distribution at the tip–substrate junction calculated via FDTD. (a) | E x | 2 ⁠ , (b) | E y | 2 ⁠ , (c) | E z | 2 components of the tip-enhanced electric field.

The appearance of Raman signals from CNTs with the resonance condition of the Δ = ± 1 electronic transition is reasonable when we consider the Kataura plot, which shows the resonance energies between van Hove singularities in CNTs. 35,36 The main assumption in the Kataura plot is that the CNT's tube axis is parallel to the polarization of the incident light such as the case in Fig. 4(a) . Based on the Kataura plot, a metallic CNT with a height of ∼1.8 nm, which was observed in our experiment, should not show resonances with our laser with an energy of 1.96 eV because neither the resonance energies of transition of v 1 and c 1 ( ⁠ M 11 ⁠ : 1.3–1.4 eV) nor v 2 and c 2 ( ⁠ M 22 ⁠ : 2.5–2.8 eV) matches the laser energy. In contrast, the transition energy between v 1 and c 2 is reasonably estimated to be in the middle of M 11 and M 22 ⁠ , which is 1.9–2.1 eV. This range of resonance energies agrees well with our laser energy, thus, explaining the occurrence of the electronic transition of Δ = ± 1 ⁠ . We can also confirm the resonance conditions for cross-polarized transitions in CNTs in a previous study. 37  

Knowing both the double resonance process of the D-band and the polarization dependence of CNTs, we can finally discuss the non-vertical transitions of electrons in the k -space. In conventional far-field Raman spectroscopy, the focus spot of the propagating light is much larger than the crystal lattice of a CNT in real space. In the k -space, the wavenumber of this light is much smaller than the range of the Brillouin zone of a CNT. Therefore, electrons interacting with far-field light move almost vertically in the electronic band structure such as processes (1) and (4) in Fig. 4(a) . In TERS, the spatial distribution and wavenumber of the actual near-field light can be estimated from the spatial resolution of the TERS system, which is one of the advantages of TERS compared with SERS. When the CNT is irradiated by highly confined near-field light with a size of less than 1 nm, the confined light gives rise to non-vertical transitions during both the first electron excitation and the emission of Raman scattered light because of the high wavenumber 17 [ Fig. 4(d) ]. We propose that the second non-vertical transition during the emission of Raman scattered light, which we call the “plasmon-mediated transition,” completes the double resonance process, and allows the excitation of the D-band without the presence of any defects. 11,16

It should be noted that the near-field light confinement down to a diameter ( d ) less than 1 nm in the gap consists of much higher wavenumber contribution ( k NF ≈ π / d > 10 7 c m − 1 ) than that of the propagating light ( ∼ 10 4 c m − 1 ) based on Fourier optics in the k -space. 38 As the spatial resolution becomes 1 nm or sub-nanometer, the corresponding quasi-wavenumber contributions larger than 10 7  cm −1 contained in the near-field light is relatively increased, such that it can compensate the wavenumber mismatch in the k -space. In addition, the spatial resolution does not directly translate to the optical confinement in ambient condition. Considering the unavoidable thermal drift in ambient, the actual near-field light confinement can be even better than the spatial resolution. This extremely high quasi-wavenumber of near-field light is comparable to the wavevector of the full phonon dispersion, reaching up to the boundary of the Brillouin zone, whose value is π / a ≈ 10 8 c m − 1 ( ⁠ a is the lattice constant of CNTs). 11,16 It is worth mentioning that the high quasi-wavenumber of near-field light suggests that the k -vector is a complex entity in the sense that the real part contributes to the non-vertical transition whereas the imaginary part contributes to the non-propagative evanescent nature resulting in the high spatial resolution.

Although the concept of quasi-wavenumber does not require the presence of plasmons, plasmonic enhancement is required for signal enhancement based on the Purcell effect due to the enhanced density of photonic states by the plasmon polaritons in the confined mode volume at the gap. 39 In this sense, the observed signal is the plasmon-enhanced Raman scattering based on the theory of a three-particle process involving a photon, a phonon and a plasmon 40,41 as compared to the conventional wisdom of first order Raman scattering being a two-particle process between photon and phonon. While the alternative description by the three-particle process is a promising theoretical description of our experimental observations, the work is limited to the spatial resolution within the dipole approximation. Our experimental work that goes beyond the dipole approximation with quasi-momentum could provide the experimental framework that can be synergistically developed with the three-particle process theory applicable beyond the dipole approximation.

Using STM-TERS with a spatial resolution below 1 nm, we thoroughly investigated the modification of transition pathways and its polarization dependence in CNTs. Our work has two main findings obtained through spectral analysis and imaging: (1) Raman signals from CNTs can be acquired with the resonance condition of the electronic transition of Δ = ± 1 by using signal enhancement at a nanogap between metal nanostructures; and (2) the D-band peak, which is generally attributed to defects, appears from CNTs even in the absence of defects due to non-vertical transitions of electrons induced by the highly confined near-field light. By combining these two findings, we proposed a new optical transition of electrons for CNTs. Our results demonstrate the possible emergence of new transition pathways applicable to the nanoscale for anisotropic materials.

See the supplementary material for additional data. Section I shows SEM images of the used Au tip. Section II describes the experimental measurement of the radial breathing modes and shows the far-field Raman spectra of the CNTs' powder sample using lasers with different wavelengths. Section III shows a representative far-field Raman spectrum of a Au(111) thin film grown on a mica substrate. Section IV shows the far-field Raman spectrum of the sample with an exposure time of 1 h. The calculation of the TERS enhancement factor is described in Sec. V. Section VI shows STM images, TERS spectra, and TERS images of CNTs located at various areas. Section VII shows the line profiles of the tip-enhanced field as shown in Fig. 5(c).

We are grateful to Dr. Y. K. Kato for the helpful discussion on the band structures of CNTs. This work was supported by RIKEN Junior Research Associate Program (Y.F.) and financially supported by the Keio University Doctorate Student Grant-in-Aid Program from Ushioda Memorial Fund (Graduate school recommendation) (Y.F.), the Grant-in-Aid for Challenging Research (Exploratory) (KAKENHI) No. 22K18958 (N.H.), the Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (B) (KAKENHI) No. 20H02625 (N.H.), the Grant-in-Aid for Early Carrier Scientists No. 23K13640 (M.V.B.-O.), JST CREST No. JPMJCR1904 (T.T.), Keio University Academic Development Funds for Individual Research (T.K.S.), and MEXT-KAKENHI No. 20H05849 (T.K.S.).

The authors have no conflicts to disclose.

Yuto Fujita: Conceptualization (equal); Data curation (lead); Formal analysis (equal); Investigation (equal); Methodology (equal); Software (equal); Validation (equal); Visualization (equal); Writing – original draft (lead); Writing – review & editing (equal). Norihiko Hayazawa: Conceptualization (lead); Data curation (equal); Formal analysis (equal); Funding acquisition (lead); Investigation (equal); Methodology (equal); Project administration (lead); Resources (equal); Software (supporting); Supervision (lead); Validation (equal); Visualization (equal); Writing – original draft (equal); Writing – review & editing (lead). Maria Vanessa Balois-Oguchi: Conceptualization (equal); Data curation (equal); Formal analysis (equal); Funding acquisition (supporting); Investigation (equal); Methodology (lead); Project administration (supporting); Resources (supporting); Software (lead); Supervision (equal); Validation (equal); Visualization (supporting); Writing – original draft (supporting); Writing – review & editing (equal). Takuo Tanaka: Conceptualization (supporting); Formal analysis (supporting); Funding acquisition (equal); Investigation (supporting); Methodology (supporting); Project administration (lead); Resources (equal); Supervision (equal); Validation (supporting); Visualization (supporting); Writing – original draft (supporting); Writing – review & editing (supporting). Tomoko K. Shimizu: Conceptualization (supporting); Formal analysis (supporting); Funding acquisition (supporting); Investigation (supporting); Methodology (supporting); Project administration (lead); Resources (equal); Supervision (equal); Validation (equal); Visualization (supporting); Writing – original draft (supporting); Writing – review & editing (equal).

Data presented in this work is available upon reasonable request.

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Aristotle’s Physics A Collection of Essays

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The Physics is one of Aristotle's masterpieces - a work of extraordinary intellectual power which has had a profound influence on the development of metaphysics and the philosophy of science, as well as on the development of physics itself. This collection of ten new essays by leading Aristotelian scholars examines a wide range of issues in the Physics and related works, including method, causation and explanation, chance, teleology, the infinite, the nature of time, the critique of atomism, the role of mathematics in Aristotle's physics, and the concept of self-motion. The essays offer fresh approaches to Aristotle's work in these areas, and important new interpretations of his thought. The book also contains an extensive bibliography.

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Newfound 'glitch' in Einstein's relativity could rewrite the rules of the universe, study suggests

Einstein's theory of general relativity is our best description of the universe at large scales, but a new observation that reports a "glitch" in gravity around ancient structures could force it to be modified.

A strange "cosmic glitch" in gravity could explain the universe's weird behavior on the largest scales, researchers suggest. 

First formulated by Albert Einstein in 1915, the theory of general relativity remains our best and most accurate understanding of how gravity works on medium to large scales. 

Yet, zoom out even farther to view enormous groups of gravitationally bound galaxies interacting, and some inconsistencies appear to emerge. This suggests that gravity, which is theorized to be a constant across all times and scales, could actually become slightly weaker at cosmic distances. 

In a study published March 20 in the Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics , researchers described this discrepancy as a "cosmic glitch," and they say their proposed fix for it could help us understand some of the universe's most enduring mysteries.

"[It's] like making a puzzle on the surface of a sphere, then laying the pieces on a flat table and trying to fit them together," study co-author Niayesh Afshordi , a professor of astrophysics at the University of Waterloo in Ontario, told Live Science. "At some point, the pieces on the table will not quite fit each other, because you are using the wrong framework.

Related: James Webb telescope confirms there is something seriously wrong with our understanding of the universe  

"The glitch is the smoking gun for a fundamental violation of Einstein's equivalence principle (or Lorentz symmetry), which could point to radically different pictures for quantum gravity, the Big Bang , or black holes," Afshordi added.

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Cosmos for concern 

Einstein's theory of general relativity is remarkably good at describing the universe above quantum scales, and it has even predicted other aspects of our cosmos, including black holes , the gravitational lensing of light, gravitational waves, and the Big Bang.

Yet some discrepancies between theory and reality remain. First, attempts to scale down general relativity to describe how gravity operates on quantum scales transform its usually robust equations into incomprehensible nonsense. 

Second, completing our current model of the universe required the introduction of two mysterious additions, known as dark matter and dark energy . Believed to make up most of the contents of the universe, these entities have never been directly detected and fail to explain why our cosmos is expanding at different speeds depending on where we look . 

In response to these problems, the authors of the new paper came up with a simple suggestion: a tweak to Einstein's theory at different distance scales.

"The modification is very simple: We assume the universal constant of gravitation is different on cosmological scales, compared to smaller (like solar system or galactic) scales," Afshordi said. "We call this a cosmic glitch."

Afshordi said this tweak makes changes to patterns found in the cosmic microwave background — the leftover radiation produced 380,000 years after the Big Bang — and in the universe's structure and expansion. These adjustments are subtle, but the implication that the laws of gravity change over distance scales could be profound.

"We find evidence for the glitch: cosmic gravity is about 1% weaker than galactic/solar-system gravity," he added. 

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The researchers said the glitch's existence could be confirmed by next-generation galaxy surveys, including those performed with the European Space Agency 's Euclid space telescope , the Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument and the Simons Observatory . They say that these instruments should make measurements of the glitch four times more precise than is currently possible and, therefore, confirm or rule out their theory.

However, some scientists say a simple modification of Einstein's relativity might not be enough. In fact, it's possible that the discrepancies revealed by astronomical observations are hints that our understanding of the universe needs a complete rewrite.

"It's not that surprising that this new model is a slightly better fit to the data, but maybe that is telling us something," said Scott Dodelson , a professor of physics and the chair of the physics department at Carnegie Mellon University, who was not involved in the study.

"If so, it means we understand even less than we thought we did," he told Live Science. "My hunch is that instead of adding more new stuff, we need a new paradigm. But no one has come up with anything that makes any sense yet."

Ben Turner is a U.K. based staff writer at Live Science. He covers physics and astronomy, among other topics like tech and climate change. He graduated from University College London with a degree in particle physics before training as a journalist. When he's not writing, Ben enjoys reading literature, playing the guitar and embarrassing himself with chess.

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CUET 2024 Physics Question Paper SET A, B, C, D, Download Question Paper PDF

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CUET Physics Question Paper 2024 - The National Testing Agency will soon releases the CUET Physics 2024 question paper in online mode. Students can download the CUET 2024 Physics question paper by visiting the official website - nta.ac.in. The CUET Physics question paper covers all the important topics from the syllabus of the Common University Entrance Test .

New:  CUET 2024 Answer Key: Chemistry |  Biology |  English |  General Test | Physics

Latest:  CUET 2024 admit card link | CUET 2024 Companion

CUET UG MCQs: B.Sc.  | B.A. | B.Com. | B.B.A. |  L.L.B.

Also Check: MCQs, PYQs, Mock Tests & Study Resources

The CUET 2024 Physics exam is being held on May 16, in offline mode (pen and paper format) from 10 am to 11 am. Students can download the CUET question papers to understand the type of questions that will be asked in the examination. Candidates are advised to download the CUET physics question paper to cover all the important topics that can be covered in the examination. The CUET 2024 is being held from May 15 to 24, in hybrid mode. Read the entire article to know more about the details and benefits of the CUET Physics question paper 2024.

Benefits of Solving CUET 2024 Physics Question Paper

Solving the CUET UG Physics 2024 test paper makes the preparation of candidates easier. Students can boost their confidence by practising the CUET Physics question papers. The benefits of practising the CUET Physics 2024 question paper are listed below:

Candidates can complete their CUET preparation in a short duration by practising the CUET UG Physics question paper.

It will boost your confidence and prepare you better for the main exam.

Students can understand the type of questions asked and understand the CUET exam pattern .

Students can make strategies to attempt a maximum number of questions correctly.

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Also Read, CUET 2024 Physics Answer Key

Previous Year CUET Physics Question Paper

Students can score more marks in the exam by often practising the CUET Physics previous year’s question papers . The CUET Physics previous year question paper contains the important topics that can be asked during the examination. Solving the CUET question paper for Physics will not only help you know the type of questions asked but also improve your understanding of attempting such questions.

Students should analyse the CUET previous year papers and make a strategy to attempt a maximum number of questions in the given time. Candidates can attempt the CUET Physics question paper 2024 faster by practising the previous year papers.

CUET Physics Question Paper - Previous Year

Note : Students can compare the question paper with the CUET answer key to get an estimation of their score in the exam.

Frequently Asked Question (FAQs)

The CUET 2024 Physics paper was held on May 16, 2024.

The CUET 2024 Physics exam consisted of multiple choice questions (MCQs).

The CUET Physics exam paper has 50 questions, out of which 40 need to be attempted.

Students can download the CUET 2024 Physics question paper by clicking on the link provided in this article or by visiting the official website at nta.ac.in.

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Questions related to CUET UG

Hello aspirant,

Candidates can learn the questions that will be asked in the CUET UG entrance test by downloading the CUET question papers pdf and using them as a study guide for the Common University Entrance Test. Students can better comprehend the exam format, question formats, and key themes covered by using the CUET previous year question papers with answers pdf.

To get previous year CUET question papers with answers, you can visit our website by clicking on the link given below.

https://university.careers360.com/articles/cuet-question-papers

Hope this information helps you.

Hello aspirant

This is a big mistake , how can you select a wrong board.  Anyways as correction window is closed , nothing  can be done now .

First thing don't be panic , think calmly , send a mail to official website of cuet .

If they are responding it is well and good . You won't face difficulty at the time of entrance exam but at the time of counseling this issue can create a great problem.

If you are not getting response to your mail , you woll have to go to venue of cuet . Any how you will have to solve this issue otherwise your one year time will get wasted.

Students aspiring to enroll in undergraduate programs at leading universities in India need to prepare for the CUET entrance exam. The syllabus for the CUET exam is published on the official website of the National Testing Agency at cuet.samarth.ac.in.

For more information, please visit:

https://university.careers360.com/articles/cuet-syllabus-2025

Submitting your NEET form with your surname, even if it is not on your Aadhar card, should generally not cause significant trouble. Since you have already requested a correction in your Aadhar card, keep proof of your request and any acknowledgment. If the correction is not processed before the NEET correction window ends, inform NEET authorities and follow their guidance.

Hope this helps you,

https://www.google.com/amp/s/medicine.careers360.com/exams/neet/amp

It is very essential to follow the guidelines provided by the exam conducting authority regarding passport size photos. Using a different photo than the one specified in the exam application form may lead to complications or even disqualification from the exam. Always ensure that you adhere to the specified requirements to avoid any issues during the exam process.

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