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Taking Armed Groups Seriously: Ways to Improve their Compliance with International Humanitarian Law

Lawfare in hybrid wars: the 21 st century warfare.

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Proportionality and Autonomous Weapons Systems

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Journal of International Humanitarian Action

Aims and scope

The  Journal of International Humanitarian Action  is an open access peer-reviewed journal for researchers, policymakers, practitioners, and anyone moved to understand contemporary challenges, reflect critically on practices, and engage at humanitarian action’s leading edge.

The journal welcomes original academic and/or practice-informed contributions not only from scholars of international humanitarian law or practitioners of global nonprofit management, but also from myriad other areas spanning the social sciences and humanities and beyond.

The journal regularly publishes special collections that discuss in detail pressing questions of humanitarian action. Given the diversity of our readership, the editors seek proposals that transcend disciplinary and sectional divisions and promote rigorous and inclusive discourse around the challenges, problems, and practices of humanitarian action.

The complete Aims and Scope and the full list of topics covered by the Journal is available here .

Editors in Chief

Patrycja grzebyk.

Associate Professor at the University of Warsaw. NOHA Board Member. European Society of International Law Board Member. NOHA Director at the University of Warsaw. Research agenda: International Humanitarian Law, International Criminal law, Use of Force role of international courts.

Clara Egger

Assistant Professor of Global Governance at the Erasmus School of Behavioural and Social Sciences of the Erasmus University Rotterdam. Chair of the International Organizations section of the International Studies Association. Research agenda: political economy of crisis governance and humanitarian aid.

Collections and Calls for Papers

Call for Papers! Agenda for Humanity Revisited

Call for Papers! The state and future of humanitarian studies: A Special Collection to Celebrate 30 Years of the Network on Humanitarian Action (NOHA)

Call for Papers! International Organizations, Humanitarian Action and Human Rights: Effects of COVID-19  (Closed)

This special collection explores how responses to the COVID-19 pandemic have affected the provision of humanitarian aid and the protection of human rights.

Past Thematic Collections collections on topics of special interest are available for consultation  here .

• Most accessed

EDUBox: finding suitable locations for offgrid mobile classrooms in the context of underserved communities

Authors: Alberto Martinetti, Nina Trauernicht, Margot Dietrich and Peter Chemweno

Disaggregation of humanitarian data by disability: a realist evaluation of the use of the Washington Group Questions to support more inclusive practices

Authors: Claire F. O’Reilly and Caroline Jagoe

The effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on violations of the right to integrity of the person

Authors: Valentina Carraro

A human rights-based approach for effective criminal justice response to human trafficking

Authors: Saba Demeke

Redefining doubt in cases of uncertainty: an analysis of the 2023 US DoD Law of War Manual revision to the presumption of civilian status in armed conflict

Authors: Arthur van Coller

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Humanitarian behavior across high-/low-context cultures: a comparative analysis between Switzerland and Colombia

Authors: Omid Alizadeh Afrouzi

Understanding sexual violence in armed conflict: cutting ourselves with Occam’s razor

Authors: Rosanne Marrit Anholt

Classical humanitarianism and resilience humanitarianism: making sense of two brands of humanitarian action

Authors: Dorothea Hilhorst

Crisis analytics: big data-driven crisis response

Authors: Junaid Qadir, Anwaar Ali, Raihan ur Rasool, Andrej Zwitter, Arjuna Sathiaseelan and Jon Crowcroft

Big data, privacy and COVID-19 – learning from humanitarian expertise in data protection

Authors: Andrej Zwitter and Oskar J. Gstrein

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The  Journal of International Humanitarian Action has been published in 100% Gold Open Access format since its inception. Articles published in Gold OA format confer CC-BY copyright to the author and are immediately available to be read, cited, and built upon by all.  APCs are charged on article acceptance . For further details, see our  article-processing charge webpage . 

Publishing is not without costs; however, authors do not typically pay the fee themselves, and the way your APC is covered has no bearing on the editorial outcome of your submission. 

Did you know that there are almost 200 open access article processing charge (APC) funds available to researchers worldwide? Many funding bodies require that research publications resulting from their grants are made freely available to all. By publishing your research with us you fully comply with open access mandates, and the publishing costs may be entirely covered by the research grant. This means that you won’t have to pay any publishing fee and you retain the copyright (check  here  how to discover more). 

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From 2023 to 2027, some articles may be generously supported in their entirety or in part by the  Network on Humanitarian Action (NOHA) . Authors with no Open Access funding can request the sponsorship by contacting the Editors in Chief Patrycja Grzebyk or Clara Egger  before submitting the manuscript.

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Research guide for ihrc at addis ababa school of law (ethiopia), law of armed conflict, ihl & national security, ihl & human rights law, ihl & cyber crimes, detention in non-international armed conflicts.

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International humanitarian law (aka "laws of armed conflict" or "laws of war") is the set of rules that regulates conduct in armed conflict and seeks to limit effects of armed conflict. The main sources of IHL rules and regulations are treaties and customary international law. 

A treaty is “an international agreement concluded between States in written form and governed by international law, whether embodied in a single instrument or in two or more related instruments and whatever its particular designation." ( VCLT, Art. 2 ) For assistance with treaty terminology, see the UN Treaty Glossary .

Key treaties relevant to international humanitarian law include: 

• The Hague Conventions (and Annexed Regulations) of 1899 and 1907
• The Geneva Conventions and Protocols  (four Geneva Conventions of 1949 and Additional Protocols)

Customary International Law

Customary international law refers to rules of law derived from consistent state practice of international acts over time occurring out of a sense of legal obligation. Thus, a rule of customary international law is demonstrated by showing evidence of two elements: state practice (objective element) + and opinio juris (subjective element). 

• ICRC Customary IHL Database : online version of ICRC's study on customary international humanitarian law with two sections: rules and practice.

The law of armed conflict (aka international humanitarian law) is the body of international law that regulates behavior during armed conflict. 

Relevant subject headings to find books on the law of armed conflict include:

• Humanitarian law
• War (International law)
• Military weapons (International law)

Journal Articles (Open Access)

• Vol. 51 Issue #3 of the Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law was a special issue on the law of armed conflict. Other articles from this issue can be accessed here . 
• Eric Talbot Jensen, The Future of the Law of Armed Conflict: Ostriches, Butterflies, and Nanobots , 35 Mich. J. Int'l L. 253 (2014).
• UN Audiovisual Library of International Law: Law of Armed Conflict Provides access to a video lecture series pertaining to the law of armed conflict.
• Rule of Law in Armed Conflict Project Website that monitors situations of armed conflict.

National security can be defined as "the ability of a state to cater for the protection and defence of its citizenry." [ UN Chronicle, National Security vs. Global Security ] The issue of whether protecting national security is a legitimate ground to detain and restrict the liberties of persons in armed conflict situations gives rise to international humanitarian law and human rights law questions. 

Books & Supplements

• International Humanitarian Law Teaching Supplement - National Security Law Document produced by the International Humanitarian Law Clinic at Emory University School of Law on the integration of national security and IHL.

Research Papers

• Zelalem Mogessie Teferra, National Security and the Right to Liberty in Armed Conflict: The Legality and Limits of Security Detention in International Humanitarian Law , 98 Int'l Rev. Red Cross 961 (2016). 

International human rights law deals with the protection of individuals and groups against violations of civil, political, economic, social, and cultural rights under international law. International human rights law is a public international law topic. Human rights law and IHL are complementary with some overlapping aims and objectives. Please see the ICRC's What is the difference between IHL and human rights law?  webpage for an overview of their origins and scope of application.

Online Casebooks

• ICRC - IHL and Human Rights Provides an overview and bibliography of cases and documents pertaining to IHL and human rights law.

Research Guides

• PLRC Research Guide on International Human Rights Law Research Research guide that provides an overview of how to conduct international human rights research. This guide was created for Northwestern Pritzker School of Law, so some of the resources on this guide are restricted to the Northwestern Law community.

Events & Lectures

• Center for Strategic & International Studies: Restoring Humanitarian Access in Ethiopia Video and transcript of event held in February 2021 by CSIS focused on the challenges to humanitarian access in Ethiopia.
• African Human Rights Law Journal Open access, peer-reviewed journal published twice a year (July & December) by the Pretoria University Law Press (PULP), which took over from Juta as publisher in 2013. It is published in association with the Centre for Human Rights, Faculty of Law, University of Pretoria.

Cyber warfare refers to war that is waged within cyberspace rather than through military hostilities on the ground. 

• Jonathan Horowitz, Cyber Operations under International Humanitarian Law: Perspectives from the ICRC , 24 Am. Soc'y of Int'l L. (2020).
• U.N. Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) Cybercrime Repository Database containing national legislation and cases pertaining to cyber crime.

Article 3 common to the four Geneva Conventions 1949 addresses conflicts not of an international character where one or more non-State armed groups are involved. For analysis of treaty provisions, see the ICRC Treaties, State Parties and Commentaries Database . 

Book Chapters

• Frederic Megret, Detention by Non-State Armed Groups in Non-International Armed Conflicts: International Humanitarian Law, International Human Rights Law and the Question of Right Authority , in  International Humanitarian Law and Non-State Actors: Debates, Law and Practice, (Ezequiel Heffes, Marcos D. Kotlik & Manuel Ventura eds.) (forthcoming). 
• Knut Dörmann, Detention in Non-International Armed Conflicts , 88 Int'l L. Studies 349 (2012). 
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What is International Humanitarian Law

"International humanitarian law (IHL) is a set of rules which seek, for humanitarian reasons, to limit the effects of armed conflict. It protects persons who are not or are no longer participating in the hostilities and restricts the means and methods of warfare. International humanitarian law is also known as the law of war or the law of armed conflict." (ICRC)

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• ICRC Customary IHL Database Search customary law, treaties, and national implementation of international humanitarian law.

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TANGGUNG JAWAB NEGARA ATAS DIGUNAKANNYA SENJATA SPACE-BASED MISSILE INTERCEPTOR SEBAGAI BENTUK UPAYA SELF-DEFENSE DARI NEGARA PENYERANG TERHADAP NEGARA PIHAK KETIGA DITINJAU DARI HUKUM INTERNASIONAL

Self-defense as an inherent right owned by a country is regulated in Article 51 of the UN Charter and due to the use of Space-Based Missile Interceptor (SBMI) weapons in space, the 1967 outer space treaty must also be guided. Because Article 4 of the 1967 Outer Space Treaty prohibits the use of weapons in space, the legality of using SBMI weapons is questionable. Therefore, this study was conducted to determine the legal provisions, forms of state accountability and the process of prosecuting compensation for countries using these weapons according to international law. The results of the study indicate that the use of SBMI weapons does not conflict with international law, because it is based on Article 103 of the UN Charter which states that if there are provisions in other legal rules that are contrary to the UN Charter, the UN Charter must be guided. So that self-defense actions based on Article 51 of the UN Charter do not violate the law. The party that must be absolutely responsible is the country that started the conflict, because it has violated the rules of international law in Article 2 paragraph (4) of the UN Charter and international humanitarian law. The compensation process is carried out according to the rules of the space liability convention 1972 and if in practice the party who is responsible does not show good faith in providing compensation, then it can be continued by referring to the dispute resolution process in the UN Charter.

Man against machine: Debates in the expert community on the lethal autonomous systems

In the recent years debates surrounding the autonomous weapons systems development and regulation have gained a new momentum. Despite the fact that the development of such type of weapons continues since the twentieth century, recent technological advances open up new possibilities for development of completely autonomous combat systems that will operate without human in-tervention. In this context, international community faces a number of ethical, legal, and regulatory issues. This paper examines the ongoing debates in both the Western and the Russian expert community on the challenges and prospects for using lethal autonomous systems. The author notes that Russian and Western discourses on most of the issues have very much in common and diff erences are found mainly in the intensity of debates — in the West they are much more ac-tive. In both cases the most active debates focus around two issues: the potential implications of fully autonomous weapons systems including the unclear line of accountability, and the prospects for international legal regulation of the use of lethal autonomous weapons. Both the Russian and the Western experts agree that the contemporary international humanitarian law is unable to handle the challenges posed by aggressive development of the lethal autonomous weapons. All this points to the need to adapt the international humanitarian law to the new realities, which, in turn, requires concerted actions from leading states and international organizations.

Computational modelling of the proportionality analysis under International Humanitarian Law for military decision-support systems

Methodology of regulation of new types of weapons by means of international humanitarian law: emergence and development.

The purpose of the article is to identify the methodology, used in international humanitarian law for the regulation of new types of weapons. Under the settlement of the objectives of the article, regulation is understood as the establishment of permits, prohibitions and restrictions on the use of this type of weapon in accordance with the basic principles of international humanitarian law. The article is methodologically based on the works of foreign and Ukrainian researchers, devoted to the problems of the settlement of new weapons systems in international humanitarian law. The empirical basis of the article was formed by international treaties in the field of international humanitarian law and codified customs of this industry, as reflected in the codifications, developed by the International Committee of the Red Cross. The article establishes that in international humanitarian law there is an obligation for states to assess the compliance of new weapons systems with international humanitarian law. At the same time, this norm has two disadvantages. First, it is too abstract, which allows states to avoid the obligation to assess each time with reference to the fact that a certain type of weapon does not fall under the definition of a new type of weapon. Secondly, international humanitarian law does not contain specific mechanisms to hold violating states accountable. It is concluded, that it is necessary to revise the current international legal regulation of the obligation to assess new weapons systems in the direction of its concretization and strengthening of responsibility for non-compliance. Corresponding changes can be made to the Additional Protocol to the Geneva Conventions of 1977, or introduced by adopting a separate protocol.

Illegal Control Over the Territory in International Law and the Status of Donbas Determination

Total rejection of the aggression and territory occupation in the international law leads to their hybrid and concealed forms using gangs and mercenaries, proclaiming new “states” etc. These activities constitute serious threat to international security, can cause and already cause the fragmentation of states, anarchy, criminalization of politics, new forms of expansionism and so on. The authors of the article generalize the forms of illegal control over the territory in international law and their application considering the status of Donbas determination. International law for more than a century provides for the possibility of separate regulation of the sovereignty and legal rights of the state to the territory, on the one hand, and the implementation of the regime of illegal control over the territory – on the other. Authors argue that in the modern sense, primarily developed by doctrine and courts, illegal control over the territory can be considered as a legal regime, one of the forms of which is occupation, while others are defined as effective, overall, general, de facto control and related to undisclosed actions and informal means used by the aggressor states. This regime is characterized by the exercise of power over the territory by the will of a foreign state, and the forms of implementation of the regime differ depending on whether such a will is officially recognized or concealed. The transformation of international humanitarian law after the Second World War erased the boundaries between recognized and officially unrecognized occupation. But unlike occupation, the fact of which may be obvious, the fact of effective or other control over the territory requires the determination by judicial authorities. The qualification of illegal control by the Russian Federation of the Donbas in national and international law is ambiguous. The authors argue that the full recognition of the international armed conflict between Ukraine and Russia in Donbas, as well as Russia’s illegal control over latter should be expected in the process of consideration of a number of cases in the international judicial institutions.

Gilad Ben-Nun, The Fourth Geneva Convention for Civilians: The History of International Humanitarian Law (I.B. Tauris 2020), ISBN 9781838604301, 288 pp, GBP 85.00

International environmental protection in armed conflicts: traditional legal regulation and interpretation novelties.

The paper is devoted to international legal protection of the environment during armed conflicts. The author emphasizes that armed conflicts, both international and non-international, continue to be one of the most serious threats to a healthy environment. An armed conflict taking place in the environment invariably poses a threat to ecosystems.The author summarizes that in international law there are special norms for the protection of natural environment during armed conflicts. At the same time, increasing the level of protection requires a clearer definition of the scope of application of customary law and the further development of treaty rules. While the objectives of protecting the natural environment are linked to the survival and protection of civilians, recognition of environmental protection during armed conflict as such constitutes an important trend. International law calls on States to enter into agreements that provide for additional protection of the natural environment during armed conflicts. The concept of “protecting the natural environment” in international humanitarian law refers to a wide range of obligations that can help protect the natural environment or its parts from damage. A high threshold for potential harm continues to pose the risk that such protection is not fully applicable in practice. There is an obvious tendency to use the potential of the principles of international environmental law when applying the norms of international humanitarian law. Thus, even in cases where the assessment of new means and methods of warfare does not provide scientific certainty with regard to their impact on the natural environment, this does not absolve the parties to the conflict from taking appropriate precautions. It is not enough that there are important rules of international humanitarian law protecting the natural environment during armed conflict; they need to be better disseminated, implemented and enforced, as well as validated and clarified.

Mats Deland, Mark Klamberg, Pål Wrange (eds) International Humanitarian Law and Justice: Historical and Sociological Perspectives (Routledge 2020) 242pp ISBN 9780367498566 (ebook)

Who are protected by the fundamental guarantees under international humanitarian law part 2: breaking with the control requirement in light of the icc case law.

Abstract International humanitarian law provides for fundamental guarantees, the content of which is similar irrespective of the nature of the armed conflict and which apply to individuals even if they do not fall into the categories of specifically protected persons under the Geneva Conventions. Those guarantees, all of which derive from the general requirement of human treatment, include prohibitions of specific conduct against persons, such as murder, cruel treatment, torture, sexual violence, or against property, such as pillaging. However, it is traditionally held that the entitlement to those guarantees depends upon two requirements: the ‘status requirement’, which basically means that the concerned persons must not or no longer take a direct part in hostilities, and the ‘control requirement’, which basically means that the concerned persons or properties must be under the control of a party to the armed conflict. This study argues in favour of breaking with these two requirements in light of the existing icc case law. That study is divided into two parts, with each part devoted to one requirement and made the object of a specific paper. The two papers follow the same structure. They start with general observations on the requirement concerned, examine the relevant icc case law and put forward several arguments in favour of an extensive approach to the personal scope of the fundamental guarantees. The first paper, which was published in the previous issue of this journal, dealt with the status requirement. It especially delved into the icc decisions in the Ntaganda case with respect to the issue of protection against intra-party violence. It advocated the applicability of the fundamental guarantees in such a context by rejecting the requirement of a legal status, on the basis of several arguments. Those arguments relied on ihl provisions protecting specific persons as well as on the potential for humanizing ihl on the matter and also on the approach making the status requirement relevant only when the fundamental guarantees apply in the conduct of hostilities. The second paper, which is published here, deals with the control requirement. It examines several icc cases in detail, including the Katanga and Ntaganda cases, in relation to the issue of the applicability of the fundamental guarantees in the conduct of hostilities. It is argued that the entitlement to those guarantees is not dependent upon any general control requirement, and that, as a result, some of these guarantees may apply in the conduct of hostilities. This concerns mainly those guarantees whose application or constitutive elements do not imply any physical control over the concerned persons or properties.

Drone warfare and International Humanitarian Law: the U.S., the I.C.R.C., and the contest over the global legal order

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International Law Research Paper Topics

This page presents a comprehensive collection of international law research paper topics , curated to aid students studying law in their research endeavors. International law is a multifaceted field with diverse areas of study, and this page aims to provide students with an extensive list of topics that can serve as a foundation for their research papers. By exploring these topics, students can delve into various aspects of international law, such as human rights, criminal law, environmental law, trade law, and humanitarian law, among others. This page also offers insights into how to choose compelling international law research paper topics, tips on writing a coherent and impactful paper, and highlights the custom international law research paper writing services provided by iResearchNet. The ultimate goal is to empower students to embark on an enriching and successful academic journey in the realm of international law research.

100 International Law Research Paper Topics

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• The Universality of Human Rights: A Global Perspective
• Human Rights and Armed Conflicts: Challenges and Protections
• Gender Equality and Women’s Rights in International Law
• The Role of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) in Promoting Human Rights
• Freedom of Speech and Expression in the Digital Age
• Human Rights Violations and the Responsibility to Protect (R2P)
• Children’s Rights and Child Protection Laws Internationally
• The Right to Asylum: Refugee Protection and International Law
• Combating Human Trafficking: International Legal Frameworks
• Indigenous Peoples’ Rights and Cultural Heritage Preservation
• Climate Change and Global Efforts for Environmental Protection
• Biodiversity Conservation and the Convention on Biological Diversity
• Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and Environmental Justice
• Transboundary Pollution and International Liability
• The Role of International Courts and Tribunals in Environmental Disputes
• The Precautionary Principle in International Environmental Law
• Oceans Governance and the Protection of Marine Resources
• International Agreements on Wildlife Conservation and Endangered Species
• Indigenous Peoples and Environmental Rights: Perspectives and Challenges
• The Economics of Environmental Protection: Balancing Trade and Conservation
• World Trade Organization (WTO) and the Multilateral Trading System
• Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) and Regional Economic Integration
• Investor-State Dispute Settlement (ISDS) Mechanisms in Trade Agreements
• Intellectual Property Rights and International Trade
• Trade and Labor Standards: Addressing Social Issues in Global Commerce
• Environmental Protection in International Trade: Conflicts and Synergies
• Trade Remedies: Anti-dumping, Countervailing, and Safeguard Measures
• Trade Liberalization and Economic Development: Case Studies
• Cross-Border E-Commerce and Digital Trade Regulations
• Challenges of Trade in Services: Legal and Regulatory Perspectives
• The International Criminal Court (ICC) and Its Role in Ending Impunity
• Prosecuting War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity: Legal Challenges
• Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Prosecute
• The Evolution of International Criminal Law: From Nuremberg to the ICC
• The Principle of Universal Jurisdiction: Holding Perpetrators Accountable
• Truth and Reconciliation Commissions in Post-Conflict Societies
• The Role of the United Nations in Combating International Crimes
• War Criminals and Refugees: The Intersection of Criminal and Migration Law
• Cyberwarfare and the Application of International Criminal Law
• Combating Terrorism: Legal Approaches and Human Rights Concerns
• The Geneva Conventions and the Protection of War Victims
• Targeted Killings and Drones: The Legal Challenges of Modern Warfare
• The Principle of Proportionality in Armed Conflicts
• War Crimes and Accountability in Non-International Armed Conflicts
• The Protection of Cultural Property in Armed Conflicts
• Autonomous Weapons and the Ethics of Lethal Autonomous Systems (LAS)
• The Role of National Courts in Prosecuting War Crimes
• The Humanitarian Impact of Economic Sanctions and Trade Embargoes
• Children in Armed Conflicts: From Recruitment to Rehabilitation
• Humanitarian Assistance and the Challenges of Providing Aid in Conflict Zones
• Comparative Constitutional Law: Analyzing Different Legal Systems and Their Impact on Global Governance
• The Role of International Law in Shaping Domestic Constitutions
• Constitutional Design and State Building in Post-Conflict Societies
• Human Rights and Constitutional Protections: Assessing the Impact of International Treaties
• Constitutionalism and the Rule of Law: Ensuring Effective Governance in International Relations
• Judicial Independence and the Enforcement of Constitutional Rights in International Contexts
• The Impact of International Institutions on National Constitutions
• The Right to Privacy in the Digital Age: Balancing National Security and Civil Liberties
• Federalism and the Division of Powers in Constitutional Design
• The Role of Constitutional Courts in Protecting Democratic Principles
• Cross-Border Mergers and Acquisitions: Legal and Regulatory Challenges
• International Commercial Arbitration: Enforcement and Recognition of Awards
• Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and Multinational Corporations
• Foreign Investment Protection and Bilateral Investment Treaties (BITs)
• International Contract Law and Choice of Law Clauses
• Dispute Resolution in International Trade: Litigation vs. Arbitration
• Intellectual Property Rights and International Business Transactions
• International Trade Law and the World Trade Organization (WTO)
• Corporate Governance and Compliance in International Business
• Environmental and Social Responsibility in International Business
• Double Taxation Treaties: Legal Implications and Challenges
• Transfer Pricing and Base Erosion and Profit Shifting (BEPS)
• Tax Havens and Their Impact on Global Taxation
• Taxation of Digital Economy and E-commerce Transactions
• Taxation of Multinational Corporations: Fairness and Equity Concerns
• Tax Avoidance vs. Tax Evasion: Legal Distinctions and Consequences
• Taxation of Foreign Source Income and Territorial vs. Worldwide Tax Systems
• Developing Countries and International Taxation: Bridging the Gap
• The Role of International Organizations in Shaping Global Tax Policies
• Addressing Tax Challenges Arising from the COVID-19 Pandemic
• The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and Its Implementation
• Maritime Boundaries and Dispute Resolution in the South China Sea
• Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ) and Marine Resource Management
• Freedom of Navigation and Maritime Security in the Indian Ocean
• Environmental Protection in the High Seas: Addressing Pollution and Overfishing
• Piracy and Armed Robbery at Sea: Legal Responses and Jurisdictional Challenges
• Submarine Cables and Cybersecurity in International Waters
• The Role of International Tribunals in Resolving Maritime Disputes
• Deep Sea Mining and the Regulation of Exploitation of Marine Resources
• Indigenous Rights and Traditional Knowledge in Marine Conservation
• Diplomatic Negotiations and Conflict Resolution in International Relations
• The Role of Mediation in Resolving International Disputes
• International Arbitration: Institutional Frameworks and Best Practices
• The Use of Force and Armed Conflict: Legal Perspectives on Peacekeeping
• Compliance with International Court Judgments and Decisions
• The Settlement of Territorial Disputes: Case Studies and Legal Approaches
• The Role of Non-State Actors in International Conflict Resolution
• The Legality of Targeted Sanctions and Economic Coercion
• The Use of International Courts and Tribunals in Human Rights Disputes
• The Role of Regional Organizations in Conflict Mediation and Resolution

In conclusion, the field of international law offers a vast array of research topics that delve into critical global issues, ranging from human rights and environmental protection to trade and business regulations. Scholars and students of law can explore the complexities of international relations, the challenges of cross-border disputes, and the ever-evolving legal frameworks that shape the international community. The comprehensive list of international law research paper topics provided above serves as a starting point for students to delve deeper into their areas of interest and contribute to the understanding and development of international law. Through diligent research and critical analysis, they can further advance the principles of justice, equality, and cooperation on the global stage.

Exploring the Range of International Law Research Paper Topics

International law is a complex and dynamic field that governs the interactions between nations and other actors in the global community. As a crucial component of the global legal system, international law encompasses a diverse range of topics that have significant implications for peace, security, human rights, trade, and cooperation among nations. Researching international law research paper topics offers students a unique opportunity to delve into the intricacies of international relations, diplomatic relations, and the role of international organizations in promoting peace and stability.

• The Sources of International Law : This topic explores the various sources of international law, including treaties, customary international law, general principles of law, and decisions of international courts and tribunals. Students can investigate the hierarchy of these sources and their application in resolving disputes between states.
• International Human Rights Law : This area of international law deals with the protection and promotion of human rights on a global scale. Research topics may cover issues like the role of international human rights organizations, the enforcement of human rights treaties, and the impact of human rights violations on international relations.
• International Humanitarian Law : Also known as the law of armed conflict or the law of war, this branch of international law governs the conduct of parties during armed conflicts. Students can explore topics such as the protection of civilians in armed conflicts, the use of force in self-defense, and the prosecution of war crimes.
• International Environmental Law : With growing concerns about climate change and environmental degradation, international environmental law has become increasingly relevant. Research topics may include international agreements on climate change, biodiversity conservation, and the responsibility of states for transboundary environmental harm.
• International Criminal Law : This field focuses on the prosecution of individuals for international crimes, such as genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes. Students can investigate the role of international criminal tribunals, the challenges of obtaining evidence in international cases, and the pursuit of justice for victims of international crimes.
• International Trade Law : International trade is essential for global economic development and cooperation. Research topics in this area may cover international trade agreements, dispute settlement mechanisms in trade disputes, and the impact of trade policies on developing nations.
• Law of the Sea : This branch of international law governs the use and protection of the world’s oceans and resources. Students can explore topics such as the rights and responsibilities of states in their maritime zones, the protection of marine biodiversity, and the resolution of disputes over territorial waters.
• International Investment Law : As globalization continues to shape economic relationships, international investment law has gained prominence. Research topics may include the regulation of foreign direct investment, investor-state dispute settlement mechanisms, and the balance between investor rights and host state regulatory powers.
• International Arbitration and Mediation : International dispute resolution is essential for maintaining peaceful relations among states. Students can explore topics such as the effectiveness of international arbitration and mediation in resolving conflicts, the role of international organizations in facilitating dispute resolution, and the enforcement of arbitral awards.
• Cybersecurity and International Law : With the rise of cyber threats and cyber warfare, international law has grappled with issues of cyber sovereignty, cyber espionage, and the application of existing legal principles to cyberspace. Research topics may delve into the challenges of attributing cyber-attacks, the development of international norms for responsible state behavior in cyberspace, and the protection of human rights in the digital age.

In conclusion, international law offers a vast array of research paper topics that reflect the complexities and challenges of the global legal landscape. As students delve into these topics, they gain a deeper understanding of the intricacies of international relations, human rights, trade, and conflict resolution. Exploring the multifaceted nature of international law research allows students to critically analyze the role of law in shaping the conduct of states and the broader international community, fostering a deeper appreciation for the significance of international law in today’s interconnected world.

How to Choose International Law Research Paper Topics

Selecting a compelling and relevant research paper topic is essential to the success of any academic endeavor. In the context of international law, choosing the right research topic requires careful consideration of various factors that can shape the scope and impact of the research. Whether you are a law student, an aspiring international lawyer, or a researcher interested in global legal issues, the following guide provides valuable insights on how to choose international law research paper topics that are engaging, insightful, and contribute meaningfully to the field of international law.

• Identify Your Area of Interest : International law is a vast and diverse field encompassing numerous sub-disciplines, including human rights law, environmental law, international trade law, and more. Start by identifying your specific area of interest within international law. Reflect on the subjects that intrigue you the most and the issues you are passionate about. This will serve as the foundation for selecting a research topic that resonates with your academic and professional aspirations.
• Stay Abreast of Current Developments : International law is constantly evolving to address contemporary global challenges and opportunities. Keeping up to date with current international legal developments, landmark cases, and significant treaties and agreements can provide valuable inspiration for research topics. Consider exploring emerging issues and debates in the field, as these can offer unique opportunities for original research and innovative insights.
• Analyze Relevant Legal Frameworks : International law operates within a complex web of legal frameworks, including treaties, conventions, and customary international law. Analyzing these legal sources can help you identify gaps, contradictions, or areas where further research is needed. Topics that delve into the interpretation and application of international legal instruments can add depth and value to your research.
• Consider Timeliness and Relevance : A relevant and timely research topic is more likely to capture the attention of readers and contribute to ongoing discussions in the field. Consider the significance of your chosen topic in the context of current global events, policy debates, or emerging challenges. Topics that address pressing international issues, such as climate change, human rights violations, or cybersecurity threats, can have a significant impact on both academic and policy circles.
• Review Existing Literature : Conduct a thorough literature review to understand the existing body of research on your chosen topic. This will help you identify gaps in the literature that you can explore in your research. Additionally, reviewing existing studies can provide insights into the methodologies and approaches used by other researchers, informing your own research design.
• Balance Complexity and Feasibility : While it is essential to select a topic that reflects the complexities of international law, it is equally important to ensure that your research is feasible within the scope and limitations of your academic assignment or project. Avoid overly broad or ambitious topics that may be challenging to address comprehensively within the available time and resources.
• Consult with Professors and Experts : Seek guidance and advice from your professors, academic advisors, or experts in the field of international law. They can provide valuable insights into potential research topics, relevant literature, and methodologies. Engaging in discussions with experienced scholars can help refine your research question and add depth to your analysis.
• Focus on Practical Implications : Consider the practical implications of your research topic in the real world. How might your findings impact international relations, legal practices, or policymaking? Research that offers practical solutions to global challenges or sheds light on pressing legal issues can have a more significant impact on the field of international law.
• Address Controversial Issues : International law often involves contentious and complex topics that evoke strong opinions and debates. Embracing controversial issues can lead to thought-provoking research that challenges existing norms and perceptions. However, ensure that you approach such topics with sensitivity and a commitment to unbiased analysis.
• Conduct a Preliminary Study : Before finalizing your research topic, conduct a preliminary study to gather relevant information and assess the availability of data and resources. This will help you determine whether your chosen topic is viable and whether you can access the necessary materials to conduct a comprehensive study.

In conclusion, choosing the right international law research paper topic is a critical step in producing a successful and impactful piece of academic work. By identifying your area of interest, staying informed about current developments, analyzing legal frameworks, and considering the timeliness and relevance of your topic, you can select a research question that is both intellectually stimulating and practically significant. Engage with existing literature, seek guidance from experts, and balance the complexity and feasibility of your research to ensure a rewarding and insightful exploration of international law issues.

How to Write an International Law Research Paper

Writing an international law research paper requires careful planning, rigorous research, and a structured approach to presenting your arguments and findings. Whether you are a law student or a seasoned researcher, mastering the art of academic writing in the field of international law is essential to communicate your ideas effectively and contribute to the broader legal discourse. This section provides a comprehensive guide on how to write an international law research paper, from choosing a suitable research question to crafting a well-organized and persuasive paper.

• Define Your Research Question : The first step in writing an international law research paper is to define a clear and focused research question. Your research question should be specific, relevant, and aligned with your area of interest within international law. It should address a significant legal issue or gap in the literature and demonstrate your research objectives.
• Conduct a Thorough Literature Review : Before diving into your research, conduct a comprehensive literature review to understand the existing scholarship on your chosen topic. This will help you identify key debates, theoretical frameworks, and gaps in the literature that your research can address. A strong literature review serves as the foundation for your research paper and provides context for your study.
• Develop a Well-Structured Outline : Organize your research paper with a clear and logical structure. Create an outline that includes an introduction, literature review, methodology, main body sections, analysis of findings, and conclusion. Each section should flow seamlessly into the next, guiding the reader through your research process.
• Craft a Compelling Introduction : The introduction sets the tone for your research paper and should capture the reader’s attention. Start with a hook or a thought-provoking question related to your research topic. Provide background information on the issue at hand and clearly state your research question and objectives. Conclude the introduction with a strong thesis statement that outlines the main argument of your paper.
• Conduct Rigorous Research : International law research papers require a robust research methodology. Depending on your research question, you may use various methods, such as legal analysis, case studies, empirical research, or comparative analysis. Ensure that you use credible and authoritative sources for your research and cite them properly using the appropriate citation style (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago).
• Analyze and Present Your Findings : In the main body of your research paper, present your findings and analyze them in-depth. Use a clear and coherent structure to present your arguments and evidence. Use relevant case law, treaties, and legal principles to support your analysis and draw well-reasoned conclusions.
• Address Counterarguments : Acknowledge and address counterarguments to your research findings. Demonstrating that you have considered opposing viewpoints and providing a thoughtful rebuttal strengthens the credibility and persuasiveness of your research.
• Consider Policy Implications : In international law, research often has practical implications for policymakers and legal practitioners. Discuss the potential policy implications of your findings and offer recommendations for addressing the legal issue at hand. This demonstrates the real-world relevance of your research.
• Maintain a Cohesive Writing Style : Use clear and concise language throughout your research paper. Avoid jargon and technical terms that may confuse the reader. Maintain a cohesive writing style, ensuring that each paragraph and section contributes to the overall argument of your paper.
• Write a Strong Conclusion : The conclusion is your opportunity to summarize your key findings, restate your thesis statement, and highlight the significance of your research. Avoid introducing new information in the conclusion and instead, focus on leaving the reader with a lasting impression of your research’s importance and potential impact.
• Edit and Revise : After completing your first draft, take the time to edit and revise your research paper. Check for clarity, coherence, grammar, and proper citation. Consider seeking feedback from peers or professors to gain valuable insights and improve the overall quality of your paper.
• Review Formatting and Citations : Ensure that your research paper adheres to the required formatting guidelines, such as font size, margins, and line spacing. Double-check your citations and references to avoid plagiarism and maintain academic integrity.

By following these steps and guidelines, you can craft a well-structured, persuasive, and impactful international law research paper. Remember to approach your research with curiosity and dedication, as it is through thorough exploration and analysis that you can make meaningful contributions to the field of international law.

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• International
• Foreign affairs

Syria: accountability, transitional justice and gender equality projects 2024 to 2025, call for proposals

• Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office
• UK Integrated Security Fund

Published 9 May 2024

© Crown copyright 2024

This publication is licensed under the terms of the Open Government Licence v3.0 except where otherwise stated. To view this licence, visit nationalarchives.gov.uk/doc/open-government-licence/version/3 or write to the Information Policy Team, The National Archives, Kew, London TW9 4DU, or email: [email protected] .

Where we have identified any third party copyright information you will need to obtain permission from the copyright holders concerned.

This publication is available at https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/syria-accountability-transitional-justice-and-gender-equality-projects-2024-to-2025-call-for-proposals/syria-accountability-transitional-justice-and-gender-equality-projects-2024-to-2025-call-for-proposals

The UK Government seeks to support greater peace and stability in Syria by helping to create the conditions in which any future peaceful solution can be better implemented within the framework of UNSCR 2254.

We believe the best way to achieve this is by laying the foundations for sustainable peace and addressing the deepening divisions within Syrian communities thereby reducing the reach of extremist groups.

We aim to do this by focusing on an inclusive political process that is Syrian-led and Syrian-focused, which recognises that there is no peace without accountability. The UK is committed to highlighting the appalling violations of international humanitarian and human rights law in Syria, and to pursuing accountability for the most serious crimes.

Support to women’s empowerment remains central to our efforts in Syria, with Syria continuing to be a priority country for the UK’s National Action Plan for Women, Peace and Security .

UK Integrated Security Fund (UKISF) Syria aims

The UK Integrated Security Fund is a cross-government fund that takes an integrated, agile, catalytic, and high-risk approach to find solutions to the most complex national security challenges outlined in the Integrated Review Refresh 2023 (IRR).

In Syria, the ISF focuses on civilian protection, documentation of and accountability for human rights violations, transitional justice, and gender equality and social inclusion.

Objectives of proposed projects

This call is for project proposals that support conflict sensitive, innovative, creative and localised approaches to the thematic priorities as set out below. These projects should not focus on humanitarian or development interventions (which are catered for through our humanitarian assistance programme).

The projects should align with the UK’s strategic objectives and policy in Syria [footnote 1] . The overall objective of the submitted project proposals should fall under one or more of our thematic priorities. Project proposals with gender equality and social inclusion as their main objectives are encouraged (GESI E/ GEM 2):

• local-facing, Syrian-led transitional Justice and accountability and alternative forms of justice focusing on survivors/ victims of human rights violations and their families
• accountability to upholding the rights-based international system, including holding the regime accountable to violations of human rights, including tackling the illegal trade of captagon and its wider impact in Syria
• gender equality, social inclusion, and human rights as standalone interventions, focusing on gender and ethnic minorities, and disability.  This is in line with the strategic objectives in the Women, Peace and Security National Action Plan, the UK’s Shared Approach to Gender in Syria, and the Disability, Inclusion, and Rights Strategy, and the Women and Girls Strategy

We are looking at new, creative, innovative and catalytic ideas to approach and mitigate the challenges faced by Syrians. Interventions must be informed and designed by Syrian experiences and Syrian voices. They can be standalone projects or those that supplement the work of already ongoing work by different actor , including international fora that are already working in the accountability space for Syria.

Projects can be delivered by a single implementer or a consortium of local and international NGOs or other civil society actors. Potential partners must have demonstrated experience and expertise in working in or on Syria. Projects can cover the Whole of Syria (WoS), or focus on part of parts of Syria, such as Northeast Syria (NES), Northwest Syria (NWS), Regime Controlled Areas (RCA) and the diaspora.

Project activities can be implemented inside and outside Syria depending on the proposed interventions.

In the case of a consortium, one organisation shall serve as the lead project implementer for all of the components, ensuring achievement of project outcomes and serving as a contact point for the ISF Syria team throughout the entire duration of the project.

Downstream partners must have clear division of tasks and lead on individual project components. The lead implementer must ensure downstream partners are able to deliver and have a strong understanding of value for money (VFM), fraud, safeguarding and conflict sensitivity.

Syrian-led organisations are encouraged to apply.

Project proposals must be clear and concise, supported by a clear theory of change (ToC), and achievable and measurable outcomes and outputs summarised in a logframe. In line with adaptive programming, the proposal should remain flexible and open to change, based on needs and developments on the ground.

All projects will have to align with UK financial year timeframe (1 April to 31 March), submitted projects should be designed for an end date of 31 March 2025. Sustainability plan should be clearly highlighted, particularly for interventions that are designed for multi-year implementation.

The indicative annual budget for this call for project proposals is £400,000 per grant as a minimum yearly budget, and £800,000 as a maximum. These figures include Official Development Assistance (ODA) and non-ODA funding [footnote 2] .

Budgets must be in the form of an activity based budget (ABB), with specified costs in GBP. A template is attached.

You should budget for an independent external project audit at the end of the financial year.

Administrative costs (project management and finance rates, utilities, internal communications, bank charges) must not exceed 10% of the total project budget. This budget shall not be used to cover research, the purchase of IT or other equipment, unless prior written approval by the ISF team.

By the end of December of each financial year, 80% of the annual budget must be spent. Accordingly, project design and delivery of activities should be aligned with these targets. The budget should be detailed and specified along different expense lines.

The proposals that are selected will receive an accountable grant. This is not a commercial contract. The implementer cannot make or claim a financial profit from this project.

Only selected projects will receive funding, and only after passing a comprehensive due diligence assessment.

As part of due diligence in the selection process, ISF Syria reserves the right to seek references from other partners on potential grantees.

The duration for the implementation of this project is financial year (FY) 2024 to 2025 which starts on 1 April 2024 and ends on 31 March 2025.

While multi-year funding cannot be guaranteed, proposals can provide an indicative plan for up to 3 consecutive years of programming. However, budgets will only be approved on yearly basis, subject to availability of funds and satisfaction of project delivery. ISF cannot guarantee continued funding beyond the initial FY in which a  grant is allocated.

Submitting applications

Applicants for the grant should fill in the project proposal form in English and include a breakdown of project costs in the Activity Based Budget template by 3 June 2024 at 12 noon Beirut time. Proposals submitted in other formats will not be considered.

The proposals should also include:

• logical framework (logframe)
• theory of Change (narrative and in a diagram form)
• 1 page summary (font 12) of the proposed intervention, activities and main results
• list of NGOs/downstream partners in the consortium, indicating the lead NGO

Proposals should be emailed to ISF Syria at: [email protected] indicating ‘ISF Syria Call for Proposals 2024 - name of the lead organisation’ in the subject field.

Evaluation criteria

Successful applications must demonstrate strong strategic relevance to the areas of project focus and have a clear focus on delivering change and sustainability.

Gender equality and social inclusion mainstreaming throughout the proposed interventions, gender and conflict sensitivity

Proposals will be evaluated based on the following criteria:

• methodology and approach; a clear, effective, and conflict and gender sensitive methodology to deliver interventions, including ability to produce analytical research on security and conflict dynamics, and horizon scanning for any context change and impact on interventions
• coherent and concise theory of change, supported by a robust monitoring, evaluation, and learning approach, ability to manage risks in a conflict zone
• integration of innovative activities and intervention into the proposal, demonstration of a flexible approach to implementation and ability to respond to a rapidly changing context
• activity based budget and value for money
• staff expertise and experience in the thematic area
• inclusion of a strong Syrian role in the design and implementation of the intervention based on consultations with relevant target audiences. In case of a consortium: demonstration of effective relationships with Syrian civil society organisations
• gender, social inclusion, and disability are mainstreamed clearly throughout the interventions, and align with the OECD and UK’s Gender Equality Marker [footnote 3]

The need for accountability in Syria: Lord Ahmad of Wimbledon’s speech ; Thirteenth anniversary of the Syrian Uprising: joint statement ; To achieve sustainable peace in Syria, the Assad regime must engage in the political process: UK statement at the UN Security Council ; UN Human Rights Council 55: UK Statement on Syria resolution ; A record 16.7 million Syrians in need of humanitarian assistance: UK statement at the UN Security Council   ↩

Official development assistance (ODA) - OECD   ↩

UNSDG, Gender Equality Marker - Guidance Note   ↩

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Humanitarian access: What the law says

Who is primarily responsible for meeting the needs of the civilian population in times of armed conflict?

Parties to an armed conflict have the primary responsibility to meet the basic needs of the civilian population under their control. In a situation of occupation , this responsibility is even clearer, the 1949 Fourth Geneva Convention foreseeing that an Occupying Power has - to the fullest extent of the means available to it - the duty to ensure the food, medical supplies, and other supplies essential to the survival of the population if the resources of the occupied territory are inadequate.

What are the main IHL rules in relation to humanitarian access?

First, impartial humanitarian organizations (such as the ICRC) have the right to offer their services to carry out humanitarian activities - also known as the "right of initiative". Nothing under IHL restrains the right of impartial humanitarian organizations to offer their services. Such offer of services cannot be interpreted as interference in States' internal affairs, nor as a recognition or a support to a party to the conflict. Second, these humanitarian activities are subject to the consent of the parties "concerned" because the proposed humanitarian activities are to be undertaken in their territory or in the areas under their effective control; but the decision to consent is not discretionary. For example, if an impartial humanitarian organization can assist civilians threatened with starvation , the party concerned is obliged to give consent. The party concerned could legitimately reject an offer of service only if there are no humanitarian needs in the area, or if the offer of service comes from an organization that does not qualify as impartial and is not humanitarian in nature. Third, parties to an armed conflict must allow and facilitate the rapid and unimpeded passage of humanitarian relief for civilians in need, subject to their right of control. In other words, the parties are under an obligation to cooperate and to take positive action to facilitate the tasks of relief personnel. This may include simplifying administrative formalities as much as possible to facilitate visas or other immigration issues, taxation, as well as import and export procedures, field trip approvals, and possibly privileges and immunities necessary for the humanitarian relief activities of an impartial humanitarian organization. When it comes to the movement of humanitarian relief personnel and objects, IHL foresees an obligation of the parties to the conflict to ensure freedom of movement essential to the exercise of their functions. Only in case of imperative military necessity may their movements be temporarily and geographically restricted. In occupied territories that are inadequately supplied, the Occupying Power is bound not only to accept the offer of services, but also to facilitate them by all the means at its disposal. It must also permit the free passage of relief consignments and guarantee their protection.

How can States make sure that relief is not diverted for military purposes?

Once consent has been given, relief schemes must be allowed and facilitated by all parties concerned, even if the relief is intended for the population under the control of the enemy. However, the parties have a right of control over humanitarian operations and can, for instance, search consignments and regulate their passage according to prescribed times and routes. Yet, this may not unduly delay humanitarian relief operations, impede their rapid deployment, or make their implementation impossible. Otherwise, this would be substantively equivalent to an unlawful denial of consent. Military necessity can be invoked in exceptional circumstances in order to regulate – but not prohibit altogether – humanitarian access and can only temporarily and geographically restrict the freedom of movement of humanitarian personnel. In fact, it is today recognized that military necessity cannot be used under IHL to turn down a valid offer of services and to deny in their entirety the humanitarian activities proposed by impartial humanitarian organizations.

Is there an obligation under IHL to guarantee a "safe access" for humanitarian relief personnel?

Humanitarian relief personnel, and objects used for humanitarian relief operations, must be respected and protected. This rule is a necessary corollary of the rules providing for rapid and unimpeded access for humanitarian relief activities and freedom of movement of humanitarian relief personnel. This means first and foremost that they must not be attacked – which also follows from the fact that they are civilians. To this end, the Parties should provide clear and strict instructions to their armed forces to protect humanitarian relief and personnel, including dissemination about the respect for the Red Cross and Red Crescent emblems . The obligation to "protect" implies a positive obligation to take steps to ensure that humanitarian personnel can carry out their activities without any undue interference, notably arrest. The overarching objective of the obligation to respect and protect is to ensure that humanitarian personnel can reach victims of armed conflict, whether designated or not under counter-terrorism regulations and sanctions.

What are the obligations of third parties in relation to humanitarian access?

Under IHL governing international armed conflicts, all States concerned, including non-belligerent states, have the obligation to allow and facilitate relief operations intended for inadequately supplied populations. The obligation to allow free passage includes initial entry into the territory and movement within it. It also includes any movement of relief consignments, equipment and personnel accompanying such consignments or carrying out their humanitarian role - in other words, all movements required to deliver humanitarian relief effectively. Treaties governing non-international armed conflict do not contain an express obligation for States which are not party to the conflict to allow and facilitate relief operations. However, there are expectations that States – even if not Parties to the conflict – would not oppose the use of their territory by impartial humanitarian organizations in order to reach victims of the non-international armed conflict. If those States were to refuse to allow and facilitate relief schemes, it would in effect preclude the humanitarian needs of the victims to be addressed and thus render void the consent to an offer of services given by the parties to the conflict. In addition, IHL foresees specific rules requiring all States to facilitate the humanitarian activities carried out by the ICRC and other impartial humanitarian organizations.

Humanitarian pauses, corridors, ceasefires… are they defined by international humanitarian law? Whatever the term used, warring parties have obligations to protect civilians and aid workers. @CDroegeICRC explains more here pic.twitter.com/xxTba4E89l — ICRC (@ICRC) November 23, 2023

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Preparations Ramp Up for Global Security Force to Quell Haitian Violence

More than half a dozen nations have pledged personnel to a multinational effort to stabilize Haiti, where gangs have taken over much of the capital, setting off a major humanitarian crisis.

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By David C. Adams and Frances Robles

David C. Adams and Frances Robles reported from Florida.

U.S. military planes filled with civilian contractors and supplies have begun landing in Haiti, paving the way for a seven-nation security mission, led by Kenya, to deploy to the troubled Caribbean nation in the coming weeks, American officials say.

But even as the security situation worsens and millions of Haitians go hungry, a military-style deployment that is estimated to cost $600 million has just a fraction of the funding required.

Biden administration officials would not say whether a precise date for the deployment date had been set. The Kenyan government did not respond to requests for comment.

Several military flights, including at least seven from Charleston Air Force Base in South Carolina, have landed at Toussaint Louverture International Airport in Port-au-Prince, the capital, in the past week, according to the U.S. Southern Command.

Contractors were being flown in to help secure the airport before building a base of operations there for the international security force. More planes carrying construction contractors and equipment were expected in the coming days.

“The deployment of the multinational security support mission in Haiti is urgent, and we’re doing all we can to advance that goal,” Brian A. Nichols, assistant secretary of state for Western Hemisphere affairs, told reporters last week. “ Every day that goes by is a lost opportunity to provide greater security for the Haitian people. And that’s why we’re doing everything we can, along with our Kenyan partners to advance that . ”

The United Nations first approved the security mission seven months ago to help Haiti, which has been ravaged by gang violence in a crisis that the U.N. says is pushing more than a million people toward famine.

The deployment was hobbled by a series of delays as opposition lawmakers in Kenya and a Kenyan court objected. Now, officials say, the legal impediments have been cleared for a 2,500-member security force, led by 1,000 police officers from Kenya, to Haiti, where several gangs have taken over large swaths of the capital.

More than half a dozen other countries have also pledged to contribute personnel in stages. Among them are the Bahamas, Bangladesh, Barbados, Benin, Chad and Jamaica have also volunteered personnel for the force, according to the United Nations.

Benin, in West Africa, pledged 1,500 to 2,000 people, and Jamaica offered 200 police officers and soldiers, according to letters submitted to the U.N. The Bahamas volunteered 150 law enforcement officers, who will concentrate on community policing, as well as maritime and port security.

In March, dozens of members of the Canadian Armed Forces flew to Jamaica to train Jamaican officers heading to Haiti in peacekeeping skills and combat first aid, the Canadian military said.

Other countries have publicly expressed interest but have not submitted official commitment letters.

Thousands of people have been killed in Haiti in the first few months of this year. In late February, gangs that for years clashed with another joined forces to take over much of the capital, blocking key infrastructure like ports, and taking over entire neighborhoods.

More than 350,000 people have been forced from their homes in the past year, and millions more are unable to work in the face of rampant violence and indiscriminate gunfire. Thousands of inmates were freed in late February as gangs attacked several prisons.

With the ports blocked for several weeks, ships could not dock, and food supplies dwindled. After more than two months, commercial flights are expected to restart next week.

Gang leaders said their goal was to force the resignation of Prime Minister Ariel Henry, and to prevent the international security deployment. Mr. Henry stepped down and a presidential transition council has been named with the goal of appointing a new interim government and organizing elections by late 2025.

The Haitian National Police has already drawn up plans with timetables for the takeover of all the areas currently occupied by the gangs, according to the police chief, Frantz Elbé.

“Our country, being a member of the great community of nations, cannot pretend to solve its problems alone, especially when these may have repercussions on the security of other states,” Mr. Elbe said in an email to The New York Times.

The U.S. government has pledged $300 million for the security mission, but has faced obstacles in getting Congress to approve the release of funds. So far, just $10 million has been released.

A U.N. fund to pay for the mission has just $18 million, much of it pledged from Canada, according to the U.N. But there are other ways to finance the mission, including with in-kind donations like the provision of $70 million of matériel and equipment authorized by the Biden administration.

“We really hope it hits the ground as quickly as possible,” said Stephanie Tremblay, a U.N. spokeswoman. “We cannot say that often enough.”

While U.S. officials declined to say when the mission would begin arriving in Haiti, the timing was widely expected to coincide with a state visit by Kenya’s president, William Ruto, on May 23.

“There’s no question they’re trying to make this a reality within the next couple of weeks,” said Jake Johnston, a Haiti expert at the Center for Economic and Policy Research in Washington. “At this point, with all the planes landing, it’s really clear they’re going to have somebody on the ground by the time Ruto is in D.C., but it’s going to be largely symbolic. This doesn’t mean that there is like an operational force on the ground in two and a half weeks.”

Frances Robles is a Times investigative reporter covering the United States and Latin America. She has been a journalist for more than 30 years. More about Frances Robles