critical thinking is essential to effective learning socratic method

The Institute for Learning and Teaching

College of business, teaching tips, the socratic method: fostering critical thinking.

"Do not take what I say as if I were merely playing, for you see the subject of our discussion—and on what subject should even a man of slight intelligence be more serious? —namely, what kind of life should one live . . ." Socrates

By Peter Conor

This teaching tip explores how the Socratic Method can be used to promote critical thinking in classroom discussions. It is based on the article, The Socratic Method: What it is and How to Use it in the Classroom, published in the newsletter, Speaking of Teaching, a publication of the Stanford Center for Teaching and Learning (CTL).

The article summarizes a talk given by Political Science professor Rob Reich, on May 22, 2003, as part of the center’s Award Winning Teachers on Teaching lecture series. Reich, the recipient of the 2001 Walter J. Gores Award for Teaching Excellence, describes four essential components of the Socratic method and urges his audience to “creatively reclaim [the method] as a relevant framework” to be used in the classroom.

What is the Socratic Method?

Developed by the Greek philosopher, Socrates, the Socratic Method is a dialogue between teacher and students, instigated by the continual probing questions of the teacher, in a concerted effort to explore the underlying beliefs that shape the students views and opinions. Though often misunderstood, most Western pedagogical tradition, from Plato on, is based on this dialectical method of questioning.

An extreme version of this technique is employed by the infamous professor, Dr. Kingsfield, portrayed by John Houseman in the 1973 movie, “The Paper Chase.” In order to get at the heart of ethical dilemmas and the principles of moral character, Dr. Kingsfield terrorizes and humiliates his law students by painfully grilling them on the details and implications of legal cases.

In his lecture, Reich describes a kinder, gentler Socratic Method, pointing out the following:

• Socratic inquiry is not “teaching” per se. It does not include PowerPoint driven lectures, detailed lesson plans or rote memorization. The teacher is neither “the sage on the stage” nor “the guide on the side.” The students are not passive recipients of knowledge.
• The Socratic Method involves a shared dialogue between teacher and students. The teacher leads by posing thought-provoking questions. Students actively engage by asking questions of their own. The discussion goes back and forth.
• The Socratic Method says Reich, “is better used to demonstrate complexity, difficulty, and uncertainty than to elicit facts about the world.” The aim of the questioning is to probe the underlying beliefs upon which each participant’s statements, arguments and assumptions are built.
• The classroom environment is characterized by “productive discomfort,” not intimidation. The Socratic professor does not have all the answers and is not merely “testing” the students. The questioning proceeds open-ended with no pre-determined goal.
• The focus is not on the participants’ statements but on the value system that underpins their beliefs, actions, and decisions. For this reason, any successful challenge to this system comes with high stakes—one might have to examine and change one’s life, but, Socrates is famous for saying, “the unexamined life is not worth living.”
• “The Socratic professor,” Reich states, “is not the opponent in an argument, nor someone who always plays devil’s advocate, saying essentially: ‘If you affirm it, I deny it. If you deny it, I affirm it.’ This happens sometimes, but not as a matter of pedagogical principle.”

Professor Reich also provides ten tips for fostering critical thinking in the classroom. While no longer available on Stanford’s website, the full article can be found on the web archive:  The Socratic Method: What it is and How to Use it in the classroom

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The Socratic Method: A Foundation for Critical Thinking

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Have you ever found yourself in a debate where the questions seemed to lead you to the answer? This is the essence of the Socratic Method , an age-old technique that is still relevant in today’s world, fostering critical thinking and self-discovery. The Socratic Method is not about teaching in the traditional sense but about guiding oneself or others to find answers through introspection and dialogue.

What is the Socratic Method?

The Socratic Method is a form of cooperative argumentative dialogue between individuals, based on asking and answering questions to stimulate critical thinking and to draw out ideas and underlying presuppositions. Named after the classical Greek philosopher Socrates , it is a pedagogical approach that empowers the learner to express knowledgeable opinions on a topic and then challenges them to further justify their positions.

The dialectical method: dialogue and refutation

The dialectical method, a core component of the Socratic Method, involves two or more people holding different points of view about a topic, who agree to use reasoned arguments to resolve their differences. This method can be broken down into several key elements:

• Questioning: The process starts with a series of questions designed to clarify thoughts, definitions, and implications of the subject matter.
• Answering: The participants provide answers based on their current understanding or belief system.
• Refutation: Through further questioning, inconsistencies or contradictions in the answers are brought to light, compelling the participants to reevaluate their positions.

The maieutic method: assisting in giving birth to ideas

The maieutic method is another aspect of the Socratic Method, which focuses on the midwifery of ideas. Socrates likened himself to a midwife, assisting in the birth of knowledge or truth within the student. This process involves:

• Guided Discovery: The facilitator guides the participants through a series of questions that lead them to discover answers on their own.
• Self-reflection: Participants are encouraged to introspect and critically examine their own beliefs and values.
• Intellectual Rebirth: The ultimate goal is for participants to reach new insights, developing a more refined understanding of the topic.

Applications of the Socratic Method in modern education

In contemporary education, the Socratic Method is employed in various forms, such as:

• Socratic Seminars : A collaborative, intellectual dialogue facilitated with open-ended questions about a text.
• Legal Education : Law schools often use a modified version of the method to teach students to think like a lawyer by analyzing cases.
• Critical Thinking Exercises : Teachers in many disciplines use elements of the Socratic Method to develop critical thinking skills in their students.

Challenges and misconceptions about the Socratic Method

While the Socratic Method is a powerful educational tool, it is not without its challenges or misconceptions:

• Intimidation : Some students may find the process intimidating and may be reluctant to participate.
• Misunderstanding : It is often mistakenly thought that the Socratic Method is only about asking questions, rather than guiding the learner to deeper understanding and insight.
• Time-consuming: The method requires time for reflection and discussion, which can be difficult to accommodate in a standard classroom schedule.

Enhancing critical thinking skills through the Socratic Method

The Socratic Method is not only about acquiring knowledge—it’s about enhancing one’s critical thinking abilities. Through this method, individuals learn to:

• Analyze concepts : Breaking down complex ideas into simpler parts for better understanding.
• Challenge assumptions : Questioning the validity of commonly held beliefs or opinions.
• Develop reasoning : Forming logical connections between ideas and arguments.
• Embrace uncertainty : Being comfortable with not having all the answers and remaining open to new perspectives.

The Socratic Method has stood the test of time, evolving from ancient philosophical dialogues to a modern educational strategy that encourages deep thinking and self-reflection. It is a testament to the enduring power of asking the right questions and the pursuit of truth through reasoned discussion. As we embrace this method in various aspects of learning and conversation, we unlock the potential for intellectual growth and a deeper understanding of the world around us.

Have you ever experienced a moment of clarity through questioning? How do you think the Socratic Method could be applied in today’s educational system to enhance critical thinking skills? Let’s discuss and further uncover the transformative power of this timeless method.

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Ancient & Medieval

1 Definition, Scope and Importance of Philosophy

• Definition of Philosophy
• Philosophy and Philosophizing
• Philosophy and Wisdom
• Scope of Philosophy
• Importance of Philosophy

2 Disciplines within Philosophy and their Complementarity

• Metaphysics or Philosophy of Being
• Epistemology or Philosophy of Knowledge
• Ethics or Moral Philosophy
• Philosophical Anthropology or Philosophy of Human
• Aesthetics or Philosophy of Art
• Philosophy of Religion
• Philosophy of Mind
• Philosophy of Science
• Complementarity

3 Methods in Philosophy

• Western Methods
• Indian Methods

4 Notional Clarifications

• Agnosticism
• A Priori and A Posteriori
• Deconstruction
• Existentialism
• Hermeneutics

5 Overview of Western Philosophies

• Ancient Western Philosophy
• Medieval Western Philosophy
• Modern Western Philosophy
• Contemporary Western Philosophy

6 Greek Philosophy (Ionian and Pythagorean Philosophers)

• Anaximander

7 Eleatic and Atomistic Philosophers

• Zeno of Elea
• Democritus & Leucippus

8 The Sophists

• The Lesser Sophists
• Socratic Problem
• Socratic Method
• Epistemology
• Socratic Ethics
• Socratic Schools
• Theory of Knowledge
• Philosophy of Human
• Philosophy of God
• Philosophy of Morals and Politics
• The Nature of Love
• Philosophy of Art

11 Aristotle

• Aristotle’s Philosophy: Logic
• Philosophy of the World
• First Philosophy
• Art and Literature

12 Hellenism

• Epicureanism

13 Neoplatonism

• The Life and Writings of Plotinus
• The Philosophy of Plotinus
• Neoplatonism after Plotinus

14 Early Medieval Philosophers

• Marcianus Aristides
• Flavius Justinus (Justin)
• Athenagoras
• Theophilus of Antioch
• Minucius Felix
• Clement of Alexandria
• End of the Early Medieval Philosophy

15 Augustine

• Portrait of the Philosopher
• Augustinian Conversion
• Augustine: A Personal Thinker
• Relation between Faith and Reason
• Philosophy of History
• Life and Works
• Faith and Reason
• Philosophy of Knowledge
• The Problem of Evil
• Moral Philosophy

17 Dun Scotus and William of Ockham

• John Duns Scotus
• William of Ockham

18 Jewish and Islamic Philosophers

• Individual Islamic Philosophers
• Jewish Philosophers

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The Socratic Method of Teaching: What It Is, Its Benefits, and Examples

What is the Socratic method and how is it applied to teaching? Learn about this instructional approach and examples of the Socratic method of teaching.

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At Saint Leo University, many of the instructors employ the Socratic method of teaching in their classrooms. And they find it very effective in helping their students learn.

If you’re not familiar with this method, we explain what it is while sharing a few Socratic method of teaching examples. We also talk about the benefits that this approach provides, along with tips for how to make the most of it as a Saint Leo student.

What is the Socratic Method of Teaching?

In its simplest form, the Socratic method of teaching is a thought-provoking dialogue between an instructor and their students. It is based on the approach used by the philosopher Socrates, who was known to engage young minds in conversations designed to help define broad ideas, also exposing the complexities and ambiguities behind them.

Instead of giving information and facts, an instructor using the Socratic method of teaching asks students a series of open-ended questions (questions with more than a yes or no answer) about a specific topic or issue. In turn, the students can also pose questions of their own.

Instructors implementing a Socratic method of Teaching act more as facilitators or guides for classroom conversations rather than being providers of information. They compel students to consider why things are a certain way, also considering arguments for and against different viewpoints on a topic.

Socratic Method of Teaching Examples

To better understand what this method might look like within a college-level classroom setting, it can help to see it in action. Here are a few Socratic method of teaching examples:

• An instructor of a law class asks a student to summarize the facts of a specific court case. The student is then asked if they agree or disagree with the court’s findings and why. The instructor may then change some of the facts of the case, asking the student to explain whether they still hold the same position. Different sides of the case are explored, as well as the potential reasonings behind them.
• An instructor of a social work class has the students read an article about substance abuse in certain populations. A student is asked to provide a summary of the article. The instructor then asks about the importance of this topic. This leads to questions about whether the article changed the student’s views or their opinion on the subject.

When employing the Socratic method of teaching, the instructor may go through similar question sequences with multiple students, providing a wider range of explanations and potential points of view.

Socratic Method Benefits

The Socratic method of teaching encourages students to explore their thoughts and beliefs, also considering how these thoughts and beliefs may contribute to their assumptions about the topic at hand. This method also helps foster critical thinking, enabling students to reach their own conclusions based on self-analysis of the information versus just accepting what they are told.

One study involving undergraduate business students confirms that the Socratic method of teaching helps improve a student's critical thinking skills. Another study also found positive findings, this time suggesting that this method can be beneficial for improving reading comprehension by placing more attention on critical thinking and the ability to see the world from a different point of view.

An additional benefit of the Socratic method is that it keeps students engaged. If you’ve ever been in a classroom with a teacher who does nothing more than spew facts for you to write down, you know how unappealing this can be. Being in a classroom where the Socratic Method of teaching is employed provides a whole different feel. You are actively engaged in the conversation, contributing to the topic based on your experiences and opinions while also learning from other students.

How to Get the Most from a Socratic Method of Teaching

If you are in a classroom in which the instructor uses a Socratic method of teaching, there are a few things you can do to get the most out of this experience. This includes:

• Coming to class prepared so you can participate intelligently in the discussion.
• Thinking about the topic in advance, considering your opinions or the factors you feel might be at play.
• Being willing to speak up and share your thoughts so others can learn from your interpretations, which may involve working to overcome your fear of public speaking.
• Becoming a good listener when the instructor is engaging with other students, seeking to learn from their interactions.

In the end, the Socratic method of teaching is designed to help students gain a better understanding of a topic, including the complexities behind it. It also aims to get students more involved in the learning process, challenging long-held assumptions in favor of thinking on their own.

Saint Leo University See more from this author

The Socratic Method

“i cannot teach anybody anything. i can only make them think.” - attributed to socrates.

The Socratic Method is often used to promote critical thinking. It focuses on providing more questions than answers to students and fosters inquiring into subjects. Ideally, the answers to questions are not a stopping point for thought but are instead a beginning to further analysis and research. Faculty should craft questions before class to present during their time with students. Faculty should require students to consider how they rationalize and respond about topics, thus teaching them to process information. Additionally, the Socratic Method should promote collaboration and open-mindedness, not debate.

Quick Tips for Using the Socratic Method:

1. Students need to come to class prepared to discuss. This means they will need to put effort into becoming familiar with the material enough to contribute. You may want to guide their preparation with a pre-class assignment.

2. As you craft questions for your class, remember to let the discussion lead the way through the material. Your questions are a guide, teaching points you'll want to hit during your class, but they are not set in stone. This will give you the flexibility to provide a student-centered learning environment.

3. Make sure your questions are open-ended enough to promote inquiry. Good questions guide students to explore different perspectives. This method should help students gain perspective and explore multiple perspectives and viewpoints from their classmates. Each question should lead to a discussion, rather than one answer. It may be necessary to have follow-up questions prepared, in case discussion needs to be prompted.

4. Rationalize! Work through ideas and different answers. The moments spent rationalizing incorrect theories often produce more learning than simply stating facts. You are guiding students thought process, teaching them to think about the material, not simply teaching them the material.

5. Take notes on the discussion to use for review or quizzes/exams. Discussion will make it easier for students to retrieve information later, because they will have memory cues from what was said. You can help them make these connections when you review with them from notes on what they discussed (or have students act as record keeper during the discussion, trading off each class).

6. A good sign that you are successfully implementing this method is when students are openly contributing to the discussion, freely asking questions or ideas without prompting, and especially if they admit errors in their understanding. These are signs that you have created a safe place for open expression.

Learn more:

The Socratic Seminar: https://youtu.be/RBjZ-4MK1WE How to Bring Socratic Seminar to the Classroom: https://www.teachingchannel.org/videos/bring-socratic-seminars-to-the-classroom For more tips visit: https://www.unl.edu/gradstudies/current/news/asking-good-questions-socratic-method-classroom Harrington, C. & Zakrajsek, T. (2017). Dynamic Lecturing: Research-based strategies to enhance lecture effectiveness. Sterling: VA: Stylus Publishing Company. Copeland, M. (2005). Socratic Circles: Fostering Critical and Creative Thinking. Portland, MN: Stenhouse Publishers, p. 7. Tredway, L. (1995). “Socratic Seminars: Engaging Students in Intellectual Discourse.” Educational Leadership. 53 (1).

Adapted from material submitted by:

Kimberly A. Whiter, M.S., MLS(ASCP) CM Director of Faculty Development and Interprofessional Education Assistant Professor, Jefferson College of Health Sciences Instructor, Virginia Tech Carilion School of Medicine

Socratic Method 

By Jaafar Bouhlal   Updated on March 03, 2023

Introduction

Historical Significance

Process of Inquiry

Critical Thinking

Legal Practice

Limitations

Contemporary Relevance

The Socratic Method is a method of questioning developed by the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates. It involves a series of questions designed to clarify and refine one's thinking, with the goal of arriving at a deeper understanding of a concept or idea. The method is often used to promote critical thinking, challenge assumptions and preconceptions, and encourage individuals to question their own beliefs and values.

The Socratic Method involves a dialogue between two or more individuals, with one person asking questions and the other responding. The questions are designed to probe the respondent's understanding of the topic, to identify inconsistencies or weaknesses in their argument, and to encourage them to think more deeply about the subject at hand.

The Socratic Method is still used today in many fields, including philosophy, education, law, and ethics. It is particularly effective in promoting active learning and critical thinking skills, and can help individuals to develop a deeper understanding of complex issues. However, the method also has its limitations, including the potential for it to be used as a tool for manipulation or to reinforce existing biases. It requires a skilled practitioner who is able to ask the right questions and guide the conversation effectively.

The Socratic Method is a method of inquiry that was developed by the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates. It involves asking a series of questions to encourage critical thinking and to arrive at a deeper understanding of a concept or idea. The historical significance of the Socratic Method lies in its origins in ancient Greece, and its influence on Western philosophy and education.

Socrates, who lived in Athens during the 5th century BCE, is credited with developing the Socratic Method. He used this method to challenge assumptions and encourage critical thinking in his students, who included some of the most famous philosophers in history, such as Plato and Xenophon.

The Socratic Method became an important part of Western philosophy, particularly in the fields of ethics and epistemology. It has been used by many philosophers throughout history, including Plato and Aristotle, and continues to be an important method of inquiry and teaching.

In addition to its influence on philosophy, the Socratic Method has also had an impact on education. It is often used in classrooms to encourage critical thinking and to help students develop a deeper understanding of complex ideas. It has been particularly effective in promoting active learning and in helping students to engage in meaningful discussions.

The Socratic Method is a process of inquiry that involves a series of questions to explore a concept or idea. The goal of the method is to arrive at a deeper understanding of the concept or idea and to challenge assumptions and preconceptions that may be held by the individual being questioned.

The process of inquiry begins with a question or a statement about a particular concept or idea. The Socratic Method then involves asking a series of questions to explore the concept or idea further. The questions are designed to clarify the individual's thinking and to challenge their assumptions and preconceptions.

Through this process of questioning, the individual being questioned is encouraged to examine their own beliefs and assumptions, to consider different perspectives, and to engage in critical thinking. The method is intended to promote intellectual humility and to help individuals to recognize the limitations of their own knowledge.

The Socratic Method is a flexible approach to inquiry that can be used in a variety of contexts. It can be used to explore complex philosophical questions or to facilitate discussions about practical issues in fields such as education, law, and business.

Critical thinking is the ability to analyze information, make reasoned judgments, and evaluate evidence. The Socratic Method is a teaching and inquiry technique that is designed to promote critical thinking by encouraging individuals to question their own beliefs and assumptions.

Through a series of carefully crafted questions, the Socratic Method challenges individuals to think deeply about complex issues and to consider alternative perspectives. The method encourages individuals to analyze and evaluate evidence, to identify biases and assumptions, and to question the validity of arguments and claims.

By engaging in this process of critical thinking, individuals can develop a more nuanced and sophisticated understanding of complex issues. They are better equipped to identify and evaluate arguments, to recognize logical fallacies, and to separate fact from fiction.

The Socratic Method is particularly effective in promoting critical thinking because it encourages individuals to question their own beliefs and assumptions. This approach helps to prevent individuals from becoming complacent and accepting information at face value. Instead, they are encouraged to actively engage with the material, to evaluate evidence, and to develop their own informed opinions.

The Socratic Method is a teaching and inquiry technique that has been used in education for centuries. It is often used to promote active learning and critical thinking skills in students. The method is particularly effective in encouraging students to think deeply about a concept or idea and to engage in meaningful discussions.

In the Socratic Method, the teacher or facilitator poses a series of questions to the students to encourage critical thinking and inquiry. The questions are designed to help students clarify their thinking, to challenge their assumptions and beliefs, and to explore different perspectives on a particular topic.

This approach to teaching encourages students to become active participants in the learning process. It promotes independent thinking and fosters a deeper understanding of the material being studied. By engaging in this process of inquiry and discussion, students are better able to internalize and apply the concepts they are learning.

The Socratic Method is particularly effective in encouraging students to engage in meaningful discussions. The method encourages students to listen carefully to the ideas and perspectives of others, to consider alternative viewpoints, and to challenge their own assumptions and beliefs. This approach to learning promotes empathy, understanding, and respect for diverse perspectives.

The Socratic Method is a technique used in legal practice, particularly in law schools, to teach students how to think critically and to develop strong arguments. The method involves asking a series of questions to test the validity of a legal argument and to help lawyers to identify weaknesses in their opponent's case.

In law schools, professors often use the Socratic Method to engage students in discussions about legal cases and to challenge their understanding of legal concepts. By asking questions and encouraging discussion, the professor helps students to develop critical thinking skills and to analyze legal arguments from multiple perspectives.

In legal practice, the Socratic Method can be used during the preparation of a case to help lawyers to identify weaknesses in their opponent's arguments. By asking a series of questions, lawyers can test the strength of their own arguments and identify potential holes in their opponent's case. This approach can help lawyers to develop stronger arguments and to anticipate potential objections from their opponent.

The Socratic Method is also useful in legal practice during cross-examination. During cross-examination, lawyers use a series of questions to challenge the testimony of a witness and to test the strength of their opponent's case. The method can be particularly effective in exposing inconsistencies or contradictions in a witness's testimony.

The Socratic Method is a powerful tool used in ethics to explore complex moral issues and to develop a deeper understanding of ethical principles. It involves asking a series of questions to help individuals clarify their thinking and to challenge their assumptions and preconceptions about ethical issues.

In ethics, the Socratic Method is used to promote critical thinking and to encourage individuals to consider multiple perspectives on a given ethical issue. The method is particularly useful in exploring complex moral issues that do not have clear-cut answers. By engaging in a process of inquiry and discussion, individuals can develop a more nuanced and sophisticated understanding of ethical principles.

The Socratic Method can also be used to explore ethical dilemmas and to help individuals make more informed decisions. By asking a series of questions, individuals can identify the values and principles that are important to them and can explore the potential consequences of their actions.

The Socratic Method is a powerful tool for critical thinking, but it has some limitations that should be considered. One of the limitations of the Socratic Method is the potential for it to be used as a tool for manipulation. If a skilled practitioner of the Socratic Method uses it to push a particular agenda or to reinforce existing biases, it can become a tool for manipulation rather than a tool for critical thinking.

Another limitation of the Socratic Method is that it requires a skilled practitioner who is able to ask the right questions and guide the conversation effectively. In order for the method to be effective, the practitioner must have a deep understanding of the subject matter being discussed and must be able to ask questions that encourage critical thinking and meaningful discussion.

Additionally, the Socratic Method can sometimes be time-consuming and may not be appropriate for all situations. In some cases, a more direct approach may be more appropriate or necessary.

Furthermore, the Socratic Method may not be effective for individuals who have difficulty engaging in deep introspection or who struggle with abstract thinking. It may also be less effective in situations where emotions or personal biases are strong factors.

Despite being developed over two thousand years ago, the Socratic Method remains highly relevant in contemporary society. In many fields, including philosophy, education, and law, the Socratic Method is still seen as an effective tool for promoting critical thinking and facilitating meaningful discussions.

In philosophy, the Socratic Method continues to be used as a tool for exploring complex issues and for challenging assumptions and preconceptions. It is particularly effective in areas of philosophy such as ethics and political theory, where it can help individuals to develop a deeper understanding of complex issues and to engage in meaningful debates about important topics.

In education, the Socratic Method is often used to promote active learning and critical thinking skills. It can help students to develop a deeper understanding of complex concepts and to engage in meaningful discussions with their peers and instructors.

In law, the Socratic Method is still used in many law schools to teach students how to think critically and to develop strong arguments. It is particularly effective in helping students to identify weaknesses in legal arguments and to think creatively about legal solutions to complex problems.

In addition, the Socratic Method is increasingly being used in other fields such as business, journalism, and even medicine, where it can help individuals to develop critical thinking skills and to engage in meaningful discussions about complex issues.

The Socratic Method: Engaging Students in Critical Thinking and Dialogue

Most educators would agree that effectively engaging students in critical thinking and dialogue is a fundamental yet challenging aspect of quality teaching.

The Socratic method provides a structured approach to questioning that fosters critical thinking skills, analytical abilities, and confident participation among students of all ages.

In this article, we will explore the origin, core components, and practical classroom applications of the Socratic method to equip teachers with strategies to meaningfully engage students in rich dialogue and self-directed inquiry.

Introduction to the Socratic Method

The Socratic method is a form of philosophical inquiry and debate developed by the Greek philosopher Socrates in the 5th century BCE. At its core, the method uses probing questions to expose contradictions, test hypotheses, and stimulate critical thinking .

Origin and Definition

The Socratic method is named after its creator, Socrates, who lived in ancient Athens. He would engage fellow philosophers and citizens in thoughtful dialogue to encourage them to reflect critically on commonly held beliefs.

The Socratic method can be defined as a cooperative argumentative dialogue between individuals with opposing viewpoints. The purpose is to stimulate critical thinking and draw out ideas and underlying presuppositions.

Core Components of the Socratic Method

The key elements of the Socratic method include:

• Asking open-ended questions that do not suggest an answer
• Identifying contradictions in thinking
• Considering alternate perspectives
• Testing hypotheses and challenging assumptions

The method aims to clarify concepts, distinguish ideas, and eliminate egocentric tendencies through reasoned discourse.

Understanding the Socratic Method Definition

The Socratic method is more than just asking questions. Its definition focuses on cooperative critical inquiry that analyzes knowledge and questions beliefs, assumptions, and viewpoints held by participants. This process of intellectual exchange illuminates ideas and enables discovery of new insights.

In essence, the Socratic method uses inquiry, debate, and open discussion to stimulate analytical thinking and bring ideas to the forefront of conscious awareness.

What is the Socratic Method of critical thinking?

The Socratic method is a form of cooperative argumentative dialogue between individuals, based on asking and answering questions to stimulate critical thinking and to draw out ideas and underlying presumptions.

It is named after the Greek philosopher Socrates and is introduced by him in Plato's Theaetetus as midwifery (maieutics) because it brings ideas to light.

Key aspects of the Socratic method

• It centers on asking open-ended questions and answering them – each answer giving rise to further questions.
• It is intended to challenge ideas, reveal underlying assumptions, and lead to new conclusions.
• It focuses on seeking clarity, evidence, and critical assessment.
• It aims to stimulate analytical thinking skills.
• It establishes context and tests viewpoints for consistency.
• It can foster dialectic learning through discourse.

The Socratic method encourages critical thinking, invokes thoughtful reflection, and aims to reveal irrational or illogical thinking in order to make way for more reasoned and robust ideas. Through this process of continual inquiry, participants can identify inconsistencies in their own beliefs or knowledge.

Ultimately, the Socratic method employs systematic questioning to develop critical awareness, analyze problems, uncover potential solutions, and empower individuals to reason their way to knowledge.

How does the Socratic style of dialogue promote learning?

The Socratic method of teaching is based on Socrates' style of questioning his students to draw out their existing knowledge and challenge their assumptions. This method promotes active learning and critical thinking in several key ways:

Fosters Student Participation

• The Socratic method relies on a back-and-forth dialogue between teacher and students.
• By posing thoughtful questions, the teacher prompts students to articulate their ideas, analyze concepts, and make connections.
• This participatory style boosts student engagement and motivation to learn.

Develops Critical Thinking Skills

• Students learn to carefully evaluate their beliefs and form reasoned arguments to build or defend a viewpoint.
• As students analyze others' logic and provide counterexamples, this strengthens their higher-order thinking abilities.
• The exploratory questioning teaches students to identify gaps in their knowledge.

Promotes Deeper Understanding

• Challenging students' assumptions pushes them to think more deeply about what they know and how they know it.
• Articulating their mental models out loud enables students to refine their knowledge.
• The dialogue format helps students gain nuanced perspectives on complex topics.

In summary, the Socratic questioning approach promotes an inquisitive, collaborative environment ideal for developing critical thought and gaining multilayered understanding. By tackling ideas together through dialogue, students and teachers embark on a shared journey of insight.

What is the primary purpose of the Socratic Method?

The primary purpose of the Socratic method is to engage students in critical thinking and dialogue. By asking a series of probing questions, the Socratic method aims to get students to think more deeply about the topic at hand, question their own assumptions, evaluate the strength of arguments, and arrive at reasoned conclusions.

Some key objectives and benefits of using the Socratic method include:

Teaching students to think critically rather than passively accept arguments. The questioning process requires them to examine claims more closely.

Identifying inconsistencies in thinking. By going through the questioning process, flaws in logic or reasoning often become exposed.

Drawing out ideas and perspectives. Asking the right questions prompts students to articulate their thoughts and brings differing viewpoints to light.

Instilling intellectual humility. Students learn that the purpose is not to "win" arguments but to cooperatively seek truth through examination of ideas.

Developing communication skills. Responding to questions requires students to improve how they articulate thoughts.

Encouraging active learning. The dialogue format requires all students to participate rather than sitting passively.

The Socratic method develops critical thinking skills that serve students well both inside and outside the classroom. It teaches them to carefully evaluate arguments and claims as responsible citizens and thinkers.

What is the point of Socratic dialogue?

The goal of Socratic dialogue in the classroom is to engage students in critical thinking and ethical reasoning on complex topics. The teacher takes on the role of facilitator, using a series of probing questions to guide students towards examining issues from multiple perspectives and evaluating their own beliefs.

Some key benefits of Socratic dialogue include:

Promotes critical thinking skills: By responding to thought-provoking questions, students learn how to think logically, question assumptions, and construct reasoned arguments.

Encourages moral reasoning: Wrestling with ethical dilemmas in a collaborative setting helps students develop stronger capacities for moral judgment.

Fosters deeper understanding: Challenging students' initial opinions leads to self-reflection and a more nuanced grasp of complex subjects.

Teaches listening and communication abilities: Dialogic participation calls for patience, empathy and tolerance of different viewpoints from peers.

Creates an engaging classroom dynamic: The teacher takes on a guiding role, while students drive the discovery process through discussion.

The goal is not to arrive at definitive answers, but to achieve broader understanding on issues through collaborative inquiry. Students sharpen their thinking and communication abilities while gaining appreciation of multiple perspectives on meaningful topics.

The Three Steps of the Socratic Method

The Socratic method is a technique for stimulating critical thinking and analysis through a series of systematic questions. It involves three key steps:

Elenchus: The Art of Questioning

The first step in the Socratic method is elenchus, which refers to the back-and-forth questioning between teacher and students. The teacher poses thoughtful, probing questions to clarify beliefs, challenge assumptions, and reveal logical contradictions. Sample elenchus questions include:

• What evidence supports this claim?
• How does this relate to our earlier conclusion?
• What ambiguities need to be addressed?

Elenchus enables students to carefully reflect on the strength of an argument, rather than accepting it at face value.

Inductive Reasoning

The second step involves inductive reasoning to move from specific examples to broader generalizations. Through elenchus questioning, students analyze individual cases and phenomena. The teacher then guides them to make connections and identify patterns leading to tentative hypotheses.

For instance, by examining multiple legal cases, students induce core principles of justice. Or by analyzing poetic devices across poems, they generalize structures of metaphor and syntax.

Hypothesis Formation

In the final step, students form new hypotheses and conclusions based on the questioning and analysis. These hypotheses explain the examples covered in the dialogue and can be tested further through additional questioning.

The end goal is for students to construct knowledge by critically examining evidence, distilling insights from examples, and forming defensible conclusions. The Socratic method develops transferable skills in analysis, evaluation, and creative problem solving.

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Importance of the socratic method in education.

The Socratic method is a discussion-based teaching approach that promotes critical thinking, analytical reasoning, and thoughtful dialogue. By systematically questioning ideas, principles, and assumptions, students learn to carefully scrutinize beliefs, uncover assumptions, and build rational arguments. This develops essential skills for higher education and beyond.

Engaging Students in Critical Thinking

The Socratic method actively engages students in the learning process through inquiry, debate, and group discussion. Instead of passively receiving information, students are prompted to think critically about what they know and challenge their own assumptions. This promotes active learning and higher-order thinking skills like analysis, evaluation, and synthesis. Through dialogue and questioning, students also improve communication abilities.

Fostering Analytical Skills in 6-8 Middle School

Middle school is an ideal time to develop analytical habits of mind through the Socratic method. Open-ended Socratic questioning teaches students to carefully evaluate concepts from multiple perspectives, identify logical fallacies, and construct well-reasoned arguments. This builds essential skills for detecting bias, assessing credibility, and making sound judgments.

Preparing 9-12 High School Students for Higher Education

In high school, the Socratic method helps students develop the advanced reasoning skills needed for college-level critical analysis. By formulating logical arguments, justifying claims, and considering counterarguments, students build proficiency in skills like inference, deduction, inductive reasoning, and logical problem solving. This level of analytical sophistication prepares them to excel in higher education across disciplines.

The Role of the Socratic Method in Philosophy Education

As a foundational pedagogy in philosophy, the Socratic method builds skills in conceptual analysis, ethical reasoning, and epistemology. By examining the logical soundness of belief systems, students learn to construct philosophically rigorous arguments and critically analyze schools of thought. This develops conceptual clarity, intellectual humility, rational skepticism, and an understanding of complex philosophical ideas that is essential to the discipline.

Practical Application of the Socratic Method in Classrooms

Socratic method steps for teachers.

Here are the key steps for teachers to implement the Socratic method:

• Pose an open-ended question or present a scenario that requires critical thinking
• Call on students and ask them to share their initial thoughts and analysis
• Ask probing follow-up questions to get students to evaluate their assumptions and logic
• Let students debate each other, playing devil's advocate when needed
• Draw out any contradictions in thinking; challenge students to resolve inconsistencies
• Synthesize key learning and insights that emerged from the dialogue

Following this process engages students in critical dialogue while uncovering deeper meaning.

Questioning Techniques to Engage Critical Thinking

Types of questions to spark rich discussion:

• Clarification questions to better understand students' positions
• Probing questions that push students to examine their underlying premises
• Hypotheticals scenarios to check the consistency of arguments
• Devil's advocate questions to encourage debate between positions
• Linking questions to find connections between ideas

Managing the Dialogue for Effective Learning

Strategies to facilitate respectful exchanges:

• Set ground rules for dialogue and reiterate the goals of mutual understanding
• Ensure balanced participation so all voices are heard
• Guide discussion and pose follow-up questions to move the analysis forward
• Correct misunderstandings and summarize key insights
• Wrap up each session by synthesizing critical takeaways

Encouraging Participation from Every Student

Getting all students engaged:

• Think-pair-share activities to promote idea exchange
• Assign roles like "devil's advocate" or "discussion leader"
• Solicit alternative perspectives, including dissenting ones
• Scaffold questions from basic clarifications to deeper analysis
• Praise thoughtful contributions regardless of "right" answers
• Follow up privately with shy students to include them

Following these practical tips will lead to vibrant intellectual dialogue that unlocks students' critical thinking potential.

Applying the Socratic Method Beyond Philosophy

The Socratic method, developed by the Greek philosopher Socrates, is a form of cooperative argumentative dialogue between individuals that aims to stimulate critical thinking and draw out ideas and underlying presuppositions. Initially devised as a philosophical teaching technique, the method has since been adapted for use in various other fields beyond philosophy.

Socratic Method in Law School

The Socratic method is widely used in American law schools to train students to think like lawyers. By engaging students in a series of questions that reveal the strengths and weaknesses of their arguments, professors encourage the development of critical analysis skills crucial for legal practice. Students learn to swiftly evaluate scenarios, weigh multiple perspectives, and articulate reasoned defenses of their positions. This aims to prepare them to argue cases in courtrooms after graduation.

Law professors modify the technique by focusing the dialogue on legal principles and precedents rather than abstract ideas. Questions probe the rationales behind existing laws and judicial rulings, pressing students to justify established doctrine. This forces them to think within the structures of the legal system while still questioning assumptions. The method equips students with the capacity for the critical yet grounded analysis required of legal professionals.

Interdisciplinary Teaching Strategies

While devised as a philosophical approach, the questioning nature of the Socratic method aligns with constructivist learning theories that emphasize active student participation over passive absorption of information. Educators across disciplines have adapted the technique to engage students, facilitate comprehension through teaching dialogues, and promote the higher-order thinking skills required for success in the 21st century.

In subjects like English literature, Socratic questioning guides students in interpreting themes and literary devices in texts. Scientific fields use the method to lead students toward conceptual understanding by scaffolding principled questioning. Mathematics and programming instructors employ technique to foster logical reasoning skills. Across disciplines, the approach centers critical analysis, evaluation of ideas, and thoughtful dialogue.

When applied broadly, the Socratic method equips students with transferable critical and creative thinking abilities. Questioning techniques teach structured evaluation of claims, evidence, differing viewpoints, and underlying assumptions. This builds the intellectual values that form the foundation of lifelong learning across academic and professional careers. The method can elevate classroom discourse beyond rote fact delivery toward the development of analytical thought and communication excellence.

Benefits for Students' Development

Promotes critical thinking and problem-solving.

The Socratic method requires students to evaluate arguments, identify logical fallacies, and reconsider beliefs. By repeatedly probing the reasoning behind ideas, it pushes students to think critically rather than accept claims at face value. This builds essential problem-solving skills that students can apply to academic work and real-world issues.

Develops Communication Abilities and Confidence

Through dialogue and debate, the Socratic method offers opportunities for students to improve public speaking, listening, and reasoning abilities. Having to clearly articulate and defend ideas builds confidence and communication skills. Students learn to craft persuasive arguments, integrate different viewpoints, and identify weaknesses in thinking.

Deepens Understanding and Facilitates Lifelong Learning

Questioning and explaining concepts cements students' comprehension of material, versus just passively receiving information. By articulating their knowledge, identifying gaps, and resolving misconceptions through discussion, students gain clearer and deeper mastery of content. This self-reflection promotes metacognition and skills for self-directed learning beyond school.

Challenges and Responses in Socratic Teaching

Classroom management during socratic dialogues.

The free-flowing nature of Socratic dialogues can present classroom management challenges. Here are some tips:

Set clear expectations and ground rules for respectful discussion from the start. Reinforce these regularly.

Use methods like talking sticks or balls to designate speakers. This prevents multiple students from speaking at once.

Have students sit in a circle or horseshoe shape. This encourages active listening and participation.

Give specific positive feedback when students demonstrate good dialogue habits. This reinforces productive behaviors.

If chaos ensues, pause the dialogue. Regain student attention, then reflect on what went wrong before restarting.

Assessment Techniques for Critical Thinking Skills

Assessing critical thinking development requires going beyond traditional tests. Recommended methods include:

Student self-assessments - Have students rate their understanding before and after Socratic lessons using short surveys. Compare results over time.

Dialogue observations - Take notes on student reasoning exhibited during dialogues. Are they asking probing questions? Justifying positions logically? Identify growth areas.

Reflective writing - Assign regular journaling on lesson topics. Analyze skills like reasoning, questioning assumptions, considering multiple perspectives.

Debate analyses - Have students debate controversial issues in small groups. Evaluate their argumentation techniques against a rubric.

Concept maps - Ask students to create visual maps of lesson concepts, linking ideas. Assess organization, connections made, insights demonstrated.

No single approach can fully capture critical thinking progress. Using a combination of complementary techniques helps provide a comprehensive picture of each student's development in this complex skill domain.

Conclusion: Embracing the Socratic Method for Educational Excellence

The Socratic method is a powerful teaching technique that focuses on asking questions to stimulate critical thinking and dialogue. By embracing this method, teachers can reap immense benefits in developing students' higher-order abilities.

Here are some key advantages of using the Socratic method:

Promotes critical thinking: The method's reliance on probing questions forces students to thoroughly analyze concepts, evaluate perspectives, and articulate reasoned judgments. This builds critical analysis skills.

Develops communication abilities: By having to explain their rationale through dialogue, students learn how to present thoughts logically, make persuasive arguments, and articulate ideas effectively.

Encourages intellectual humility: The non-confrontational question-based format requires open-mindedness in considering different viewpoints. This creates an intellectually humble learning culture.

Energizes classroom engagement: The stimulating back-and-forth conversation makes learning interactive and engaging, keeping students intellectually invested.

Allows customized learning: Teachers can tailor questions to each student's level, helping scaffold understanding and achieve personalized breakthroughs.

Adopting the Socratic method takes practice - both for teachers learning how to artfully form questions and guide discussion, as well as for students adjusting to this intellectually demanding format. But the long-term dividends make it profoundly worthwhile, as seen in students developing into discerning thinkers and skilled communicators. By embracing this method, schools can nurture the foundational higher-order abilities that are vital for future success.

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4 Transformative Benefits of the Socratic Method

The Socratic Method, named after the classical Greek philosopher Socrates, is a form of dialogue-based learning. It involves a series of questions posed to help individuals explore complex ideas, stimulate critical thinking, and unravel underlying presumptions. This method encourages learners to articulate their thoughts, challenge assumptions, and scrutinize their beliefs, fostering deep understanding and intellectual humility.

The importance of effective learning methods, such as the Socratic Method, cannot be overstated. They shape the way knowledge is acquired, processed, and retained. They promote active engagement, stimulate curiosity, and instill lifelong learning habits. Crucially, effective learning methods also help to develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills, which are indispensable in our rapidly evolving world.

Benefits of Using the Socratic Method in Learning

1. fostering critical thinking.

The Socratic Method is renowned for encouraging deeper analysis. Instead of simply accepting information at face value, students are prompted to delve deeper into the concepts and subject matter at hand. They are urged to question, probe, and dissect information to fully comprehend its meaning, purpose and implications. This technique cultivates a habit of deep analysis within students, ultimately helping them excel not just academically, but also in their future professional and personal lives.

Furthermore, the Socratic Method is instrumental in challenging assumptions. In a traditional lecture-based learning environment, students may not question the information provided. However, the Socratic dialogue promotes a culture of critical questioning, where assumptions are identified, scrutinized, and challenged. This process not only ensures a robust understanding of the topic, but also discourages blind acceptance of information. It empowers students to be active participants in their learning journey, rather than passive recipients of knowledge.

The Socratic Method also plays a significant role in developing problem-solving skills. In the midst of a Socratic dialogue, students are often presented with various scenarios, dilemmas, or problems related to the subject matter. Instead of providing direct solutions, the instructor encourages and guides students to find their own solutions through logical reasoning and critical thinking. By doing so, the Socratic Method helps to nurture problem-solving abilities.

Critical Thinking and Technology – Tools for Processing Information

Students learn to approach problems from different perspectives, evaluate various possibilities, and ultimately select the best solution based on rational judgment. This process not only enhances their understanding of the subject, but also equips them with the skills necessary to tackle real-world challenges. These abilities, honed through the Socratic Method, thus transcend classroom boundaries, preparing students for success in their professional and personal lives.

2. Active Engagement

The Socratic Method fosters a dynamic learning environment, enlivening classrooms by replacing monotonous lectures with engaging dialogues. By prompting students to actively participate in discussions, it shifts the educational paradigm from simply receiving information to actively seeking knowledge. This dynamic interaction not only sustains students’ attention but also encourages them to voice their thoughts, leading to a more inclusive and participatory learning environment.

Active Learning: 8 Strategies for Success in Today’s Education

The Socratic Method also personalizes learning by acknowledging that students have unique perspectives and individual learning styles. Through thoughtful questioning, instructors can tailor the conversation to suit the students’ understanding, allowing them to draw connections between the topic at hand and their existing knowledge. This personalized approach makes learning more meaningful for students, as it resonates with their personal experiences and interests. Consequently, the Socratic Method not only imparts knowledge, but also cultivates a lifelong love for learning.

3. Cultivating Effective Communication

The Socratic Method places a significant emphasis on listening, as understanding others’ viewpoints requires attentive and active listening. This practice encourages students to listen more carefully, not just to the instructor, but also to their peers. As a result, they develop enhanced comprehension skills, fostering a deeper understanding of the subject matter.

Simultaneously, the Socratic Method encourages students to articulate their thoughts clearly, as they are often required to explain and defend their viewpoints. This not only sharpens their critical thinking skills but also improves their communication abilities, giving them the confidence to express their ideas effectively and persuasively.

The Socratic Method also promotes a culture of respectful discourse. It nurtures an environment where differing perspectives are not just tolerated, but actively encouraged. Students learn to voice their disagreements in a respectful and constructive manner, fostering a culture of mutual respect. By engaging in respectful discourse, students learn the importance of maintaining professionalism and courtesy, even when engaged in heated debates or discussions. This serves as a vital skill that extends beyond the classroom, applicable in their future professional and personal interactions.

4. Developing Lifelong Learning Skills

The Socratic Method’s benefits extend far beyond the classroom setting. This approach encourages learners to question, explore, and challenge knowledge, skills vital in the ever-evolving global landscape. Its application is particularly noticeable in self-directed learning, a necessity in the modern world, where individuals are often required to acquire new skills and knowledge independently.

By nurturing curiosity and critical thinking, the Socratic Method empowers learners to take charge of their educational journey. It instills the ability to question, investigate, and reflect upon various concepts and ideas. This skill allows them to navigate effectively through a sea of information, identifying reliable sources, scrutinizing the content, and synthesizing it into valuable knowledge.

Lifelong Learning: 12 Surprising Benefits

The Socratic Method enables learners to adapt to new situations, solve complex problems, and make informed decisions. By fostering such autonomy in learning, the Socratic Method truly cultivates lifelong learners, prepared to continuously grow and adapt in any aspect of life, whether academic, professional, or personal.

The Origins of the Socratic Method

The Socratic Method, as the name suggests, originates from the classical Greek philosopher Socrates . He was known for his distinct approach to teaching, which involved asking probing questions to encourage critical thinking and enlighten his students. Instead of providing direct answers, he would initiate dialogues that forced his students to understand concepts deeply and independently.

Over time, the Socratic Method has evolved and adapted to the changing educational landscape. In the Medieval period, the method was integrated into the Scholasticism educational approach, where it was used to reconcile Christian theology with classical philosophy. During the Renaissance, it was used as a tool for critical inquiry in the liberal arts.

In the modern era, the Socratic Method has found its place in various educational settings, from classrooms to professional development programs. Its robust adaptability allows for its use in teaching a wide range of subjects, from philosophy and law to mathematics and science. The method has been modified to cater to the digital age, with online platforms facilitating Socratic discussions, thereby broadening its reach and impact. Despite its ancient origins, the Socratic Method remains a relevant and powerful tool for education, continuing its mission of fostering independent thought and lifelong learning.

How the Socratic Method Works

The core principles, questioning.

At the heart of the Socratic Method lie the art and science of questioning. Socratic questioning is not about asking random queries. Rather, it’s a systematic, disciplined, and deep form of inquiry designed to challenge the completeness of thinking and provoke introspection. The technique involves asking open-ended questions that encourage students to think critically and dig deeper into their assumptions, beliefs, and knowledge base.

By doing so, it illuminates knowledge gaps, uncovers ambiguities, and exposes contradictions, all while stimulating students to form their own opinions and develop self-directed learning habits. This principle of questioning fosters a climate of intellectual exploration and active learning, where the student is not a passive recipient of information but an active participant in the learning process. Thus, through questioning, the Socratic Method facilitates the transition from superficial understanding to profound comprehension, from knowledge acquisition to wisdom cultivation.

Dialogue and Discussion

In the realm of the Socratic Method, dialogue and discussion are pivotal elements that serve to foster an environment of collective thinking and collaborative learning. Unlike traditional teaching methods, where communication is predominately one-way, the Socratic Method emphasizes a bidirectional exchange of ideas and insights. 

Through this interactive discourse, students are empowered to articulate their thoughts, challenge perspectives, and defend their viewpoints. As they engage in these dialogues and discussions, they not only cultivate their communication skills but also their capacity to reason, analyze, and synthesize information. 

In this collaborative learning environment, knowledge is not simply imparted—it is co-constructed. Such intellectual discourse encourages students to learn from their peers, validate their understanding, and critically evaluate various viewpoints. Hence, dialogue and discussion in the Socratic Method promote a vibrant, dynamic, and enriching learning experience that extends beyond the confines of textbook knowledge.

Critical Thinking

At the heart of the Socratic Method lies the principle of critical thinking, an essential skill that is progressively honed through consistent and thought-provoking dialogues. The method’s characteristic emphasis on questioning pushes students to move beyond rote memorization, urging them to delve into deeper levels of understanding. It necessitates the need to analyze, evaluate, and infer, thereby promoting intellectual curiosity and developing analytical prowess. 

The Socratic Method, by its very nature, inspires learners to constructively challenge preconceived notions, affirm their understanding through logical reasoning, and discern the validity of arguments. This process of critical inquiry encourages students to be intellectually independent and fosters a learning environment where ideas are weighed, arguments are scrutinized, and knowledge is pursued actively. Consequently, the Socratic Method, through its emphasis on critical thinking, equips learners with the intellectual rigor necessary for lifelong learning and informed decision-making.

Role of the Facilitator or Teacher

In the Socratic Method, the teacher or facilitator takes on a unique role, dissimilar from conventional teaching paradigms. Rather than being the primary source of knowledge, they act as a guide or catalyst, stimulating intellectual discourse through thought-provoking questions. 

This shift in the dynamic fosters a more collaboratively driven learning environment, where the teacher facilitates students’ exploration of ideas rather than delivering information unidirectionally. The facilitator’s role is to maintain the flow of discussion, ensure healthy debate, and guide students to uncover truths through their own reasoning. 

The skillful balance of leading without dominating, coupled with the ability to nurture an environment of curiosity and critical inquiry, makes the facilitator instrumental in the successful application of the Socratic Method. Fundamentally, the facilitator promotes an atmosphere of continuous learning, where the pursuit of knowledge is an engaging, collective, and stimulating experience.

Role of the Learner

In the Socratic Method, the learner plays an active and critical role in their own education. They are not passive recipients of knowledge, but rather active participants in an intellectual quest for truth. Engaging in this method requires learners to think deeply, question continuously, and analyze critically. Rather than accepting information at face value, they are encouraged to scrutinize arguments, probe for deeper understanding, and challenge assumptions. 

This active learning process fosters intellectual autonomy and critical thinking skills. Furthermore, learners are expected to actively participate in discussions, bring original ideas to the table, and constructively engage with opposing viewpoints. The Socratic Method, thus, transforms the learner from a passive recipient into an active seeker of knowledge, encouraging intellectual curiosity and a lifelong passion for learning.

Real-Life Applications of the Socratic Method

In traditional education.

In traditional classroom settings, the Socratic method can be a powerful tool to foster critical thinking and encourage active learning. Teachers, acting as facilitators, pose thought-provoking questions rather than providing direct answers. The goal is to guide students towards discovery and understanding through their own critical thinking. 

Instead of being spoon-fed information, students are encouraged to think deeply about the topic at hand and articulate their thought process. This may involve challenging assumptions, debating viewpoints, or justifying their responses. Such practices not only deepen their understanding but also develop their analytical and argumentative skills. 

Additionally, the Socratic method promotes an environment of open dialogue, where each student’s opinion is valued and contributes to the collective wisdom of the class. This creates a learning atmosphere of mutual respect and understanding, while also teaching students the value of different perspectives and the importance of reasoned debate.

In Professional Development

In the realm of professional development, the Socratic Method proves to be equally effective. Training sessions and workshops leveraging this approach stimulate critical thinking and problem-solving skills among participants. Trainers pose complex, real-world scenarios and encourage participants to delve into the underlying issues and potential solutions, mirroring the questioning methodology Socrates championed. 

This probing reflection leads to richer understanding and more robust solutions, as professionals bring their unique experiences and perspectives into the discussion. Moreover, the Socratic Method can be used in mentoring relationships to guide professionals in self-discovery and personal growth. By asking insightful questions, mentors can guide their mentees towards discovering their own strengths, weaknesses, and potential areas for improvement, thereby fostering self-awareness and encouraging continuous learning. 

In essence, the Socratic Method in professional development fosters an environment that encourages questioning, critical thinking, and a desire for continuous knowledge acquisition, quintessential elements for professional growth and success.

In Everyday Life

In everyday life, the Socratic Method can serve as a powerful tool for personal growth and understanding. It fosters a culture of inquiry, encouraging individuals to question their deeply held beliefs and assumptions. 

For instance, when confronted with a complex decision, one might employ the Socratic Method by posing a series of questions to oneself to uncover the core principles guiding their decision-making process. This method can likewise be used in interpersonal relationships, driving meaningful dialogue and promoting empathy by encouraging individuals to question their own perspectives and consider those of others. 

It can be particularly effective in navigating disagreements, as it shifts the dynamic from a potentially adversarial debate to a cooperative problem-solving endeavor. Thus, the Socratic Method, when applied in everyday life, encourages a deeper level of thought, fostering self-awareness, empathy, and personal growth.

Challenges and Criticisms

Potential drawbacks of the socratic method.

While the Socratic Method has many benefits, it’s not without its potential drawbacks. It can be time-intensive, requiring a significant investment of time both in posing thoughtful questions and in processing the responses. This method can also be intimidating for some people, who may feel pressured or uncomfortable when asked to articulate their thoughts and beliefs in front of others. It’s important to note that the success of the Socratic Method heavily relies on the skill of the questioner in facilitating a productive and respectful dialogue. 

The Socratic Method emphasizes individual thinking and questioning which, if not balanced with other instructional methods, could lead to a lack of structure in the learning process, potentially confusing learners or leading them to incorrect conclusions. Hence, while the Socratic Method can be a powerful tool for fostering critical thinking and dialogue, it requires careful implementation to overcome its potential limitations.

Addressing Common Criticisms of the Socratic Method

Many criticisms of the Socratic Method revolve around its time-consuming nature and required facilitation skills. However, these points of criticism can be addressed effectively. While it’s true that the Socratic Method can consume considerable time, this investment often yields rich dividends in the form of deeper understanding and enhanced critical thinking skills. The time invested in questioning and reflection is time well spent in cultivating an inquisitive mindset and promoting lifelong learning.

As for the required facilitation skills, they can be honed over time with practice and dedication. Educators can undertake professional development courses or workshops that focus on the Socratic Method to improve their questioning and facilitating skills.

Another criticism is the potential discomfort some individuals may experience due to the heavy emphasis on individual thinking and questioning. This can certainly be a challenge, but it can be mitigated by establishing a safe and respectful learning environment where diverse views are valued and everyone’s voice is encouraged. Moreover, educators can balance the Socratic Method with other teaching strategies to provide structure and guide students towards the learning objectives.

Finally, it’s important to note that the Socratic Method is not meant to be a standalone solution. It’s most effective when used in conjunction with other teaching methods, aligning with the diverse needs and learning styles of students. Thus, while it’s crucial to be aware of the potential limitations of the Socratic Method, these criticisms should not overshadow its benefits when used judiciously and thoughtfully in an educational context.

Balancing with Other Learning Approaches

As educators, it is important to strike a balance between the Socratic Method and other pedagogical approaches. One effective way is to blend Socratic discussions with traditional lectures. Lectures can provide necessary foundational knowledge, while the Socratic Method encourages students to probe deeper into these concepts, promoting critical thinking.

Another strategy is to incorporate project-based learning. Here, Socratic questioning can guide students through the process of creating their projects, pushing them to consider different perspectives and solutions. In this framework, the Socratic Method aids in refining ideas and enhancing understanding.

Incorporating technology is also beneficial. EdTech tools can support the Socratic Method by making collaborative learning and discussions more accessible and engaging. Using various mediums like forums, video calls, or interactive platforms, educators can facilitate Socratic discussions virtually, reaching a wider audience and promoting inclusivity.

Lastly, integrating active reading strategies along with Socratic questioning can further enhance comprehension skills. Students can be encouraged to annotate, highlight, and question as they read, preparing them for subsequent Socratic discussions. This combination supports the development of both independent learning and critical thinking skills.

While the Socratic Method is a powerful tool in promoting critical thinking, it is most effective when harmoniously integrated with other learning strategies. This blend creates a multifaceted learning environment that caters to diverse learning styles while fostering a culture of curiosity and intellectual growth.

The Socratic Method provides numerous benefits in the field of education. It facilitates deep understanding, promotes critical thinking, supports project-based learning, and enhances reading comprehension when used in conjunction with active reading strategies. Through the use of technology, Socratic discussions can be made more accessible, reaching a broader audience and fostering inclusivity.

In an ever-evolving world, the relevance of the Socratic Method remains constant. As we forge ahead in the 21st century, critical thinking skills have become more vital than ever. With complex issues surfacing at an unprecedented rate, the ability to question, analyze, and think deeply is indispensable. The Socratic Method helps foster these skills, equipping learners to navigate the changing landscape with resilience and agility. Thus, the timeless approach of Socratic questioning continues to be a crucial tool in modern education, preparing students for the challenges of the future.

Critical Thinking and the Socratic Method

This chapter starts by answering the question, “What is critical thinking?” As it turns out, not everyone agrees on what critical thinking is. Nevertheless, researchers agree that critical thinking allows many people to reason together for solutions to complex problems. Also, in this chapter, the authors look at how computing capabilities enhance Socratic problem solving. A computer-based Socratic problem-solving system can keep problem solvers on track, document the outcome of a problem-solving session, and share those results with participants and a larger audience. In addition, Socrates DigitalTM can also help problem solvers combine evidence about their quality of reasoning for individual problem-solving steps and the overall confidence level for the solution.

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Thinking more wisely: using the Socratic method to develop critical thinking skills amongst healthcare students

Yueh-ren ho.

1 Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, University Road No.1, East District 701, Tainan City, Taiwan (R.O.C.)

2 School of Medicine, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, University Road No.1, East District 701, Tainan City, Taiwan (R.O.C.)

Bao-Yu Chen

3 Institute of Clinical Medicine, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, University Road No.1, East District 701, Tainan City, Taiwan (R.O.C.)

Chien-Ming Li

4 Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Chi Mei Medical Center, Zhonghua Raod No.901, Yongkang District 710, Tainan City, Taiwan (R.O.C.)

Associated Data

Due to conditions on participant consent and other ethical restrictions, the datasets used and analysed in the current study are not publicly available. If you have any database data requirements, please contact the corresponding author of this study.

In medicine, critical thinking is required for managing and tolerating medical uncertainty, as well as solving professional problems and treating diseases. However, the core of Confucianism, teacher-centered and exam-oriented settings in middle and high school education may pose challenges to developing critical thinking in Han Chinese or Taiwanese students. Students may be adversely affected by these pedagogies since student-centered settings were more effective in stimulating their critical and reflective thinking, as well as a sense of responsibility, in the ever-changing world. Therefore, guiding students with less stable foundations of critical thinking might require a different approach. A review article highlighted the potential utility of the Socratic method as a tool for teaching critical thinking in the healthcare field. The method involves posing a series of questions to students. More importantly, medical students and residents in clinical teaching are familiar with the method. Almost all healthcare students must complete a biochemistry laboratory course as part of their basic science training. Thus, we aimed to train students to develop critical thinking in the biochemistry laboratory course by using learning sheets and teacher guidance based on the Socratic method and questioning.

We recruited second-year students from a medical school, of whom 32 had medical science and biotechnology majors (MSB), 27 had pharmaceutical science majors (PS), and 85 were medical undergraduate (MU) students. An exercise in critical thinking was conducted during a biochemistry laboratory course, which consisted of five different biochemical experiments, along with learning sheets that contained three or four critical thinking questions. Then, the teacher evaluated the students’ ability to think critically based on nine intellectual dimensions (clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, depth, breadth, logic, fairness, and significance) based on the universal intellectual standards developed by Prof. Linda Elder and Richard Paul. In the following analysis, regression models and multivariate analysis were used to determine how students improved over time, and trajectory analysis were carried out in order to observe the trends in students’ critical thinking skills construction.

Clarity and logic dimensions were identified as the key elements to facilitate the development of critical thinking skills through learning sheets and teacher guidance in students across all three different healthcare majors. The results showed that metacognitive monitoring via Socratic questioning learning sheets have demonstrated potential encourage students to develop critical thinking skills in all dimensions. Another unique contribution of current study was present the heterogeneous learning patterns and progress trajectories of clarity and logic dimensions within classes.

Using the Socratic learning model could effectively develop students’ critical thinking skills so they can more effectively care for their patients.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12909-023-04134-2.

Introduction

Emerging trends in information technology requires that the new generation of medical students become critical thinkers [ 1 ]. The General Medical Council (GMC) of the United Kingdom encourages teachers to facilitate the acquisition of critical thinking skills by students in the medical and health professions [ 2 ]. Decades of research have proven that critical thinkers can present dispositions like flexibility, persistence, and willingness when faced with a range of tasks; they display meta-cognitive monitoring and a willingness to self-correct to seek long-term consensus[ 3 ]. Although, critical thinking is constructed from childhood in most Western countries and are valued by higher education as a necessary skill for coping with society [ 4 ]. However, critical thinking constructing and teaching has attracted little attention in Eastern education systems until recently [ 5 , 6 ].

Aside from the development of critical thinking skills is a key component of educational systems, recent educational philosophy also emphasizes both thinking processes as well as metacognitive integration skills [ 7 ]. Metacognitive monitoring includes making ease-of-learning judgments (i.e., processing fluency and beliefs), judgments of learning, feeling-of-knowing judgments (i.e., assessing the familiarity of the cue and the question itself or the domain of the question), and having confidence in the retrieved answers [ 8 , 9 ]. It is an adaptive skill of personal insight that health-profession students need to succeed in the rapidly changing and challenging healthcare industry [ 2 , 10 ]. Despite this, higher education curriculum does not emphasize on teaching these skills [ 7 ]. Additionally, any attempts to change the standards in higher education are generally met with resistance and challenges since they are require to encourage teachers to create new curriculum and change the current teaching content by researchers in current study who have more than 40 years’ teaching experience observaions. Healthcare curriculum, in general, remains conservative; Taiwan is not an exception.

Critical thinking is a fundamental component of innovative thinking and has thus become the fundamental skill for cultivating innovative talents in Western education [ 11 ]. Western scholars have asserted that teaching critical thinking should start at an early age and that its foundations should be laid in elementary and secondary schools. There are many ways to define critical thinking. A leading educational expert, Prof. Dewey, defined critical thinking as inclusive of reflective thinking and argued that the thinking process should also be taken as one of the objectives of education [ 12 ]. There are a few general dispositions that an ideal critical thinker would present according to Prof. Ennis’ observation of the constitutive abilities, such as (1) provide a clear statement of the conclusion or question; (2) provide clear reasons and be specific about their relationships with each other; (3) try to be well informed; (4) always seek and use credible sources, observations and mention them frequently; (5) consider the entire situation; (6) be mindful of the context’s primary concern; (7) be aware of alternative options; (8) be open-minded toward other points of view and refrain from making a judgment when there are insufficient evidence and reasons; (9) be willing to change your position when sufficient evidence and reasons support it; (10) seek as much precision as the nature of the subject admits; (11) whenever possible, seek the truth, and more broadly, strive to “get it right”; and (12) utilize their critical thinking abilities and dispositions [ 13 – 16 ]. In the eyes of Profs. Dewey and Ennis, critical thinking is a process of careful thought and reflection before a decision is made [ 17 ].

Nevertheless, the measurement or evaluation of critical thinking skills and abilities does not seem easy. Based on another perspective on critical thinking, intellectual standards are evolving [ 18 ]. According to Profs. Elder and Paul, critical thinking is the ability to use the most appropriate reasoning in any situation [ 18 ]. To evaluate these abilities, they established nine dimensions of critical thinking to represent different aspects of critical thinking: clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, depth, breadth, logic, significance, and fairness [ 18 ]. As Profs. Elder and Paul concluded, those who possess discipline and critical thinking skills would make use of intellectual standards every day; thus, people should target these standards when they ask questions during the thinking process [ 18 , 19 ]. As a result of teachers’ regular introduction of the tools of critical thinking in their classrooms, the Socratic questioning and discussions become more productive and disciplined, thereby enabling students to realize the significance of questioning during the learning process [ 20 – 22 ].

According to a review article, teaching critical thinking to healthcare students (primarily medical and pharmacy students) through Socratic methods is more effective in developing critical thinking for a number of reasons [ 23 ]. In particular, Socratic questioning provides students with the opportunity to justify their own preconceived beliefs and thoughts after a series of specific, targeted inquiries [ 24 ]. Using Socratic questioning can also assist healthcare students, interns, or residents in thinking critically by understanding the “deep structure” of the question, i.e., deconstructing the question and understanding its true meaning [ 23 ]. The effectiveness of Socratic questioning lies in ascertaining the current knowledge of the students [ 25 ] and establishing a foundation for teaching at their level [ 26 ]. The teacher can accomplish this probing by asking progressively more challenging questions until the limits of the students’ knowledge are discovered [ 25 , 27 , 28 ], as well as by allowing students to express their existing knowledge, which in turn will allow them to synthesize new knowledge [ 26 ], and the dialogue represents the Socratic method [ 29 ]. Alternatively, a critical thinker is more likely to engage in certain established metacognitive strategies under the Socratic paradigm and/or channel the intellectual dimensions of critical thinking [ 17 ].

Unfortunately, Han Chinese students have struggled with learning critical thinking, which is thought to be part of their characterological profile [ 30 ]. This struggle has been faced by students studying abroad [ 11 ] and in students enrolled in the Han Chinese education system, which mainly cultivates Confucianism [ 31 ]. There are at least two types of problems with developing critical thinking in Han Chinese or Taiwanese education. The first involves the core of Confucianism, where foreign teachers have tried to promote critical thinking in elementary and high schools but sensed ethical concerns from the students who refused to participate. This is likely because if they chose to participate, they would have felt obligated to express disagreement and negative feelings to the instructor. The Han Chinese culture values harmony and “not losing face,” emphasizing a holistic perspective and collective good. Thus, students would feel uncomfortable because disagreeing with someone’s opinion in public is consciously or often avoided [ 30 ]. Therefore, encouraging the student to participate in healthy discussions and respectfully challenge their teachers is the starting point for promoting critical thinking in students enrolled in the Han Chinese educational system.

Second, in the Western education approach, learners take an active role in and are responsible for their learning process. On the contrary, the Han Chinese and Taiwan education systems are teacher-centered and exam-oriented; students are expected to follow their teachers’ instructions and perform well in class. More importantly, the textbook or teacher-centered framework lacks half of Ennis’s twelve constitutive abilities for critical thinking [ 13 – 15 ], such as judging the credibility of a source, observing and judging observation reports, drawing explanatory conclusions (including hypotheses), making and judging value judgments, and attributing unstated assumptions. As a result, Han Chinese students may find it difficult to develop critical thinking skills and present key traits and dispositions that are indicative of an ideal critical thinker. Hence, guiding and evaluating critical thinking in students might not be implemented through the same approach in Eastern educational circumstances as in the West. By understanding the difficulties that Han Chinese students face in developing critical thinking, the current study aims to design a set of critical thinking models that are suitable for Han Chinese students as a starting point for reform teaching.

Research questions, hypotheses and objectives

Research has shown that the laboratory class is not just limited to a step-wise approach to experimentation. It also allows students to develop their critical thinking skills by repeatedly engaging a simple learning framework [ 32 ]. To explore this further, the current study’s primary purpose is to use Socratic questioning in a biochemistry laboratory course with specifically designed learning sheets and feedback from teacher to guide students to improve their critical thinking skills. The learning sheets were evaluated following the universal intellectual standards for critical thinking developed by Prof. Elder and Paul [ 19 , 33 ]. For this study, we hypothesized that students with different healthcare majors might present different improvement trajectories in their intellectual dimensions according to the years of teaching observations in the three healthcare majors. Based on the research and rationale described above, the intervention effect of Socratic questioning in a biochemistry laboratory course was hypothesized as follows (see Fig.  1 ):

Socratic method framework and structure of the research hypotheses behind the biochemistry laboratory course

• Pre-intervention critical thinking abilities are different amongst students of different healthcare majors, especially in each intellectual dimension (H1a). Post-intervention critical thinking abilities would develop in students from each healthcare major after using the Socratic method (H1b).
• Critical thinking abilities differs significantly between pre- and post-assessments of the intellectual dimensions of students with the three different healthcare majors (H2).
• After clarifying the relation of Socratic method interventions in the class, we aim to scrutinize the trajectories of students between majors further to understand the learning style in class (Aim 1). Furthermore, we also aim to identify the key intellectual dimensions that could lead to an overall improvement in the critical thinking of students in each major (Aim 2). Additionally, we observed improvement trajectories of specific intellectual dimensions within major (Aim 3).

Literature review

Critical thinking engagement in the eastern and western medical education.

Over the last decade, medical education has been undergoing a variety of approaches for effectiveness teaching and transformation [ 34 ]. Many paradigms of active teaching/learning methodologies have been adopted in both Eastern and Western medical education systems, some of which are used partially (actual or conceptual similar) Socratic questioning to challenge students’ critical thinking. In this regard, the primary philosophy of case-based learning (CBL) established in the 1920s by Harvard Medical School is to guide students to apply their acquired knowledge base via critical thinking to make clinical decisions to solve the problems that they may encounter in the healthcare environment [ 35 ]. A meta-analysis study of China’s dental education reported that the CBL was a practical pedagogical method across the Chinese dental education system [ 36 ]. The results showed that the CBL method significantly increased knowledge scores, skill scores, comprehensive ability scores, and teaching satisfaction compared with the traditional lecture-based learning (LBL) mode in 2,356 dental students. Hence, there is an urgent need to change the traditional didactic lecture or teacher-centered classroom setting in which students are passive listeners instead of active participants.

Healthcare professionals are also required to solve complex problems and efficiently integrate didactic preclinical knowledge into actual clinical application in patient care [ 35 ]. On the other hand, the design thinking process may enhance both creativity and innovation so that healthcare professionals can respond to clinical problems effectively [ 37 , 38 ]. Problem-based learning (PBL) is a pedagogical approach widely accepted in medical education. It promotes active learning and results in better outcomes [ 39 – 41 ]. PBL focuses on active lifelong learning by triggering problems, directing student focus, and facilitating tutor involvement [ 39 , 42 – 44 ]. However, it is noteworthy that some hybrid PBL models have become less effective over time, as well as less aligned with the intended philosophy of student-centered learning [ 45 ]. Another alternative blended learning approach of PBL is team-based learning (TBL), which allows medical educators to provide students with pre-class work, in-class initial tests with immediate feedback, and real clinical problem-solving activities [ 46 ]. In the year-one studies of the Sydney Medical Program, a greater level of engagement in learning, a deeper understanding of concepts, and a sense of responsibility were shown among the medical students working in a TBL setting than among those in a PBL setting [ 47 , 48 ].

Medical educators face another significant challenge with the millennial generation, which has ubiquitous information technology access throughout its education. Thus, it is extremely important to improve students’ motivation to learn through hands-on instruction or teacher–student interaction and then stimulate students’ thinking and learning. In recent years, gamification has been successfully integrated into medical and scientific endeavors, enhancing motivation, participation, and time commitment across a variety of settings [ 49 – 51 ]. Another healthcare curriculum reform to stimulate active learning is flipped classroom (FC), which assigns learners didactic material, creating opportunities of longitudinal and interprofessional learning experiences for students during class participation [ 52 ] to encourage extracurricular learning, such as critical thinking. As part of the FC model, medical educators also develop formative and diagnostic assessments to identify learning gaps. According to these teaching modules, encouraging students to participate, emphasizing their learning, and observing their development trajectory are the core ideas in recent educational designs [ 53 ].

Although most of above-mentioned studies have been performed in the Eastern and Western education systems, however, without mentioning the differences between cultures and learning styles. Most importantly, the cultivation and foundations of critical thinking neglect the fact that Eastern and Western education systems emerged from very different learning and thinking patterns. Moreover, clinical reasoning and decision achievements depend on established critical thinking skills, therefore, it becomes more important to construct critical thinking early and comprehensively [ 54 ]. While Han Chinese students are not familiar with the core of critical thinking, the most effective approach to teaching critical thinking is still a highly debated topic in medical schools. Taken Taiwan medical education as an example, most clinical courses focuses on professional skills, problem solving, and disease treatment rather than construct critical mindset and metacognitive skills. Education strategies often emphasize the outcome while neglecting the process. Nevertheless, medical educators should also emphasize the process of forming students’ critical thinking when instructing and guiding them in this regard. Consequently, using metacognitive monitoring to enhance critical thinking in healthcare education would be appropriate, especially for Han Chinese systems with a Confucianist outlook. Thus, critical thinking via metacognitive monitoring is important in healthcare education, especially in Han Chinese systems with a Confucianist background.

Proficiency in the art of socratic questioning to enhance students’ critical thinking

Socratic questioning is a disciplined method of engaging in content-driven discourse that can be applied for various purposes: analyzing concepts, finding out the truth, examining assumptions, uncovering assumptions, understanding concepts, distinguishing knowledge from ignorance, and following the logical implications of thought. The scholars who established the intellectual standards of critical thinking have consistently indicated that “The key to distinguishing it from other types of questioning is that the Socratic questioning is systemic, disciplined, and deep and usually focus on foundational concepts, principles, theories, issues, or problems [ 20 – 22 ].” In short, the Socratic method is a questioning method that stimulates personal understanding. More importantly, the core principle of learning from the unknown fits best within healthcare environments.

Numerous studies have consistently urged teachers to develop Socratic dialogue in their classrooms, regardless of their learning stages and situations [ 55 – 57 ]. Using enhancement exercises in an elementary school, a study introduced a Socratic questioning strategy to provide guidance and hints to students so that they could think more deeply about an issue or problem before sharing their thoughts [ 55 ]. The lecturer of a speech course in higher education demonstrated how Socratic questioning could help students learn when confronted with a series of questions [ 56 ]. The process improves students’ ability to ask and answer questions and helps them overcome some obstacles related to their lack of self-confidence. In the book Socratic circles: Fostering critical and creative thinking in middle and high school , Dr. Matt Copeland stated that, in middle and high schools, teachers must facilitate discussions by asking questions [ 58 ]. Furthermore, this method could be applied not only to elementary school, middle school, high school but also to higher education classes [ 59 ]. During the Covid-19 pandemic, synchronous discussions in online learning demonstrated that the Socratic questioning strategy successfully improves students’ critical thinking skills [ 57 ].

The incorporation of Socratic questioning in healthcare education curriculum is under development, including for general medical education [ 60 ], medical [ 61 ], pharmacy [ 54 , 62 ], and nursing students [ 63 ]. A review article of revisiting the Socratic method as a tool for teaching critical thinking in healthcare professions revels few advantages of Socratic questioning [ 23 ]. Three type of Socratic questions were mention and could commonly used in different clinical situations [ 23 ], such as procedure question would use in those with correct answers (e.g., Which of the following medications has antithrombotic function? ); preference question can apply in those with no correct answers (e.g., What type of consultation is most suitable for this patient? ); judgment question would be the most challenge critical thinking within a Socratic paradigm by integrating different domain knowledge and skills (e.g., Does this patient require antibiotic treatment? ). It is necessary to apply and analyze information in a logical manner as well as self-regulate and use critical thinking in order to achieve the best outcome for patients. For medical doctors, pharmacists or clinical laboratory technicians to provide high quality health care across all disciplines, critical thinking is inherently required.

In medical school, the emphasis is laid on training learners in meta-capabilities, such as self-driven pattern recognition, ideally as part of an apprenticeship under the supervision of an expert diagnostician [ 61 ]. An in-depth study of the current trends in developing critical thinking amongst medical students demonstrated the use of dialogue for proper questioning and how it directs the learner’s thinking [ 64 ]. Moreover, another study confirmed that critical thinking occurs only when students are motivated and challenged to engage in higher-level thought processes [ 65 ]. In the pharmacy classroom, educators can play a significant role in influencing their students’ mindsets.  Growth mindsets can be cultivated through the creation of an environment that encourages it. [ 62 ]. The Socratic questioning method can facilitate critical thinking in nursing education. One study showed that problem solving using critical thinking skills can be facilitated in both educational and practice settings by using Socratic inquiry [ 63 ].

The Socratic method has been adapted in different ways to different domains, but it has become closely associated with many areas, such as basic scientific thinking training, legal dialectical guidance, and clinical teaching. Some adaptations are helpful, some are not. The adaptations can be looked at through reasoning-focused lenses with varying degrees of magnification —a high-magnification adaptation rigorously and precisely tracks or guides the path of reasoning. Thus, how to use the Socratic method to direct students onto the path of critical thinking with appropriate guidance, but not revealing answers becomes an art that tests instructors’ teaching experience and proficiency in questioning.

Critical thinking and reflection exercises in the laboratory course

Medical schools have increasingly encouraged students to become life-long, self-directed learners because of the continual changes in the evidence-based healthcare environment. Science is often applied in everyday life, including translating knowledge from scholarly fields [ 66 ]. However, there is a vast gap between what is taught in medical schools and what is actually required in practice has increasingly widened in this information era. The majority of healthcare professionals are not considered to be real scientists. [ 2 ]. Nevertheless, they need to know how to apply scientific knowledge to their practice. Therefore, a science curriculum in medical school, such as a biochemistry laboratory course, should provide an opportunity to learn scientific methods and conceptual frameworks. It should also promote critical reasoning, providing healthcare students with problem-solving skills.

Medical educators need to accept that critical thinking is important for healthcare students and know how to teach it effectively [ 67 ]. Medical educators are now faced with a dilemma: should they develop a new course or adapt old course to develop critical thinking skills?  An effective learning model should promote and stimulate students’ development of such skills [ 67 ]. One of the most common compulsory courses for healthcare students is the biochemistry laboratory course [ 68 , 69 ]. These courses are specifically designed to introduce students to prescribed experiments, requiring them to complete stepwise protocols by themselves [ 68 , 70 ]. The students are expected to understand the concepts behind the methods, procedures, and assays. However, this type of curriculum construction often fails to provide students with adequate opportunities to monitor their critical thinking and thus reduces the chances of developing problem-solving skills [ 70 ]. In order to provide students with more opportunities to think critically, previous studies have also adapted laboratory, basic science, and science fusion courses to help students develop critical thinking skills [ 67 , 68 , 71 – 73 ].

Several studies have demonstrated that students need critical thinking skills to interpret data and formulate arguments. Thus, science education, particularly in the laboratory setting, is designed to teach quantitative critical thinking (i.e. interpretation and critical evaluation of statistical reports), but the evidence has suggested that this is seldom, if ever, achieved [ 74 – 79 ]. By providing multiple opportunities for students to participate in critical thinking in the physics laboratory classes at Stanford University, scholars engaged the students to improve the experiment and modify the model repeatedly [ 32 ]. Additionally, a simple learning framework using decision-making cycles and demonstrating experts’ critical thinking significantly improved students’ critical thinking. We thus argue that students should engage in critical thinking exercises with repeated comparisons, decisions, and teacher guidance that are meant to construct their critical thinking in each of their disciplines.

Participants

This research was conducted during the 2017–2018 academic year. The participants were second-year students in the College of Medicine at the National Cheng Kung University (NCKU) of Taiwan. A total of 144 students participated in this study, of whom 32 had medical science and biotechnology majors (hereafter, MSB), 27 had pharmaceutical science majors (hereafter, PS), and 85 were medical undergraduate (hereafter, MU) students. The biochemistry laboratory course was compulsory for these three majors.

For each biochemistry laboratory class, the teacher assembled five to six groups of four to five students each. The course contained five different biochemical experiments: (1) Plasmid DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) extraction and purification; (2) restriction enzyme digestion and electrophoresis of plasmid DNA; (3) polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of plasmid DNA; (4) recombinant protein expression in Escherichia coli ; and (5) quantification of recombinant protein. The experimental learning sheets included three or four critical thinking questions (Table S1 ), encouraging students to explore experimental principles and alternative explanations further. To facilitate discussion, students were organized into small groups of four to five students seated around a single table, discussing and answering the questions. At this time, the students would pen down their first answers to the critical thinking questions, and the teacher would grade them based on the universal intellectual standards (learning sheets, first evaluation).

Furthermore, according to the students’ answers, the teacher offered a response by asking more questions according to the Socratic method to encourage students to think deeper rather than provide the correct answers. At the following week’s class, the teacher returned the learning sheet and supervised the ongoing activity, clarifying any questions raised by students and encouraging them to re-discuss and re-answer the critical thinking questions according to the teacher’s suggestions. The objective was to create a highly interactive environment to engage students in learning the relevant principles of each laboratory, including troubleshooting experiments and formulating critical concepts and skills. After the discussion, the teacher reexamined the students’ responses and assessed them based on the universal intellectual standards for subsequent grading (learning sheets, second evaluation).

The biochemistry laboratory courses and the Socratic method in current study are performed and taught by a senior biochemistry teacher (PhD in Institute of Basic Medical Science, NCKU) who has 40 years teaching experience. The teacher has long focused on teaching critical thinking skills to students, and also offers four senior clinical case related courses by practicing the Socratic method, such as clinical concept, critical thinking in medicine, clinical reasoning and special topics in clinical reasoning with more than 20 years of experience. Therefore, in the course, teacher will often ask a series of questions for students to think about the relevance of biochemical science and clinical practice.

Assessment development

The research team designed the learning sheets to guide discussion on the key issues concerning five biochemical experiments. The learning sheets were assessed according to the universal intellectual standards for critical thinking [ 33 ]. However, the assessment was adapted to include nine intellectual dimensions to assess student reasoning [ 19 , 33 ]: clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, depth, breadth, logic, fairness, and significance (Table S2 ). Each dimension was evaluated using a binary score (0 = does not present the skill; 1 = presents the skill) for each question in the learning sheets for both the first and second evaluations. The students received the teacher’s guidance following the first evaluation, providing them with the opportunity to reconsider their reasoning and revise their answers. Our goal was to improve our students’ learning by stimulating the teaching process; at the same time, we were committed to allowing students to speak freely so that we could more effectively facilitate prospective discussions. Thus, the critical thinking scoring system based on nine intellectual dimensions was only for the purpose of the research, without consequences on students’ study progress. In this regard, students were not able to know their intellectual scores. As a result, their course grades were not determined by the learning sheets; rather, they were determined by the general operation, experiment report, and the learning attitude demonstrated during the experiments.

Statistical analysis

Descriptive statistics and variable tests.

We calculated the differences between the performance means for the first and second evaluations using paired t -tests. The mean differences between the students from the three majors were analyzed using a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). For the improvement slope for each universal intellectual dimension, we used the second evaluation scores of each experiment as the point with which to construct a quadratic equation curve in one variable (dimension) and then access the slope to represent the students’ improvement. The higher the slope score, the greater the students’ progress on that dimension.

Multivariate analysis

We used traditional analytical methods to observe and analyze the students’ improvement in the five experiments. Data from the second evaluation scores of each experiment served as the multi-time point measurement data. The Cox regression model for multivariate analysis was used to investigate the effect of several variables upon the time during which a specified outcome happened [ 80 ]. For each dimension, the model’s outcome determined that a student’s improvement slope was defined as minor progress if it was lower than the improvement slopes of their peers in the same major overall. However, if the student’s improvement slope was higher than the overall progress intercept of their peers, then it was defined as greater progress. The Cox regression models’ outcomes for each dimension were divided into two groups: minor and more progress. For this model’s outcome, (1) we calculated all dimensions’ slopes mean from each major (MSB: 0.369; PS: 0.405; MU: 0.401); (2) then compared the mean slope of the individual students with the mean slope of major; (3) if the student’s individual improvement slope was lower than mean slope of major, then defined as minor progress; if the student’s individual improvement slope was higher than mean slope of major, then defined as greater progress. From the analysis at this point, we understood that teacher could help students from different majors develop the different dimensions of critical thinking with the use of Socratic methods and simple repeated thinking framework practice. Additionally, we wanted to represent the improvement of intellectual dimensions between the students of different majors and their heterogeneity in critical thinking.

Dimension identification and comparison

To understand which intellectual dimensions were most representative of student improvement across majors, the analysis was divided into three sections: (1) to identify the progress percentage of all nine intellectual dimensions; (2) to identify the progress percentage of statistically significant intellectual dimensions; (3) to compare the differences among all nine dimensions, the significant dimensions, and the reciprocal dimensions. This analysis offered a better understanding of what dimensions represented the overall improvement of students’ critical thinking. Our first step was to calculate the percentage of improvement for each experiment by determining the results of the first and second evaluations for each intellectual dimension. Second, we took average percentage of improvements for each dimension. Finally, we used Student’s t -test to compare the differences among the average of all nine dimensions, the significant dimensions, and the reciprocal dimensions.

Trajectory analysis

In this study, we also hypothesized that each student’s learning and progress trajectories were heterogeneous across different majors. Depending on the major, there may also be differences between students in the same class. To focus our observations on the students’ use of the clarity and logic dimensions, we used a trajectory-tracking analysis [ 81 , 82 ] and categorized the students into two groups based on the participants’ improvement levels within the same major.

Descriptive data

We recruited 144 second-year students from three majors in the College of Medicine, among which 32 were MSB, 27 were PS, and 85 were MU students. All participants’ first and second evaluations were compared in all five biochemistry experiments. The statistically significant between-group differences in the mean initial evaluation results for each dimension are presented in Table  1 .

Description of the participants and their performance in the evaluations of their learning sheets (N = 144)

† Students were divided into groups of 4–5 participants to complete the exercises. However, the learning sheets scores were filed individually. # The difference between groups in their performance in the second evaluation was calculated using analysis of variance (ANOVA).

‡ The subscales in the learning sheets are scored on a scale of 1–4 for each dimension.

* The difference in performance between the first and second evaluations was compared using paired t -tests, p  < 0.05.

a Medical laboratory science and biotechnology vs. pharmaceutical students, p  < 0.05.

b Pharmaceutical vs. undergraduate medical students, p  < 0.05.

c Medical laboratory science and biotechnology vs. undergraduate medical students, p  < 0.05.

Overall improvement from the initial to second evaluations throughout the five experiments (H1, H2, and Aim 1)

Table  1 presents the mean results of the first and second evaluations; the five experiments exhibited statistically significant differences ( p  < 0.05) across all study groups and dimensions. More detailed analyses revealed significant differences in performance in the second evaluation between the groups after all five biochemistry experiments in the clarity ( p  = 0.0019), depth ( p  = 0.0097), breadth ( p  < 0.0001), logic ( p  = 0.0371), and significance ( p  = 0.0037) dimensions. However, for some of the dimensions (clarity, accuracy, precision, logic, and fairness), the initial evaluation results differ significantly between the MU and the MSB students, but this was not the case for the secondary evaluation results. The MSB students exhibited the best progress (2nd mean score minus 1st mean score) in the clarity dimension across all experiments. The PS students exhibited the best performance in the logic dimension ( p  < 0.05) in the second evaluation after the five experiments.

The results of the MSB students improved steeply in most dimensions in the five experiments, especially depth (slope: 0.472), logic (0.455), and clarity (0.410) (Table  2 ). Time had a stronger effect on several of the dimensions in the multivariate analysis, specifically clarity ( p  = 0.0012), relevance ( p  = 0.0007), and logic ( p  < 0.0001). By contrast, the PS students showed a significant overall improvement in the clarity (slope: 0.212, p  < 0.0001), accuracy (0.539, p  = 0.0063), precision (0.381, p  = 0.0085), relevance (0.216, p  < 0.0001), breadth (0.426, p  = 0.0045), and logic (0.515, p  = 0.0027) dimensions over the observation period (Table  3 ). Finally, the MU students showed a significant overall improvement in six dimensions: clarity (slope: 0.277, p  < 0.0001), accuracy (0.520, p  = 0.0003), depth (0.459, p  = 0.0092), breadth (0.356, p  = 0.0100), logic (0.544, p  = 0.0190), and significance (0.327, p  = 0.0225) (Table  4 ).

Medical laboratory science and biotechnology students’ overall improvement throughout the five experiments (N = 32)

* p  < 0.05, paired t -tests comparing the evaluations for the first and second learning sheets.

† Slopes are rates of improvement calculated using the fifth learning sheet and the second evaluation scores for the final assessment of improvement. The second evaluation scores for all the other learning sheets were used as linear function factors to plot a quadratic function for each dimension.

Pharmaceutical students’ overall improvement throughout the five experiments (N = 27)

Undergraduate medical students’ overall improvement throughout the five experiments (N = 85)

Trajectory tracking of the overall, significant, and reciprocal dimensions (Aim 2 and Aim 3)

Figure  2 a illustrates the overall improvement of students across the three majors in all nine dimensions, as assessed via trajectory analysis. The trajectory-tracking algorithm revealed that the significant dimensions for each group were as follows: MSB students—clarity, relevance, and logic; PS students—clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, breadth, and logic; and MU students—clarity, accuracy, depth, breadth, logic, and significance (Tables  2 , ​ ,3 3 and ​ and4; 4 ; Fig.  2 b). The comparison of each group’s average percentage of improvement between the nine dimensions, the significant dimensions, and the reciprocal dimensions (clarity and logic) is summarized in Fig.  2 c. Figure  2 d–i depicts the students’ improvement in clarity and logic within the different majors using group-based trajectory modeling.

Overall improvement comparison between the students of three majors using a trajectory-tracking analysis approach . ( a ) The mean evaluation scores from the second evaluation minus those from the first evaluation for the nine dimensions were considered an improvement. They were converted to percentages to compare them to the performance in the first evaluation. ( b ) The mean evaluation scores from the second evaluation minus those from the first evaluation for the significant dimensions (within the students of each major, Tables  2 – 4 ) were considered to represent improvement and were converted to percentages to compare them to the performance in the first evaluation. ( c ) Comparison of the average percentage improvement among all nine dimensions, the significant dimensions, and the reciprocal dimensions (i.e., clarity and logic). ( d ) Trajectory analysis to assess the progress of the two subgroups of medical laboratory science and biotechnology students in the clarity dimension. ( e ) Trajectory analysis to assess the progress of the two subgroups of pharmaceutical students in the clarity dimension. ( f ) Trajectory analysis to assess the progress of the two subgroups of undergraduate medical students in the clarity dimension. ( g ) Trajectory analysis to identify the progress of the two subgroups of medical laboratory science and biotechnology students in the logic dimension. ( h ) Trajectory analysis to assess the progress of the two subgroups of pharmaceutical students in the logic dimension. ( i ) Trajectory analysis to assess the progress of the two subgroups of undergraduate medical students in the logic dimension

Empirical contributions

The Han Chinese educational system relies on the passive transmission of knowledge, as evidenced by the years of preparation by students’ through paper-based exams. By adopting this approach during teaching and learning, students do not develop a critical thinking mindset. Our experience has shown that when we encounter first-year students who have just graduated from high school, their previous education failed to develop critical thinking skills. Many foreign and Western teachers have the same experience when they encounter Asian students studying abroad for the first time. Thus, this research aims to provide clinical teachers with guidance on reducing the blind spots that students face when introduced to critical thinking. Moreover, this research aims to provide teachers with a simple teaching model and structure to guide students with less stable foundations in critical thinking. For the teaching structure and process, please refer to the procedure paragraph in the methods section and the teaching flow chart in Fig.  1 . Furthermore, the scoring system shown in the assessment development paragraph in the methods, as well as the scoring rubric is presented in Table S1 .

To our knowledge, this is the first study that uses the Socratic method and the universal intellectual standards to assess and improve critical thinking skills in biochemistry laboratory courses across different healthcare majors. We also used a novel design for teaching critical thinking, with multi-timepoint assessments and trajectory-tracking analysis to observe the students’ process and the improvement intheir critical thinking. This Socratic method, combined with critical thinking-based learning sheets, significantly improved the students’ critical thinking in all nine dimensions of the universal intellectual standards, according to the first and second evaluations conducted in each of the five sessions. Another unique contribution of this study is that it analyzed the progression results at multiple time points in the critical thinking performance of students across different majors. According to the results of comparing the average percentage improvement between all nine dimensions, the significant and reciprocal dimensions (i.e., clarity and logic) do not significantly differ from each other statistically speaking. By reducing the nine intellectual dimensions scoring system, medical educators can focus more on establishing clarity and logic skills in students. In sum, our most important finding was the identification of the clarity and logic dimensions as key elements that facilitate the development of critical thinking skills via the Socratic method in students across three different healthcare majors.

The trajectories of outcomes for students of medical science and biotechnology majors

Understanding what we learn has been identified as the starting point in the professional-development journey [ 2 ]. In principle, if thinking and decision making can be taught, educational intervention is possible. Nevertheless, for a science class like biochemistry, abductive reasoning requires a deep understanding of knowledge, and thinking must be inspired through stimulation.

In this study, the evaluation scores for MSB students did not improve significantly in almost any dimension at the beginning of the course. At first, most students felt uncomfortable with criticizing others, disagreeing with others, or challenging teacher’s knowledge and authority when they spoke their minds. Other MSB students believed that their ability to find answers and make decisions was inadequate and expected the teacher to provide the correct answers. However, preclinical medical technologists must gradually develop their critical thinking skills. Thus, the teacher provided critical thinking cues during the class and monitored the group discussions.

On the other hand, teachers must encourage these types of students, enabling them to accomplish simpler learning goals by providing them with easier-to-attempt clues. The joy of discovering answers on their own rather than the frustration of not achieving high goals should be encouraged. This coaching process improved the MSB students’ willingness to think and explore, leading to greater relevance and breadth of coverage.

The teacher used generation, conceptualization, optimization, and implementation [ 33 ] with the Socratic method to stimulate critical thinking in a four-step cycle in the five experiments. When the spontaneous discussion started in the generation phase, they tried to clarify their knowledge of the theme and identify the problem from the learning sheet. The following step was to conceptualize the problem, and the students drafted all of the possibilities and problems. Teacher frequently asked the students, ‘ What are other possible reasons? ’ Finally, the teacher provided feedback to help the MSB students reach a proper solution and implement it. The teacher would also ask the students leading questions like ‘ What relevant theories can be confirmed more precisely? ’ These guiding processes sharpened their logic and helped them better understand what they had learned. In sum, the benefits of this process included an enhanced ability to think logically, clarification of questions and knowledge gaps, and improvements in the thought process about the theme discussed.

The steady improvement of critical thinking in the students of pharmaceutical science

Currently, pharmacists are seeing their roles and responsibilities shift to becoming patient counselors and educators on the rational use of medicine. Pharmacists are trained to focus on patient-centered care and resolve current and potential drug-related problems [ 83 , 84 ]. Critical thinking, clinical reasoning, and decision-making skills are needed to solve these problems. Nowadays, pharmacists are not just responsible for carrying out doctor’s orders, while there are always alternative treatment options available for them to recommend. Teacher therefore repeatedly emphasized the link between critical thinking and pharmacist practice and encouraged students to ask questions and find out the best alternative through Socratic method in the classroom.

During class, the PS students were required to exert considerable mental effort to conduct an inquiry to solve the learning sheet questions. Instead of providing students with clues or information to help them solve the problems, the teacher guided the PS students on how to seek the information they needed for themselves. The question for the PS students was be ‘ What are the possibly executable strategies? ’ The teacher also joined the students in discussion, using the Socratic method to stimulate critical thinking and draw out ideas and underlying suppositions. In high-quality cooperative argumentative dialogue, teacher should not direct or refer learning, nor should they ask students for the correct answers as in a traditional classroom. The hints that teacher would provide were more like ‘ The narrative explanation can be more precise. ’ Thus, asking high-quality questions and providing feedback also challenges the instructors’ teaching experience.

The PS students were guided not only toward the development of critical thinking skills but also toward solving problems using evidence-based knowledge and decision-making skills. The Socratic method process meets the student where they are on the educational spectrum and encourages and helps them advance. Using this method, the PS students engaged in student-to-student interaction to build knowledge as a group and individually. The course of five experiments conducted via the learning sheets improved many aspects of the students’ critical thinking, including their clarity, relevance, breadth, and logic. In sum, the abilities that they developed in the course should help them focus more on the possible outcomes of pharmacotherapy, medication surveillance, and proper communication and therefore improve the quality of their professional future.

The advanced construction of critical thinking skills in undergraduate medical students

In medical education, “ better thinking and learning skills grounded in understanding ” are recommended for future doctors [ 2 ]. Practicing medicine requires an ability to address current and future diseases using new diagnostic and therapeutic methods [ 10 ]. Therefore, problem solving is not the only core medical skill; the ability to deal with complex, insoluble health issues is also required [ 83 ]. In this domain, critical thinking skills have proven essential in tackling difficult, complex, interdisciplinary health problems [ 10 ].

In our study, the MU students began with high-performance scores in almost all dimensions. As a result, teachers needed to create a more challenging and thought-provoking learning environment to encourage them to think more broadly and deeply. Thus, the teacher would give students advice like ‘ Searching for more relevant information can increase the breadth of knowledge ’ and ‘ If the result is true, what is the relevant theory? ’ Most MU students were faster than other majors at defining and constructing critical thinking. However, another phenomenon often observed in the classroom was that the MU students were more reluctant to express their reasoning than the students of other majors. In other words, MU students were afraid to speak openly about their reasoning and thinking, probably due to the excessive pursuit of the correct answer. In sum, the course of five experiments conducted via the learning sheets enhanced abilities of clarity, accuracy, depth, breadth, logic, and significance in MU students.

Apart from providing structure for their critical thinking, as was done with the other preclinical students, the teacher guided the MU students to use advanced critical thinking skills by regularly analyze their thinking processes, reflecting on the decision-making and thinking process [ 84 ]. Researchers have suggested that reflective practice is key to successful medical professionalism [ 85 ] and humanism [ 86 , 87 ]; but more importantly, it may help medical professionals develop better physician–patient relationships [ 88 ]. Therefore, to advance the critical thinking experience of the MU students, teacher should encourage them to gather ideas, analyze, evaluate, and synthesize information. The teacher guided them to reflect on their plan and solve the questions on the learning sheets using their thoughts and words. These reflective practices could involve various biases in the thinking process and outcome, such as the base-rate fallacy, bias blind spot, or choice-supportive bias. The Socratic debate is a common way to model a complex thinking situation and may help teachers inspire students to become critical thinkers. MU students improved their abilities in the clarity, accuracy, depth, breadth, logic, and significance dimensions in the five experiments. This kind of training in thinking should help preclinical students constantly challenge and critically appraise evidence within their context, as well as their patients’ and their own belief and value systems.

Limitations

This study provides a model for developing a specific learning environment like a biochemistry laboratory class into one that will help students develop their critical thinking skills through inquiry. Our results have shown this method to be feasible and effective. However, there were a few limitations to this study. First, although it included students from three different majors, there was no interdisciplinary collaboration that would have simulated collaborations and communication among other healthcare professionals from different fields, as occurs in clinical practice. Introducing such collaboration may have produced more exciting and comprehensive ideas for solving the problems. Training in these professions is specialized to a considerable extent, so inter-professional collaboration should improve therapeutic outcomes and optimize patient care. Second, the original scoring system was time-consuming. However, one of our study objectives was to modify and reduce the nine intellectual dimensions scoring system into the clarity and logic dimensions. Based on the analysis in the current study, the clarity and logic dimensions were sufficient for monitoring the growth of students’ critical thinking.

The present curriculum innovation aimed to teach critical thinking skills to preclinical students in various medical majors using a Socratic questioning learning model instead of a cookbook approach to learning in laboratory courses. The development of problem-solving and critical thinking skills, in addition to process-related skills, in biochemistry laboratory courses supplements traditional curriculum in a helpful way. The curriculum innovation that we described and proposed may represent an incremental step forward for the discipline; it is a novel educational approach for promoting critical thinking skills, fostering an appreciation of the affective domain, and enabling reflective practice by using small-group processing skill instruction and one-on-one Socratic questioning. The current study results are based on training critical thinking skills that should enable students to engage in the “reflection-on-action” process, which might provide an additional bridge between basic medical knowledge and clinical practice. More importantly, reconstructive mental reviews may indirectly shape preclinical students’ future actions in the challenging healthcare industry characterized by uncertainty and novel circumstances.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank Chi-Her Lin, MD for their encouragement and support in the writing of this manuscript, and Prof. Woei-Jer Chuang, Hung-Chi Cheng, Chang-Shi Chen, Po-Hsin J. Huang, Chien-hung Yu, and Wen-Tsan Chang for their help with the experimental design. Special thanks to Tanvi Gupta for her help with the improving reading fluency.

Authors’ contributions

Yueh-Ren Ho: substantially contributed to the conception, data curation, interpretation, drafting and critical revision of the paper. She has given final approval to the manuscript and agrees to be accountable for the work. Bao-Yu Chen: substantially contributed to the conception, formal analysis, methodology, visualization, and writing and editing the manuscript. Chien-Ming Li: substantially contributed to the conception, data curation, review and editing the manuscript.

This work was supported by the Teaching Practice Research Program, Ministry of Education, Taiwan (Grant No: PMN1110350, PMN1100853, PMN1090364, PMN108075, PMN107018).

Data Availability

Declarations.

Students participating in this course will be informed before the class begins that their results will be used for educational academic research, and their written informed consent were obtained. The methodology of the study including the content analysis of literature on data curation activities were approved and funded by Teaching Practice Research Program, Ministry of Education, Taiwan. Throughout the study, all methods followed the approved methodology and adhered to the relevant guidelines and regulations. According to Human Subjects Research Act, Chap. 2, article 5: The Ministry of Education review current study nature and announced the principal investigator shall not submit the research protocol for review and approval by the Institutional Review Board. Please refer to the source of law in the website of Laws & Regulations Database of The Republic of China (Taiwan) ( https://law.moj.gov.tw/ENG/LawClass/LawAll.aspx?pcode=L0020176 ).

Not applicable.

The authors have declared that there are no conflicts of interest in relation to the subject of this study.

Publisher’s note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

• Open access
• Published: 20 March 2023

Thinking more wisely: using the Socratic method to develop critical thinking skills amongst healthcare students

• Yueh-Ren Ho 1 , 2 ,
• Bao-Yu Chen 3 &
• Chien-Ming Li 2 , 4  

BMC Medical Education volume  23 , Article number:  173 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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In medicine, critical thinking is required for managing and tolerating medical uncertainty, as well as solving professional problems and treating diseases. However, the core of Confucianism, teacher-centered and exam-oriented settings in middle and high school education may pose challenges to developing critical thinking in Han Chinese or Taiwanese students. Students may be adversely affected by these pedagogies since student-centered settings were more effective in stimulating their critical and reflective thinking, as well as a sense of responsibility, in the ever-changing world. Therefore, guiding students with less stable foundations of critical thinking might require a different approach. A review article highlighted the potential utility of the Socratic method as a tool for teaching critical thinking in the healthcare field. The method involves posing a series of questions to students. More importantly, medical students and residents in clinical teaching are familiar with the method. Almost all healthcare students must complete a biochemistry laboratory course as part of their basic science training. Thus, we aimed to train students to develop critical thinking in the biochemistry laboratory course by using learning sheets and teacher guidance based on the Socratic method and questioning.

We recruited second-year students from a medical school, of whom 32 had medical science and biotechnology majors (MSB), 27 had pharmaceutical science majors (PS), and 85 were medical undergraduate (MU) students. An exercise in critical thinking was conducted during a biochemistry laboratory course, which consisted of five different biochemical experiments, along with learning sheets that contained three or four critical thinking questions. Then, the teacher evaluated the students’ ability to think critically based on nine intellectual dimensions (clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, depth, breadth, logic, fairness, and significance) based on the universal intellectual standards developed by Prof. Linda Elder and Richard Paul. In the following analysis, regression models and multivariate analysis were used to determine how students improved over time, and trajectory analysis were carried out in order to observe the trends in students’ critical thinking skills construction.

Clarity and logic dimensions were identified as the key elements to facilitate the development of critical thinking skills through learning sheets and teacher guidance in students across all three different healthcare majors. The results showed that metacognitive monitoring via Socratic questioning learning sheets have demonstrated potential encourage students to develop critical thinking skills in all dimensions. Another unique contribution of current study was present the heterogeneous learning patterns and progress trajectories of clarity and logic dimensions within classes.

Using the Socratic learning model could effectively develop students’ critical thinking skills so they can more effectively care for their patients.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

Emerging trends in information technology requires that the new generation of medical students become critical thinkers [ 1 ]. The General Medical Council (GMC) of the United Kingdom encourages teachers to facilitate the acquisition of critical thinking skills by students in the medical and health professions [ 2 ]. Decades of research have proven that critical thinkers can present dispositions like flexibility, persistence, and willingness when faced with a range of tasks; they display meta-cognitive monitoring and a willingness to self-correct to seek long-term consensus[ 3 ]. Although, critical thinking is constructed from childhood in most Western countries and are valued by higher education as a necessary skill for coping with society [ 4 ]. However, critical thinking constructing and teaching has attracted little attention in Eastern education systems until recently [ 5 , 6 ].

Aside from the development of critical thinking skills is a key component of educational systems, recent educational philosophy also emphasizes both thinking processes as well as metacognitive integration skills [ 7 ]. Metacognitive monitoring includes making ease-of-learning judgments (i.e., processing fluency and beliefs), judgments of learning, feeling-of-knowing judgments (i.e., assessing the familiarity of the cue and the question itself or the domain of the question), and having confidence in the retrieved answers [ 8 , 9 ]. It is an adaptive skill of personal insight that health-profession students need to succeed in the rapidly changing and challenging healthcare industry [ 2 , 10 ]. Despite this, higher education curriculum does not emphasize on teaching these skills [ 7 ]. Additionally, any attempts to change the standards in higher education are generally met with resistance and challenges since they are require to encourage teachers to create new curriculum and change the current teaching content by researchers in current study who have more than 40 years’ teaching experience observaions. Healthcare curriculum, in general, remains conservative; Taiwan is not an exception.

Critical thinking is a fundamental component of innovative thinking and has thus become the fundamental skill for cultivating innovative talents in Western education [ 11 ]. Western scholars have asserted that teaching critical thinking should start at an early age and that its foundations should be laid in elementary and secondary schools. There are many ways to define critical thinking. A leading educational expert, Prof. Dewey, defined critical thinking as inclusive of reflective thinking and argued that the thinking process should also be taken as one of the objectives of education [ 12 ]. There are a few general dispositions that an ideal critical thinker would present according to Prof. Ennis’ observation of the constitutive abilities, such as (1) provide a clear statement of the conclusion or question; (2) provide clear reasons and be specific about their relationships with each other; (3) try to be well informed; (4) always seek and use credible sources, observations and mention them frequently; (5) consider the entire situation; (6) be mindful of the context’s primary concern; (7) be aware of alternative options; (8) be open-minded toward other points of view and refrain from making a judgment when there are insufficient evidence and reasons; (9) be willing to change your position when sufficient evidence and reasons support it; (10) seek as much precision as the nature of the subject admits; (11) whenever possible, seek the truth, and more broadly, strive to “get it right”; and (12) utilize their critical thinking abilities and dispositions [ 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 ]. In the eyes of Profs. Dewey and Ennis, critical thinking is a process of careful thought and reflection before a decision is made [ 17 ].

Nevertheless, the measurement or evaluation of critical thinking skills and abilities does not seem easy. Based on another perspective on critical thinking, intellectual standards are evolving [ 18 ]. According to Profs. Elder and Paul, critical thinking is the ability to use the most appropriate reasoning in any situation [ 18 ]. To evaluate these abilities, they established nine dimensions of critical thinking to represent different aspects of critical thinking: clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, depth, breadth, logic, significance, and fairness [ 18 ]. As Profs. Elder and Paul concluded, those who possess discipline and critical thinking skills would make use of intellectual standards every day; thus, people should target these standards when they ask questions during the thinking process [ 18 , 19 ]. As a result of teachers’ regular introduction of the tools of critical thinking in their classrooms, the Socratic questioning and discussions become more productive and disciplined, thereby enabling students to realize the significance of questioning during the learning process [ 20 , 21 , 22 ].

According to a review article, teaching critical thinking to healthcare students (primarily medical and pharmacy students) through Socratic methods is more effective in developing critical thinking for a number of reasons [ 23 ]. In particular, Socratic questioning provides students with the opportunity to justify their own preconceived beliefs and thoughts after a series of specific, targeted inquiries [ 24 ]. Using Socratic questioning can also assist healthcare students, interns, or residents in thinking critically by understanding the “deep structure” of the question, i.e., deconstructing the question and understanding its true meaning [ 23 ]. The effectiveness of Socratic questioning lies in ascertaining the current knowledge of the students [ 25 ] and establishing a foundation for teaching at their level [ 26 ]. The teacher can accomplish this probing by asking progressively more challenging questions until the limits of the students’ knowledge are discovered [ 25 , 27 , 28 ], as well as by allowing students to express their existing knowledge, which in turn will allow them to synthesize new knowledge [ 26 ], and the dialogue represents the Socratic method [ 29 ]. Alternatively, a critical thinker is more likely to engage in certain established metacognitive strategies under the Socratic paradigm and/or channel the intellectual dimensions of critical thinking [ 17 ].

Unfortunately, Han Chinese students have struggled with learning critical thinking, which is thought to be part of their characterological profile [ 30 ]. This struggle has been faced by students studying abroad [ 11 ] and in students enrolled in the Han Chinese education system, which mainly cultivates Confucianism [ 31 ]. There are at least two types of problems with developing critical thinking in Han Chinese or Taiwanese education. The first involves the core of Confucianism, where foreign teachers have tried to promote critical thinking in elementary and high schools but sensed ethical concerns from the students who refused to participate. This is likely because if they chose to participate, they would have felt obligated to express disagreement and negative feelings to the instructor. The Han Chinese culture values harmony and “not losing face,” emphasizing a holistic perspective and collective good. Thus, students would feel uncomfortable because disagreeing with someone’s opinion in public is consciously or often avoided [ 30 ]. Therefore, encouraging the student to participate in healthy discussions and respectfully challenge their teachers is the starting point for promoting critical thinking in students enrolled in the Han Chinese educational system.

Second, in the Western education approach, learners take an active role in and are responsible for their learning process. On the contrary, the Han Chinese and Taiwan education systems are teacher-centered and exam-oriented; students are expected to follow their teachers’ instructions and perform well in class. More importantly, the textbook or teacher-centered framework lacks half of Ennis’s twelve constitutive abilities for critical thinking [ 13 , 14 , 15 ], such as judging the credibility of a source, observing and judging observation reports, drawing explanatory conclusions (including hypotheses), making and judging value judgments, and attributing unstated assumptions. As a result, Han Chinese students may find it difficult to develop critical thinking skills and present key traits and dispositions that are indicative of an ideal critical thinker. Hence, guiding and evaluating critical thinking in students might not be implemented through the same approach in Eastern educational circumstances as in the West. By understanding the difficulties that Han Chinese students face in developing critical thinking, the current study aims to design a set of critical thinking models that are suitable for Han Chinese students as a starting point for reform teaching.

Research questions, hypotheses and objectives

Research has shown that the laboratory class is not just limited to a step-wise approach to experimentation. It also allows students to develop their critical thinking skills by repeatedly engaging a simple learning framework [ 32 ]. To explore this further, the current study’s primary purpose is to use Socratic questioning in a biochemistry laboratory course with specifically designed learning sheets and feedback from teacher to guide students to improve their critical thinking skills. The learning sheets were evaluated following the universal intellectual standards for critical thinking developed by Prof. Elder and Paul [ 19 , 33 ]. For this study, we hypothesized that students with different healthcare majors might present different improvement trajectories in their intellectual dimensions according to the years of teaching observations in the three healthcare majors. Based on the research and rationale described above, the intervention effect of Socratic questioning in a biochemistry laboratory course was hypothesized as follows (see Fig.  1 ):

Pre-intervention critical thinking abilities are different amongst students of different healthcare majors, especially in each intellectual dimension (H1a). Post-intervention critical thinking abilities would develop in students from each healthcare major after using the Socratic method (H1b).

Critical thinking abilities differs significantly between pre- and post-assessments of the intellectual dimensions of students with the three different healthcare majors (H2).

After clarifying the relation of Socratic method interventions in the class, we aim to scrutinize the trajectories of students between majors further to understand the learning style in class (Aim 1). Furthermore, we also aim to identify the key intellectual dimensions that could lead to an overall improvement in the critical thinking of students in each major (Aim 2). Additionally, we observed improvement trajectories of specific intellectual dimensions within major (Aim 3).

Socratic method framework and structure of the research hypotheses behind the biochemistry laboratory course

Literature review

Critical thinking engagement in the eastern and western medical education.

Over the last decade, medical education has been undergoing a variety of approaches for effectiveness teaching and transformation [ 34 ]. Many paradigms of active teaching/learning methodologies have been adopted in both Eastern and Western medical education systems, some of which are used partially (actual or conceptual similar) Socratic questioning to challenge students’ critical thinking. In this regard, the primary philosophy of case-based learning (CBL) established in the 1920s by Harvard Medical School is to guide students to apply their acquired knowledge base via critical thinking to make clinical decisions to solve the problems that they may encounter in the healthcare environment [ 35 ]. A meta-analysis study of China’s dental education reported that the CBL was a practical pedagogical method across the Chinese dental education system [ 36 ]. The results showed that the CBL method significantly increased knowledge scores, skill scores, comprehensive ability scores, and teaching satisfaction compared with the traditional lecture-based learning (LBL) mode in 2,356 dental students. Hence, there is an urgent need to change the traditional didactic lecture or teacher-centered classroom setting in which students are passive listeners instead of active participants.

Healthcare professionals are also required to solve complex problems and efficiently integrate didactic preclinical knowledge into actual clinical application in patient care [ 35 ]. On the other hand, the design thinking process may enhance both creativity and innovation so that healthcare professionals can respond to clinical problems effectively [ 37 , 38 ]. Problem-based learning (PBL) is a pedagogical approach widely accepted in medical education. It promotes active learning and results in better outcomes [ 39 , 40 , 41 ]. PBL focuses on active lifelong learning by triggering problems, directing student focus, and facilitating tutor involvement [ 39 , 42 , 43 , 44 ]. However, it is noteworthy that some hybrid PBL models have become less effective over time, as well as less aligned with the intended philosophy of student-centered learning [ 45 ]. Another alternative blended learning approach of PBL is team-based learning (TBL), which allows medical educators to provide students with pre-class work, in-class initial tests with immediate feedback, and real clinical problem-solving activities [ 46 ]. In the year-one studies of the Sydney Medical Program, a greater level of engagement in learning, a deeper understanding of concepts, and a sense of responsibility were shown among the medical students working in a TBL setting than among those in a PBL setting [ 47 , 48 ].

Medical educators face another significant challenge with the millennial generation, which has ubiquitous information technology access throughout its education. Thus, it is extremely important to improve students’ motivation to learn through hands-on instruction or teacher–student interaction and then stimulate students’ thinking and learning. In recent years, gamification has been successfully integrated into medical and scientific endeavors, enhancing motivation, participation, and time commitment across a variety of settings [ 49 , 50 , 51 ]. Another healthcare curriculum reform to stimulate active learning is flipped classroom (FC), which assigns learners didactic material, creating opportunities of longitudinal and interprofessional learning experiences for students during class participation [ 52 ] to encourage extracurricular learning, such as critical thinking. As part of the FC model, medical educators also develop formative and diagnostic assessments to identify learning gaps. According to these teaching modules, encouraging students to participate, emphasizing their learning, and observing their development trajectory are the core ideas in recent educational designs [ 53 ].

Although most of above-mentioned studies have been performed in the Eastern and Western education systems, however, without mentioning the differences between cultures and learning styles. Most importantly, the cultivation and foundations of critical thinking neglect the fact that Eastern and Western education systems emerged from very different learning and thinking patterns. Moreover, clinical reasoning and decision achievements depend on established critical thinking skills, therefore, it becomes more important to construct critical thinking early and comprehensively [ 54 ]. While Han Chinese students are not familiar with the core of critical thinking, the most effective approach to teaching critical thinking is still a highly debated topic in medical schools. Taken Taiwan medical education as an example, most clinical courses focuses on professional skills, problem solving, and disease treatment rather than construct critical mindset and metacognitive skills. Education strategies often emphasize the outcome while neglecting the process. Nevertheless, medical educators should also emphasize the process of forming students’ critical thinking when instructing and guiding them in this regard. Consequently, using metacognitive monitoring to enhance critical thinking in healthcare education would be appropriate, especially for Han Chinese systems with a Confucianist outlook. Thus, critical thinking via metacognitive monitoring is important in healthcare education, especially in Han Chinese systems with a Confucianist background.

Proficiency in the art of socratic questioning to enhance students’ critical thinking

Socratic questioning is a disciplined method of engaging in content-driven discourse that can be applied for various purposes: analyzing concepts, finding out the truth, examining assumptions, uncovering assumptions, understanding concepts, distinguishing knowledge from ignorance, and following the logical implications of thought. The scholars who established the intellectual standards of critical thinking have consistently indicated that “The key to distinguishing it from other types of questioning is that the Socratic questioning is systemic, disciplined, and deep and usually focus on foundational concepts, principles, theories, issues, or problems [ 20 , 21 , 22 ].” In short, the Socratic method is a questioning method that stimulates personal understanding. More importantly, the core principle of learning from the unknown fits best within healthcare environments.

Numerous studies have consistently urged teachers to develop Socratic dialogue in their classrooms, regardless of their learning stages and situations [ 55 , 56 , 57 ]. Using enhancement exercises in an elementary school, a study introduced a Socratic questioning strategy to provide guidance and hints to students so that they could think more deeply about an issue or problem before sharing their thoughts [ 55 ]. The lecturer of a speech course in higher education demonstrated how Socratic questioning could help students learn when confronted with a series of questions [ 56 ]. The process improves students’ ability to ask and answer questions and helps them overcome some obstacles related to their lack of self-confidence. In the book Socratic circles: Fostering critical and creative thinking in middle and high school , Dr. Matt Copeland stated that, in middle and high schools, teachers must facilitate discussions by asking questions [ 58 ]. Furthermore, this method could be applied not only to elementary school, middle school, high school but also to higher education classes [ 59 ]. During the Covid-19 pandemic, synchronous discussions in online learning demonstrated that the Socratic questioning strategy successfully improves students’ critical thinking skills [ 57 ].

The incorporation of Socratic questioning in healthcare education curriculum is under development, including for general medical education [ 60 ], medical [ 61 ], pharmacy [ 54 , 62 ], and nursing students [ 63 ]. A review article of revisiting the Socratic method as a tool for teaching critical thinking in healthcare professions revels few advantages of Socratic questioning [ 23 ]. Three type of Socratic questions were mention and could commonly used in different clinical situations [ 23 ], such as procedure question would use in those with correct answers (e.g., Which of the following medications has antithrombotic function? ); preference question can apply in those with no correct answers (e.g., What type of consultation is most suitable for this patient? ); judgment question would be the most challenge critical thinking within a Socratic paradigm by integrating different domain knowledge and skills (e.g., Does this patient require antibiotic treatment? ). It is necessary to apply and analyze information in a logical manner as well as self-regulate and use critical thinking in order to achieve the best outcome for patients. For medical doctors, pharmacists or clinical laboratory technicians to provide high quality health care across all disciplines, critical thinking is inherently required.

In medical school, the emphasis is laid on training learners in meta-capabilities, such as self-driven pattern recognition, ideally as part of an apprenticeship under the supervision of an expert diagnostician [ 61 ]. An in-depth study of the current trends in developing critical thinking amongst medical students demonstrated the use of dialogue for proper questioning and how it directs the learner’s thinking [ 64 ]. Moreover, another study confirmed that critical thinking occurs only when students are motivated and challenged to engage in higher-level thought processes [ 65 ]. In the pharmacy classroom, educators can play a significant role in influencing their students’ mindsets.  Growth mindsets can be cultivated through the creation of an environment that encourages it. [ 62 ]. The Socratic questioning method can facilitate critical thinking in nursing education. One study showed that problem solving using critical thinking skills can be facilitated in both educational and practice settings by using Socratic inquiry [ 63 ].

The Socratic method has been adapted in different ways to different domains, but it has become closely associated with many areas, such as basic scientific thinking training, legal dialectical guidance, and clinical teaching. Some adaptations are helpful, some are not. The adaptations can be looked at through reasoning-focused lenses with varying degrees of magnification —a high-magnification adaptation rigorously and precisely tracks or guides the path of reasoning. Thus, how to use the Socratic method to direct students onto the path of critical thinking with appropriate guidance, but not revealing answers becomes an art that tests instructors’ teaching experience and proficiency in questioning.

Critical thinking and reflection exercises in the laboratory course

Medical schools have increasingly encouraged students to become life-long, self-directed learners because of the continual changes in the evidence-based healthcare environment. Science is often applied in everyday life, including translating knowledge from scholarly fields [ 66 ]. However, there is a vast gap between what is taught in medical schools and what is actually required in practice has increasingly widened in this information era. The majority of healthcare professionals are not considered to be real scientists. [ 2 ]. Nevertheless, they need to know how to apply scientific knowledge to their practice. Therefore, a science curriculum in medical school, such as a biochemistry laboratory course, should provide an opportunity to learn scientific methods and conceptual frameworks. It should also promote critical reasoning, providing healthcare students with problem-solving skills.

Medical educators need to accept that critical thinking is important for healthcare students and know how to teach it effectively [ 67 ]. Medical educators are now faced with a dilemma: should they develop a new course or adapt old course to develop critical thinking skills?  An effective learning model should promote and stimulate students’ development of such skills [ 67 ]. One of the most common compulsory courses for healthcare students is the biochemistry laboratory course [ 68 , 69 ]. These courses are specifically designed to introduce students to prescribed experiments, requiring them to complete stepwise protocols by themselves [ 68 , 70 ]. The students are expected to understand the concepts behind the methods, procedures, and assays. However, this type of curriculum construction often fails to provide students with adequate opportunities to monitor their critical thinking and thus reduces the chances of developing problem-solving skills [ 70 ]. In order to provide students with more opportunities to think critically, previous studies have also adapted laboratory, basic science, and science fusion courses to help students develop critical thinking skills [ 67 , 68 , 71 , 72 , 73 ].

Several studies have demonstrated that students need critical thinking skills to interpret data and formulate arguments. Thus, science education, particularly in the laboratory setting, is designed to teach quantitative critical thinking (i.e. interpretation and critical evaluation of statistical reports), but the evidence has suggested that this is seldom, if ever, achieved [ 74 , 75 , 76 , 77 , 78 , 79 ]. By providing multiple opportunities for students to participate in critical thinking in the physics laboratory classes at Stanford University, scholars engaged the students to improve the experiment and modify the model repeatedly [ 32 ]. Additionally, a simple learning framework using decision-making cycles and demonstrating experts’ critical thinking significantly improved students’ critical thinking. We thus argue that students should engage in critical thinking exercises with repeated comparisons, decisions, and teacher guidance that are meant to construct their critical thinking in each of their disciplines.

Participants

This research was conducted during the 2017–2018 academic year. The participants were second-year students in the College of Medicine at the National Cheng Kung University (NCKU) of Taiwan. A total of 144 students participated in this study, of whom 32 had medical science and biotechnology majors (hereafter, MSB), 27 had pharmaceutical science majors (hereafter, PS), and 85 were medical undergraduate (hereafter, MU) students. The biochemistry laboratory course was compulsory for these three majors.

For each biochemistry laboratory class, the teacher assembled five to six groups of four to five students each. The course contained five different biochemical experiments: (1) Plasmid DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) extraction and purification; (2) restriction enzyme digestion and electrophoresis of plasmid DNA; (3) polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of plasmid DNA; (4) recombinant protein expression in Escherichia coli ; and (5) quantification of recombinant protein. The experimental learning sheets included three or four critical thinking questions (Table S1 ), encouraging students to explore experimental principles and alternative explanations further. To facilitate discussion, students were organized into small groups of four to five students seated around a single table, discussing and answering the questions. At this time, the students would pen down their first answers to the critical thinking questions, and the teacher would grade them based on the universal intellectual standards (learning sheets, first evaluation).

Furthermore, according to the students’ answers, the teacher offered a response by asking more questions according to the Socratic method to encourage students to think deeper rather than provide the correct answers. At the following week’s class, the teacher returned the learning sheet and supervised the ongoing activity, clarifying any questions raised by students and encouraging them to re-discuss and re-answer the critical thinking questions according to the teacher’s suggestions. The objective was to create a highly interactive environment to engage students in learning the relevant principles of each laboratory, including troubleshooting experiments and formulating critical concepts and skills. After the discussion, the teacher reexamined the students’ responses and assessed them based on the universal intellectual standards for subsequent grading (learning sheets, second evaluation).

The biochemistry laboratory courses and the Socratic method in current study are performed and taught by a senior biochemistry teacher (PhD in Institute of Basic Medical Science, NCKU) who has 40 years teaching experience. The teacher has long focused on teaching critical thinking skills to students, and also offers four senior clinical case related courses by practicing the Socratic method, such as clinical concept, critical thinking in medicine, clinical reasoning and special topics in clinical reasoning with more than 20 years of experience. Therefore, in the course, teacher will often ask a series of questions for students to think about the relevance of biochemical science and clinical practice.

Assessment development

The research team designed the learning sheets to guide discussion on the key issues concerning five biochemical experiments. The learning sheets were assessed according to the universal intellectual standards for critical thinking [ 33 ]. However, the assessment was adapted to include nine intellectual dimensions to assess student reasoning [ 19 , 33 ]: clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, depth, breadth, logic, fairness, and significance (Table S2 ). Each dimension was evaluated using a binary score (0 = does not present the skill; 1 = presents the skill) for each question in the learning sheets for both the first and second evaluations. The students received the teacher’s guidance following the first evaluation, providing them with the opportunity to reconsider their reasoning and revise their answers. Our goal was to improve our students’ learning by stimulating the teaching process; at the same time, we were committed to allowing students to speak freely so that we could more effectively facilitate prospective discussions. Thus, the critical thinking scoring system based on nine intellectual dimensions was only for the purpose of the research, without consequences on students’ study progress. In this regard, students were not able to know their intellectual scores. As a result, their course grades were not determined by the learning sheets; rather, they were determined by the general operation, experiment report, and the learning attitude demonstrated during the experiments.

Statistical analysis

Descriptive statistics and variable tests.

We calculated the differences between the performance means for the first and second evaluations using paired t -tests. The mean differences between the students from the three majors were analyzed using a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). For the improvement slope for each universal intellectual dimension, we used the second evaluation scores of each experiment as the point with which to construct a quadratic equation curve in one variable (dimension) and then access the slope to represent the students’ improvement. The higher the slope score, the greater the students’ progress on that dimension.

Multivariate analysis

We used traditional analytical methods to observe and analyze the students’ improvement in the five experiments. Data from the second evaluation scores of each experiment served as the multi-time point measurement data. The Cox regression model for multivariate analysis was used to investigate the effect of several variables upon the time during which a specified outcome happened [ 80 ]. For each dimension, the model’s outcome determined that a student’s improvement slope was defined as minor progress if it was lower than the improvement slopes of their peers in the same major overall. However, if the student’s improvement slope was higher than the overall progress intercept of their peers, then it was defined as greater progress. The Cox regression models’ outcomes for each dimension were divided into two groups: minor and more progress. For this model’s outcome, (1) we calculated all dimensions’ slopes mean from each major (MSB: 0.369; PS: 0.405; MU: 0.401); (2) then compared the mean slope of the individual students with the mean slope of major; (3) if the student’s individual improvement slope was lower than mean slope of major, then defined as minor progress; if the student’s individual improvement slope was higher than mean slope of major, then defined as greater progress. From the analysis at this point, we understood that teacher could help students from different majors develop the different dimensions of critical thinking with the use of Socratic methods and simple repeated thinking framework practice. Additionally, we wanted to represent the improvement of intellectual dimensions between the students of different majors and their heterogeneity in critical thinking.

Dimension identification and comparison

To understand which intellectual dimensions were most representative of student improvement across majors, the analysis was divided into three sections: (1) to identify the progress percentage of all nine intellectual dimensions; (2) to identify the progress percentage of statistically significant intellectual dimensions; (3) to compare the differences among all nine dimensions, the significant dimensions, and the reciprocal dimensions. This analysis offered a better understanding of what dimensions represented the overall improvement of students’ critical thinking. Our first step was to calculate the percentage of improvement for each experiment by determining the results of the first and second evaluations for each intellectual dimension. Second, we took average percentage of improvements for each dimension. Finally, we used Student’s t -test to compare the differences among the average of all nine dimensions, the significant dimensions, and the reciprocal dimensions.

Trajectory analysis

In this study, we also hypothesized that each student’s learning and progress trajectories were heterogeneous across different majors. Depending on the major, there may also be differences between students in the same class. To focus our observations on the students’ use of the clarity and logic dimensions, we used a trajectory-tracking analysis [ 81 , 82 ] and categorized the students into two groups based on the participants’ improvement levels within the same major.

Descriptive data

We recruited 144 second-year students from three majors in the College of Medicine, among which 32 were MSB, 27 were PS, and 85 were MU students. All participants’ first and second evaluations were compared in all five biochemistry experiments. The statistically significant between-group differences in the mean initial evaluation results for each dimension are presented in Table  1 .

Overall improvement from the initial to second evaluations throughout the five experiments (H1, H2, and Aim 1)

Table  1 presents the mean results of the first and second evaluations; the five experiments exhibited statistically significant differences ( p  < 0.05) across all study groups and dimensions. More detailed analyses revealed significant differences in performance in the second evaluation between the groups after all five biochemistry experiments in the clarity ( p  = 0.0019), depth ( p  = 0.0097), breadth ( p  < 0.0001), logic ( p  = 0.0371), and significance ( p  = 0.0037) dimensions. However, for some of the dimensions (clarity, accuracy, precision, logic, and fairness), the initial evaluation results differ significantly between the MU and the MSB students, but this was not the case for the secondary evaluation results. The MSB students exhibited the best progress (2nd mean score minus 1st mean score) in the clarity dimension across all experiments. The PS students exhibited the best performance in the logic dimension ( p  < 0.05) in the second evaluation after the five experiments.

The results of the MSB students improved steeply in most dimensions in the five experiments, especially depth (slope: 0.472), logic (0.455), and clarity (0.410) (Table  2 ). Time had a stronger effect on several of the dimensions in the multivariate analysis, specifically clarity ( p  = 0.0012), relevance ( p  = 0.0007), and logic ( p  < 0.0001). By contrast, the PS students showed a significant overall improvement in the clarity (slope: 0.212, p  < 0.0001), accuracy (0.539, p  = 0.0063), precision (0.381, p  = 0.0085), relevance (0.216, p  < 0.0001), breadth (0.426, p  = 0.0045), and logic (0.515, p  = 0.0027) dimensions over the observation period (Table  3 ). Finally, the MU students showed a significant overall improvement in six dimensions: clarity (slope: 0.277, p  < 0.0001), accuracy (0.520, p  = 0.0003), depth (0.459, p  = 0.0092), breadth (0.356, p  = 0.0100), logic (0.544, p  = 0.0190), and significance (0.327, p  = 0.0225) (Table  4 ).

Trajectory tracking of the overall, significant, and reciprocal dimensions (Aim 2 and Aim 3)

Figure  2 a illustrates the overall improvement of students across the three majors in all nine dimensions, as assessed via trajectory analysis. The trajectory-tracking algorithm revealed that the significant dimensions for each group were as follows: MSB students—clarity, relevance, and logic; PS students—clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, breadth, and logic; and MU students—clarity, accuracy, depth, breadth, logic, and significance (Tables  2 , 3 and 4 ; Fig.  2 b). The comparison of each group’s average percentage of improvement between the nine dimensions, the significant dimensions, and the reciprocal dimensions (clarity and logic) is summarized in Fig.  2 c. Figure  2 d–i depicts the students’ improvement in clarity and logic within the different majors using group-based trajectory modeling.

Overall improvement comparison between the students of three majors using a trajectory-tracking analysis approach . ( a ) The mean evaluation scores from the second evaluation minus those from the first evaluation for the nine dimensions were considered an improvement. They were converted to percentages to compare them to the performance in the first evaluation. ( b ) The mean evaluation scores from the second evaluation minus those from the first evaluation for the significant dimensions (within the students of each major, Tables  2 – 4 ) were considered to represent improvement and were converted to percentages to compare them to the performance in the first evaluation. ( c ) Comparison of the average percentage improvement among all nine dimensions, the significant dimensions, and the reciprocal dimensions (i.e., clarity and logic). ( d ) Trajectory analysis to assess the progress of the two subgroups of medical laboratory science and biotechnology students in the clarity dimension. ( e ) Trajectory analysis to assess the progress of the two subgroups of pharmaceutical students in the clarity dimension. ( f ) Trajectory analysis to assess the progress of the two subgroups of undergraduate medical students in the clarity dimension. ( g ) Trajectory analysis to identify the progress of the two subgroups of medical laboratory science and biotechnology students in the logic dimension. ( h ) Trajectory analysis to assess the progress of the two subgroups of pharmaceutical students in the logic dimension. ( i ) Trajectory analysis to assess the progress of the two subgroups of undergraduate medical students in the logic dimension

Empirical contributions

The Han Chinese educational system relies on the passive transmission of knowledge, as evidenced by the years of preparation by students’ through paper-based exams. By adopting this approach during teaching and learning, students do not develop a critical thinking mindset. Our experience has shown that when we encounter first-year students who have just graduated from high school, their previous education failed to develop critical thinking skills. Many foreign and Western teachers have the same experience when they encounter Asian students studying abroad for the first time. Thus, this research aims to provide clinical teachers with guidance on reducing the blind spots that students face when introduced to critical thinking. Moreover, this research aims to provide teachers with a simple teaching model and structure to guide students with less stable foundations in critical thinking. For the teaching structure and process, please refer to the procedure paragraph in the methods section and the teaching flow chart in Fig.  1 . Furthermore, the scoring system shown in the assessment development paragraph in the methods, as well as the scoring rubric is presented in Table S1 .

To our knowledge, this is the first study that uses the Socratic method and the universal intellectual standards to assess and improve critical thinking skills in biochemistry laboratory courses across different healthcare majors. We also used a novel design for teaching critical thinking, with multi-timepoint assessments and trajectory-tracking analysis to observe the students’ process and the improvement intheir critical thinking. This Socratic method, combined with critical thinking-based learning sheets, significantly improved the students’ critical thinking in all nine dimensions of the universal intellectual standards, according to the first and second evaluations conducted in each of the five sessions. Another unique contribution of this study is that it analyzed the progression results at multiple time points in the critical thinking performance of students across different majors. According to the results of comparing the average percentage improvement between all nine dimensions, the significant and reciprocal dimensions (i.e., clarity and logic) do not significantly differ from each other statistically speaking. By reducing the nine intellectual dimensions scoring system, medical educators can focus more on establishing clarity and logic skills in students. In sum, our most important finding was the identification of the clarity and logic dimensions as key elements that facilitate the development of critical thinking skills via the Socratic method in students across three different healthcare majors.

The trajectories of outcomes for students of medical science and biotechnology majors

Understanding what we learn has been identified as the starting point in the professional-development journey [ 2 ]. In principle, if thinking and decision making can be taught, educational intervention is possible. Nevertheless, for a science class like biochemistry, abductive reasoning requires a deep understanding of knowledge, and thinking must be inspired through stimulation.

In this study, the evaluation scores for MSB students did not improve significantly in almost any dimension at the beginning of the course. At first, most students felt uncomfortable with criticizing others, disagreeing with others, or challenging teacher’s knowledge and authority when they spoke their minds. Other MSB students believed that their ability to find answers and make decisions was inadequate and expected the teacher to provide the correct answers. However, preclinical medical technologists must gradually develop their critical thinking skills. Thus, the teacher provided critical thinking cues during the class and monitored the group discussions.

On the other hand, teachers must encourage these types of students, enabling them to accomplish simpler learning goals by providing them with easier-to-attempt clues. The joy of discovering answers on their own rather than the frustration of not achieving high goals should be encouraged. This coaching process improved the MSB students’ willingness to think and explore, leading to greater relevance and breadth of coverage.

The teacher used generation, conceptualization, optimization, and implementation [ 33 ] with the Socratic method to stimulate critical thinking in a four-step cycle in the five experiments. When the spontaneous discussion started in the generation phase, they tried to clarify their knowledge of the theme and identify the problem from the learning sheet. The following step was to conceptualize the problem, and the students drafted all of the possibilities and problems. Teacher frequently asked the students, ‘ What are other possible reasons? ’ Finally, the teacher provided feedback to help the MSB students reach a proper solution and implement it. The teacher would also ask the students leading questions like ‘ What relevant theories can be confirmed more precisely? ’ These guiding processes sharpened their logic and helped them better understand what they had learned. In sum, the benefits of this process included an enhanced ability to think logically, clarification of questions and knowledge gaps, and improvements in the thought process about the theme discussed.

The steady improvement of critical thinking in the students of pharmaceutical science

Currently, pharmacists are seeing their roles and responsibilities shift to becoming patient counselors and educators on the rational use of medicine. Pharmacists are trained to focus on patient-centered care and resolve current and potential drug-related problems [ 83 , 84 ]. Critical thinking, clinical reasoning, and decision-making skills are needed to solve these problems. Nowadays, pharmacists are not just responsible for carrying out doctor’s orders, while there are always alternative treatment options available for them to recommend. Teacher therefore repeatedly emphasized the link between critical thinking and pharmacist practice and encouraged students to ask questions and find out the best alternative through Socratic method in the classroom.

During class, the PS students were required to exert considerable mental effort to conduct an inquiry to solve the learning sheet questions. Instead of providing students with clues or information to help them solve the problems, the teacher guided the PS students on how to seek the information they needed for themselves. The question for the PS students was be ‘ What are the possibly executable strategies? ’ The teacher also joined the students in discussion, using the Socratic method to stimulate critical thinking and draw out ideas and underlying suppositions. In high-quality cooperative argumentative dialogue, teacher should not direct or refer learning, nor should they ask students for the correct answers as in a traditional classroom. The hints that teacher would provide were more like ‘ The narrative explanation can be more precise. ’ Thus, asking high-quality questions and providing feedback also challenges the instructors’ teaching experience.

The PS students were guided not only toward the development of critical thinking skills but also toward solving problems using evidence-based knowledge and decision-making skills. The Socratic method process meets the student where they are on the educational spectrum and encourages and helps them advance. Using this method, the PS students engaged in student-to-student interaction to build knowledge as a group and individually. The course of five experiments conducted via the learning sheets improved many aspects of the students’ critical thinking, including their clarity, relevance, breadth, and logic. In sum, the abilities that they developed in the course should help them focus more on the possible outcomes of pharmacotherapy, medication surveillance, and proper communication and therefore improve the quality of their professional future.

The advanced construction of critical thinking skills in undergraduate medical students

In medical education, “ better thinking and learning skills grounded in understanding ” are recommended for future doctors [ 2 ]. Practicing medicine requires an ability to address current and future diseases using new diagnostic and therapeutic methods [ 10 ]. Therefore, problem solving is not the only core medical skill; the ability to deal with complex, insoluble health issues is also required [ 83 ]. In this domain, critical thinking skills have proven essential in tackling difficult, complex, interdisciplinary health problems [ 10 ].

In our study, the MU students began with high-performance scores in almost all dimensions. As a result, teachers needed to create a more challenging and thought-provoking learning environment to encourage them to think more broadly and deeply. Thus, the teacher would give students advice like ‘ Searching for more relevant information can increase the breadth of knowledge ’ and ‘ If the result is true, what is the relevant theory? ’ Most MU students were faster than other majors at defining and constructing critical thinking. However, another phenomenon often observed in the classroom was that the MU students were more reluctant to express their reasoning than the students of other majors. In other words, MU students were afraid to speak openly about their reasoning and thinking, probably due to the excessive pursuit of the correct answer. In sum, the course of five experiments conducted via the learning sheets enhanced abilities of clarity, accuracy, depth, breadth, logic, and significance in MU students.

Apart from providing structure for their critical thinking, as was done with the other preclinical students, the teacher guided the MU students to use advanced critical thinking skills by regularly analyze their thinking processes, reflecting on the decision-making and thinking process [ 84 ]. Researchers have suggested that reflective practice is key to successful medical professionalism [ 85 ] and humanism [ 86 , 87 ]; but more importantly, it may help medical professionals develop better physician–patient relationships [ 88 ]. Therefore, to advance the critical thinking experience of the MU students, teacher should encourage them to gather ideas, analyze, evaluate, and synthesize information. The teacher guided them to reflect on their plan and solve the questions on the learning sheets using their thoughts and words. These reflective practices could involve various biases in the thinking process and outcome, such as the base-rate fallacy, bias blind spot, or choice-supportive bias. The Socratic debate is a common way to model a complex thinking situation and may help teachers inspire students to become critical thinkers. MU students improved their abilities in the clarity, accuracy, depth, breadth, logic, and significance dimensions in the five experiments. This kind of training in thinking should help preclinical students constantly challenge and critically appraise evidence within their context, as well as their patients’ and their own belief and value systems.

Limitations

This study provides a model for developing a specific learning environment like a biochemistry laboratory class into one that will help students develop their critical thinking skills through inquiry. Our results have shown this method to be feasible and effective. However, there were a few limitations to this study. First, although it included students from three different majors, there was no interdisciplinary collaboration that would have simulated collaborations and communication among other healthcare professionals from different fields, as occurs in clinical practice. Introducing such collaboration may have produced more exciting and comprehensive ideas for solving the problems. Training in these professions is specialized to a considerable extent, so inter-professional collaboration should improve therapeutic outcomes and optimize patient care. Second, the original scoring system was time-consuming. However, one of our study objectives was to modify and reduce the nine intellectual dimensions scoring system into the clarity and logic dimensions. Based on the analysis in the current study, the clarity and logic dimensions were sufficient for monitoring the growth of students’ critical thinking.

The present curriculum innovation aimed to teach critical thinking skills to preclinical students in various medical majors using a Socratic questioning learning model instead of a cookbook approach to learning in laboratory courses. The development of problem-solving and critical thinking skills, in addition to process-related skills, in biochemistry laboratory courses supplements traditional curriculum in a helpful way. The curriculum innovation that we described and proposed may represent an incremental step forward for the discipline; it is a novel educational approach for promoting critical thinking skills, fostering an appreciation of the affective domain, and enabling reflective practice by using small-group processing skill instruction and one-on-one Socratic questioning. The current study results are based on training critical thinking skills that should enable students to engage in the “reflection-on-action” process, which might provide an additional bridge between basic medical knowledge and clinical practice. More importantly, reconstructive mental reviews may indirectly shape preclinical students’ future actions in the challenging healthcare industry characterized by uncertainty and novel circumstances.

Data Availability

Due to conditions on participant consent and other ethical restrictions, the datasets used and analysed in the current study are not publicly available. If you have any database data requirements, please contact the corresponding author of this study.

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Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank Chi-Her Lin, MD for their encouragement and support in the writing of this manuscript, and Prof. Woei-Jer Chuang, Hung-Chi Cheng, Chang-Shi Chen, Po-Hsin J. Huang, Chien-hung Yu, and Wen-Tsan Chang for their help with the experimental design. Special thanks to Tanvi Gupta for her help with the improving reading fluency.

This work was supported by the Teaching Practice Research Program, Ministry of Education, Taiwan (Grant No: PMN1110350, PMN1100853, PMN1090364, PMN108075, PMN107018).

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Yueh-Ren Ho: substantially contributed to the conception, data curation, interpretation, drafting and critical revision of the paper. She has given final approval to the manuscript and agrees to be accountable for the work. Bao-Yu Chen: substantially contributed to the conception, formal analysis, methodology, visualization, and writing and editing the manuscript. Chien-Ming Li: substantially contributed to the conception, data curation, review and editing the manuscript.

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Ho, YR., Chen, BY. & Li, CM. Thinking more wisely: using the Socratic method to develop critical thinking skills amongst healthcare students. BMC Med Educ 23 , 173 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-023-04134-2

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Advantages and Disadvantages of the Socratic Method of Teaching

In the realm of education, different teaching methodologies have been employed throughout history. One method that has stood the test of time is the Socratic method , renowned for its emphasis on critical thinking and active student participation. In this blog post, we delve into the effectiveness of the Socratic method, exploring its merits and considering whether it is a pedagogical approach that stands up to the demands of modern education.

Understanding the Socratic Method

The Socratic method, attributed to the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates, is characterized by a dialogue between the teacher and students. Instead of a traditional lecture format, this approach relies on asking probing questions that encourage students to think critically, analyze, and articulate their thoughts. The method is designed to stimulate intellectual curiosity and promote collaborative learning. ( Britannica Definition )

Fostering Critical Thinking Skills

One of the primary strengths of this teaching style lies in its ability to nurture critical thinking skills. By posing open-ended questions, educators challenge students to explore ideas, examine assumptions, and construct well-reasoned arguments. This not only enhances their analytical abilities but also prepares them for a lifetime of independent and reflective learning. This type of teaching style is certain to capture your students’ attention in the classroom!

Active Student Engagement

The Socratic method places a strong emphasis on active student participation . Rather than passively absorbing information, students are encouraged to engage in thoughtful discussions, express their opinions, and defend their viewpoints. This interactive approach can lead to a deeper understanding of the subject matter and increased retention of knowledge.

Real-World Application

Critics of this method of teaching often question its relevance in today’s fast-paced and technology-driven educational landscape. However, proponents argue that the skills developed through this method, such as effective communication, critical thinking, and problem-solving, are highly transferable and essential in various professional settings. The Socratic method prepares students not only for academic success but also for real-world challenges.

Adapting to Diverse Learning Styles

While the Socratic method has proven effective for many, it’s essential to acknowledge that learners have diverse preferences and styles. Some students thrive in the interactive and discussion-based Socratic environment, while others may find it challenging. A balanced approach that incorporates a variety of teaching methods may be the key to catering to the diverse needs of students.

Conclusion:

In the ever-evolving landscape of education, the effectiveness of the Socratic method remains a subject of ongoing debate. While it undoubtedly excels in fostering critical thinking, active engagement, and real-world skills, its applicability to all learning styles is a point of contention. As educators continue to seek innovative and inclusive teaching approaches, the Socratic method, with its rich history and undeniable benefits, stands as a testament to the enduring power of thoughtful questioning in the pursuit of knowledge.

Comment below on your thoughts on the Socratic teaching method in education!

Leland Jaffe DPM, FACFAS

Associate Professor at Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science North Chicago, Illinois

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