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4Humanities

Advocating for the humanities, what are the humanities.

Posted by Alan Liu

Here are five good, short definitions of the humanities.

These definitions are a sample from a variety of sources and more than one nation–something like a starter kit on the humanities (and their overlapping relation with what different countries also call “the liberal arts,” “the arts,” “humanities and arts,” and sometimes also the humanistically-oriented “social sciences.”

“The term ‘humanities’ includes, but is not limited to, the study and interpretation of the following: language, both modern and classical; linguistics; literature; history; jurisprudence; philosophy; archaeology; comparative religion; ethics; the history, criticism and theory of the arts; those aspects of social sciences which have humanistic content and employ humanistic methods; and the study and application of the humanities to the human environment with particular attention to reflecting our diverse heritage, traditions, and history and to the relevance of the humanities to the current conditions of national life.”

“The humanities—including the study of languages, literature, history, jurisprudence, philosophy, comparative religion, ethics, and the arts—are disciplines of memory and imagination, telling us where we have been and helping us envision where we are going.”

“What are the humanities? It is like the notion of ‘time’ in St. Augustine: if you don’t ask, we know, but if you ask, we are left empty handed. Since the nineteenth century the humanities have generally been defined as the disciplines that investigate the expressions of the human mind. Such expressions include language, music, art, literature, theatre, and poetry. Thus, philology, linguistics, musicology, art history, literary studies, and theatre studies all belong to the realm of the humanities.”

“Research stemming from a detailed understanding of human behaviour, economies, cultures and societies can dramatically redefine the crucial decisions we need to make. These decisions may involve the future direction of our economy, ways of broadening and strengthening education provision at all levels, or how we deal with the effects of climate or constitutional change… The humanities and social sciences teach us how people have created their world, and how they in turn are created by it.”

“The humanities are academic disciplines that study human culture. The humanities use methods that are primarily critical, or speculative, and have a significant historical element—as distinguished from the mainly empirical approaches of the natural sciences. The humanities include ancient and modern languages, literature, philosophy, religion, and visual and performing arts such as music and theatre. Areas that are sometimes regarded as social sciences and sometimes as humanities include history, archaeology, anthropology, area studies, communication studies, classical studies, law and linguistics…. The humanities and social sciences teach us how people have created their world, and how they in turn are created by it.”

53 thoughts on “ What Are the Humanities? ”

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I am currently a student in a Humanities class and these quotes are good perspective. I don’t say definition, because I feel that the truest defining element of Humanities is our internalization and expression of the arts, our creative self.

I share in your opinion David.

The views of how this page broke down Humanities will be helpful for me to gain the understanding of just what Humanities consist of.

Lisa Lockett

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Humanities are, The history’s theory’s of the modern and classical art;s I think David Wright was right about what he wrote, That it is up to us on how we interpret humanities.

I do believe we all interpret Humanities different, and i think that is ok. For me, i think of Humanities more along the lines of art and thinking. What makes us up as humans.

humanities is art and the history of humans and we all think of it different.

The study of humanities includes cultures and their academic disciplines all 5 definitions include the types of: ancient and modern languages, literature, philosophy, history, archaeology, religion

Here’s how I would combine all of these: “The Humanities are a family of academic disciplines that study and interpret human society and culture, often from the perspective of history and heritage, in an effort to help us understand where we’ve come from and where we are headed. These disciplines include: language, literature, history, philosophy, ethics, religion, law, politics, anthropology. Some definitions also include the visual and performing arts, while others separate these off as a subset of the “Arts and Humanities”.

what is the definition of humsnities during industrial age?

The study of the collection of concepts that deal with human culture such history, music, art, literature and thinking. Basically, all things that define as humans.

Humanities is the history of all topics. It is what we have gone through throughout history in regards to the interpretation on language, literature, philosophy, archaeology, ethics, and social science.

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Humanities is the means by which we study about ourselves , the past and our culture .

Humanities is the way we study ourselves , the past and our culture, we always critique the art .

Humanities is a broad term and the study of humanities is the study of people. Humanities disclose how humans were created, how humans passed their values to generations, and how humans developed their civilizations. The term unfolds a variety of aspects including language, history, literature, linguistics, jurisprudence, philosophy, archaeology, religions, ethics, art, social science. Humanities also demonstrate how human shapes culture and how culture shapes us.

Humanity’s in it’s whole will see our mistakes and how not to make future ones, not to perfect the human race but to understand how to improve our own destinys

It’s interesting how humanities has been around for ages, but in all shapes and forms. The language we use, we read about it and even watch it in front of our eyes unfold without even realizing it.

Humanities is how we connect with one another.

The study of humanities is the study of human society and culture. The study of ancient and modern languages, philosophy, archaeology, anthropology, law, religion and the arts.

The idea of Humanities I am understanding is the relation of humans progression by the world and vice versa.

The study of Humanities is the study of human culture, which studies the languages, literature, history, religion, ethics, arts, and etc.

Each definition of Humanities are mention studies of ancient and modern languages, literature, and philosophy.

After reading all five definitions from different organizations in differing areas of the world, I noticed they all commonly describe the humanities as the interpretation of ethics, history and language, in the hopes of foreseeing our future by understanding our past.

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How collective and individual as debates relate to humanities as a field of study

I am a student in this humanities class that wants to learn more about culture and religion well mostly culture. Humanities is the history of topics that shows what people do everyday. We know different types of language, ethics, literature and philosophy and sometimes social sciences.

Iam interested inre is a thin line in differentiating humanities and humanity ethics-the concept

Humanities is the study of all of the components that make us human.

Humanities is the study of different ideas that deal with human culture like history, arts, religion ethics and human experiences. All definitions share the idea of each a person’s interpretation.

Humanities are humans’ societal expressions. Every category art, ethics, history, language, law, literature, philosophy, and religion are unique to humans. What is valued or important is learned by studying these identifiers in different eras of human evolution.

I have always thought of the term “humanities” having multiple definitions or meanings. It is very difficult to just place my finger on one definition that will be correct. However, if I had to choose one meaning that would fit the term most times it it used I will definitely choose the third option. I understand that we each may interpret humanities differently and that is perfectly fine. I believe that it has more to do with the humans mind and the art and rationality behind it.

The study of Humanities are academic studies of culture and human society. These studies include; ancient and modern language, literature, philosophy, history, ethics, human geography, politics, and religion.

Humanities is the study of human culture and society and the collection of ideas include: language, literature, philosophy, ethics, religion, history, and jurisprudence.

I like the breakdown of paragraphs explaining the study of Humanities. I’m looking forward to venturing into a more depth prospective of Humanities especially Philosophy.

I would defy humanity’s by the culture of how people lived. In different time periods and how they used art, language, architecture, ethics, and literature. To even how we are currently communicating through our phones which are a big part of our culture.

I also beilieve humanities are the history of all topics. We all have our own perspective and opinion on all the different types of humanities. Weather it be art, literature, philosophy, ethics, religion, or any other hummanity. Being able to distinguish or try to come up with a conclusion as to why they made their art the way they did or why they wrote in certain ways.

Humanities is the language, history, philosophy and their studies. They go into dept explaining them and how they were changed through out the years. The study of the poems, the art everything regarding history.

humanities is the way of life. It encompasses all aspects of our life.

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The criticism and theory of the arts is very crucial as it enables an artist to see their creations from multiple perspectives while providing the consumers with the ability to form criticisms based off of their own values and beliefs.

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I came here to learn more about my enrolled course Social Meida, Practices and Principles and turns it’s related to this topic, Very much appreciated to this information I learned a lot.

Humanities are the fields of study that focus on people and their cultures, or on analytical and critical methods of inquiry that are developed from an awareness of human values.

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The best definition related to my current humanity course is the first definition. It talks about how to apply the humanities to national life, meaning other peoples lives or even my own life. Right now we are getting ready to compare to artifacts and how they relate to each by comparing them to our lives just like this definition talks about.

For me, It is the studies that studied all the evolution of humanity and allow us to understand and appreciate the historicity of different inventions and art over the world

I think that humanities are the study of human expression regardless if that expression is in literature, music, movies, photos, or art. Each time period has certain famous pieces that represent their era and what was happening within society or personally.

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Insight – Charles Sturt University

Why we still need to study the humanities

The story of us – Homo sapiens – is intriguing and complex. We’re unique creatures living in a rapidly changing world and we continue to face new challenges and opportunities. The study of humans, and all we’ve done, has always been of value. But studying the humanities now is probably more important than ever before!

We chatted with Charles Sturt University’s Jared van Duinen, who’s been teaching humanities for more than 15 years, and asked: what exactly are the humanities and why is it so important to study them in the 21 st century?

So, what are the humanities ?

First things first. When you sign up to learn about humanities, what sorts of topics will you study?

“Well, traditionally, the humanities are those disciplines that deal with human interaction, society and how humans get along in society. So think history, sociology, philosophy, politics, English literature and Indigenous studies.”

Why is it so important to study humanities?

Learning about ourselves – through the various humanities – helps us to create a better world.

“It’s the human in humanities that is worth studying. Humanities can tell us about ourselves, how we interact and get along and why we sometimes don’t!”

“Studying the humanities helps us to better understand who we are, our identity as a people, a society and a culture, and how to organise our societies so we can achieve our goals.

“Importantly, the study of humanities is a wonderful way of exploring our Charles Sturt ethos of Yindyamarra Winhanganha.

“Obviously STEM – science, technology, engineering and mathematics – has a role to play in creating a world worth living in. But the study of humanities can help create a better world, just as much, if not more so, than scientific and technological innovation.”

Tackling the world’s issues

Jared believes that understanding the humanities can help you deal with all sorts of issues and problems facing the world. Big, small and ‘wicked’ ones! How? By taking you behind the human scene, giving you an insight into some really valuable information, and equipping you with a unique set of skills.

• History. Studying the past helps us understand where we’ve come from and learn lessons to help us deal with the future.  
• English literature helps us explore the great themes of human interaction and better understand each other.
• Sociology helps us to understand human behaviour, culture and the workings of society.
• Philosophy helps us to think well, clearly, ethically and logically.   
• Politics. Learning about political processes and their impacts will help us understand how social and political change occurs.
• Indigenous studies is especially important because Australia has an Indigenous population. If we’re trying to create a world worth living in, a fuller understanding of the perspective of our Indigenous population is essential.

A practical reason to learn about the humanities – the ultimate skill set!

The other super valuable reason to study humanities is more practical. Studying humanities will give you knowledge and skills that you can use all throughout your working life! And grads who study in this field are catching the eye of more and more employers.  

“People who study these disciplines are really important to employers. They gain these important, sought-after skill sets:

• effective communication
• critical thinking
• creative thinking
• emotional intelligence
• working well in teams
• cultural understanding
• problem solving.

“Humanities grads have always had these skills in abundance, but for a long time these skills were disregarded or overlooked because they were generic. They didn’t speak to a particular vocation.

“But the world of work is changing, becoming more unpredictable. It’s suggested that a lot of graduates coming out of uni now will change careers five to seven times. So those more well-rounded, transferable or soft skills you gain from studying history, philosophy or English literature will really become important. Having them is now seen as a strength because you can carry them from one occupation to your next. And recent studies highlight that these types of soft skills – the ones humanities graduates gain – are what helps them land jobs. 

“Employers say these skills matter. They can teach technical knowledge, but they don’t always have the time or know-how to teach employees these vital soft skills. They look for employees who have these skills well-honed and are ready to work.”

Studying humanities gives you a swag of soft or transferable skills. That means you’ll be the employee who is more flexible. You can pivot from one role to another and adapt faster to changing roles. You become an asset. Now – and definitely into the future! 

What jobs are there in humanities?

So, guess you want to know what sort of career you could go into? Studying humanities with Charles Sturt can really take you places – even if you’re not sure where you want to go just yet.

What sort of jobs, you ask?

• Public service – in local, state and federal government. (History grads often end up in the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade!)
• Non-governmental organisations, not-for-profit groups and advocacy groups
• Corporate sector – management and marketing, publishing and media
• Social work
• Policy work

“Studying humanities through our revitalised Bachelor of Arts allows you to study a wide range of disciplines. And that’s especially ideal for those who aren’t quite sure what career path they’ll go down. Those who don’t necessarily know what job they do want, but know they want to study.”

But what about the rise of job automation. How will studying humanities protect you from losing a job to a robot? It all leads back to those very special skills that you’ll build!

“With the increasing automation of many industries, those skills that are resistant to automation, such as critical thinking, cultural understanding, and creative problem solving, are going to be in greater demand.”

Set yourself up for success – now and in the future!

Want to explore the humanities and build a degree that’s meaningful to you and sets you up for career success? Keen to develop the ultimate soft skill set that will help get your first job – and your second and third and fourth? Check out our Bachelor of Arts and let’s get to work!

Bachelor of Arts CRICOS code: 000649C

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Essay on Humanity

500 words essay on humanity.

When we say humanity, we can look at it from a lot of different perspectives. One of the most common ways of understanding is that it is a value of kindness and compassion towards other beings. If you look back at history, you will find many acts of cruelty by humans but at the same time, there are also numerous acts of humanity. An essay on humanity will take us through its meaning and importance.

Importance of Humanity

As humans are progressing as a human race into the future, the true essence of humanity is being corrupted slowly. It is essential to remember that the acts of humanity must not have any kind of personal gain behind them like fame, money or power.

The world we live in today is divided by borders but the reach we can have is limitless. We are lucky enough to have the freedom to travel anywhere and experience anything we wish for. A lot of nations fight constantly to acquire land which results in the loss of many innocent lives.

Similarly, other humanitarian crisis like the ones in Yemen, Syria, Myanmar and more costs the lives of more than millions of people. The situation is not resolving anytime soon, thus we need humanity for this.

Most importantly, humanity does not just limit to humans but also caring for the environment and every living being. We must all come together to show true humanity and help out other humans, animals and our environment to heal and prosper.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

The Great Humanitarians

There are many great humanitarians who live among us and also in history. To name a few, we had Mother Teresa , Mahatma Gandhi, Nelson Mandela, Princess Diana and more. These are just a few of the names which almost everyone knows.

Mother Teresa was a woman who devoted her entire life to serving the poor and needy from a nation. Rabindranath Tagore was an Indian poet who truly believed in humanity and considered it his true religion.

Similarly, Nelson Mandela was a great humanitarian who worked all his life for those in needs. He never discriminated against any person on the basis of colour, sex, creed or anything.

Further, Mahatma Gandhi serves as a great example of devoting his life to free his country and serve his fellow countrymen. He died serving the country and working for the betterment of his nation. Thus, we must all take inspiration from such great people.

The acts and ways of these great humanitarians serve as a great example for us now to do better in our life. We must all indulge in acts of giving back and coming to help those in need. All in all, humanity arises from selfless acts of compassion.

Conclusion of the Essay on Humanity

As technology and capitalism are evolving at a faster rate in this era, we must all spread humanity wherever possible. When we start practising humanity, we can tackle many big problems like global warming, pollution , extinction of animals and more.

FAQ of Essay on Humanity

Question 1: What is the importance of humanity?

Answer 1: Humanity refers to caring for and helping others whenever and wherever possible. It means helping others at times when they need that help the most. It is important as it helps us forget our selfish interests at times when others need our help.

Question 2: How do we show humanity?

Answer 2: All of us are capable of showing humanity. It can be through acknowledging that human beings are equal, regardless of gender, sex, skin colour or anything. We must all model genuine empathy and show gratitude to each other and express respect and humility.

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Here are 9 reasons why humanities matter. What’s your number 10?

I didn’t know these things either until I saw the list of winners of the 2013 Digital Humanities Awards and had a good look at an infographic called The Humanities Matter!

There’s research on the impact of the humanities; there’s evidence demonstrating how studying the humanities benefits society, employers and individuals.

I’ll list here nine arguments that the humanities are important. While you read them, try to think of what you would fill in as number 10.

• The humanities help us understand others through their languages, histories and cultures.
• They foster social justice and equality.
• And they reveal how people have tried to make moral, spiritual and intellectual sense of the world.
• The humanities teach empathy.
• They teach us to deal critically and logically with subjective, complex, imperfect information.
• And they teach us to weigh evidence skeptically and consider more than one side of every question.
• Humanities students build skills in writing and critical reading.
• The humanities encourage us to think creatively. They teach us to reason about being human and to ask questions about our world.
• The humanities develop informed and critical citizens. Without the humanities, democracy could not flourish.

I believe these claims and I know they are based on solid research. I see much more, too. For example, I think that innovations based on research results in the natural sciences and medicine are more likely to be successful if their implementation is carried out in collaboration with humanists.

But for now, let me just say one more thing. The arguments in the list above are quotes. They come from an exciting infographic put together by some creative researchers working in a whole new field called Digital Humanities.

And that leads me to my 10th reason: If it weren’t for the humanities, we couldn’t have the digital humanities!

What’s your best reason for thinking the humanities are important? If you have one you like, send me a tweet or put it in a comment below, and if I get enough, I’ll include it in a new blog post!

While you’re thinking about that, enjoy a much cooler presentation of the nine reasons the humanities matter — along with many more important numbers, too.

The infographic you see below was made by  Melissa Terras ,  Ernesto Priego ,  Alan Liu ,  Geoff Rockwell ,  Stéfan Sinclair , Christine Hensler, and  Lindsay Thomas  over at 4humanities.org . Enjoy!

One of the problems with tracing arguments such as these is the lack of precision. We start off discussing the humanities, and then we segue into AHSS. Of course the majority of politicians in Westminister have studied AHSS, since PPE is almost a prerequisite to a political career.

Of arguments 1, 2, 4, and 9 above, there are enough counterexamples that I begin to wonder if we do ourselves favours by having examples that aren’t solid. If the above arguments were presented as ‘evidence’ in the social sciences, I can imagine the collective disciplinary eyebrow heading skyward in scepticism and questioning the lack of methodological rigour.

Helen Small’s recent book “The Value of the Humanities” goes through these and other justifications for the humanities, tracing their genealogies, and without finally plumping for one. My sense is that you and she have a similar, cumulative sense of argument, that there is no, one, stand-out, knock-down argument for the humanities, but rather that it’s an ecology of such arguments. The above infographic is, of course, a bit of fun, but it’s a an appeal-to-Buzzfeed defence of the humanities, and we can do better.

It is a bit popularistic, I agree. I think the “new” arguments that deserve careful development include inter-disciplinary perspectives. Why does technological innovation, for example, need to be carried out with the input not only of physicists and chemists, but also French teachers and art historians? What do we mean by “digital humanities” and how is that going to lead to new knowledge and maybe even new applications affecting daily lives? There are many strategies to take. And while I sometimes find political anti-humanities arguments exhausting, I actually think it’s important for everyone to be able to say something sensible about what they’re up to. So … I’ll keep working on this 🙂

Thank you for the idea of making the list.

In addition to that, I think the significance of research in SSH (I do not differentiate them) can be also be justified by the following argument:

The human factor plays a crucial role in solving the grand challenges of mankind (ageing, energy supply, environmental issues, climate change, etc.). That’s why research on human values and behaviour is vital.

The biggest problem in the world is lack of mutual understanding among people, social groups, religions, nations. SSH researchers are specialists in that.

All modern professions are based on interaction between people. Trade, services, manufacturing, administration, education, and personal life benefit from the ability to conduct proper communication. Even small progress in that may lead to big results.

Arto Mustajoki Dean of the Faculty of Arts Helsinki University

The humanities as disciplines of study have their own intrinsic value. Apple, is perhaps, one of the best market/commercial examples of how the humanities permeate all aspects of human life. Apple’s ability to evolve and dominate the markets is largely because of its understanding of the human aspect of engaging with technologies, being able to predict and teach the consumer what s/he wants from his/her experience with their device. There’d be a lot fewer conflicts in the world if we all were in better touch with our humanity! Great posting!

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This article was originally published on Curt Rice - Science in Balance . Read the original article .

March 22, 2019

The Humanities and the Future

Our descendants’ lives will be intertwined with advanced technologies—and that will revitalize non-technological disciplines such as philosophy

By Abraham Loeb

This article was published in Scientific American’s former blog network and reflects the views of the author, not necessarily those of Scientific American

The humanities are often preoccupied with thinkers of the past, such as the ancient Greek philosophers Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. But most of the humans who will ever live will exist in the future, which means that their lives will be intertwined with advanced technologies.

Currently, the number of college students in the humanities is dwindling, and academic advisors often belittle the relevance of liberal arts for the job market relative to more practical disciplines, such as science and technology.

But the heart of the matter is that science and technology aim to assist humans. And the interface between humans and advanced technologies is a frontier where the humanistic perspective is indispensable.

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Three decades ago, I was a fledgling postdoc advised by his experienced mentor that in order to develop a successful career in science I need to specialize in a narrow field and be regarded as the world expert in a particular specialty. Back then, developing a narrow expertise was key to being professional. A maker of leather shoes with rubber soles was supposed to know everything there is to know about crafting leather and rubber into the shape of shoes, with no time left for any peripheral learning.

Fortunately, I did not listen to that old advice, as interdisciplinary perspectives are the carriers of innovation today. And by extension, the future belongs to the incorporation of liberal arts into science and technology. Academic research on the interface between humans and machines will rejuvenate disciplines that had become dormant and link the humanities to our future rather than our past.

A few contexts immediately come to mind. First and foremost, the study of ethics. There are major ethical questions regarding genetic engineering: Which revisions to the genetic making of humans should be engineered? Should we design the qualities of people that we wish society to have?

Another area involves the implications of big data sets: How can we employ the vast information that is collected daily on people, and analyze it for the benefit of psychology and social science? Can we use these data to construct computer-based models that would forecast human behavior to guide policies or political decisions?

Recent developments in robotics, artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning touch upon fundamental questions in philosophy, such as: What is the meaning of consciousness ? Is there free will ?

There are also existential questions about the purpose of human life: Will robots and AI replace human labor across the board from construction sites to scientific research? How will future economies adjust to a new reality in which humans have less to do? Will humans take a permanent “vacation”, and if so, what will the meaning of their life be if their dignity is not associated with mandatory labor?

And there are fundamental questions about whether human creativity in the arts or sciences is unique or could be reproduced by machines: Will there be a world in which AI is used to create art or make unexpected scientific discoveries? AI is already being programmed to replace medical doctors in assigning prescriptions to patients with well-known symptoms, but should computers also be allowed to decide on medical treatments? And if AI software makes mistakes that harm people’s health, should the software developers be held legally responsible or should “self-learning” algorithms be considered independent from their human creators?

Social networks already bring to the forefront of public debate questions about the privacy of data sets : How should we protect our private lives given the future of information technology? Who should be allowed to access data, and how would we mitigate the impact of the loss of data in the wake of unexpected catastrophes?

It is not difficult to imagine how the ancient Greeks would have taken delight in modern science and technology. There is no doubt that Aristotle would have been fascinated by big bang cosmology. Aristarchus of Samos would have been mesmerized with the latest discoveries of exoplanets. Zeno of Elea would have been intrigued to realize that he can turn on his car with an app using the Apple Watch on his wrist. And Socrates would have been critical of the herd mentality exhibited in social media.

Philosophers, sociologists, psychologists and artists should participate in the future development of technology, so that it will better match human needs and values. Like canaries in a coal mine, humanists have the moral compass to warn us of impending dangers to our future society. They also possess the skill to imagine realities that we should aspire to have before scientists develop them. There is no doubt that the future will be interdisciplinary and that humanists should play a major role in shaping it.

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Definition of humanity

Examples of humanity in a sentence.

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'humanity.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

see human entry 1

14th century, in the meaning defined at sense 1

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• crime against humanity

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“Humanity.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/humanity. Accessed 18 May. 2024.

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11.4: Political Ideologies

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Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Identify key ideologies or theories in political philosophy, such as conservatism, liberalism, egalitarianism, socialism, and anarchism.
• Discuss distributive justice within political ideologies.
• Demonstrate how alienation continues to be a problem for workers in modern industrial societies.

When Bernie Sanders, the American senator from Vermont, ran for president of the United States in 2016 as a democratic socialist, he set off an intense debate in the country. What exactly was democratic socialism? This was a debate about political ideologies, or people’s beliefs about how a society should be run. Ideology can shape policies and laws, as the individuals holding office and positions of authority and the people who elect them are often influenced by ideological beliefs. This section looks at some key ideologies that have influenced how people think about their rights and the responsibilities of government.

Distributive Justice

One of the important differences among the ideologies examined below is how they approach the question of distributive justice. Distributive justice can be seen as a moral framework made up of principles that seek to ensure the greatest amount of fairness with respect to distributions of wealth, goods, and services (Olsaretti 2018). However, there is much debate surrounding what amounts to fairness. Is a just society one that provides for its members, allocating resources based on need, or is it one that allows for the greatest amount of personal freedom, even if that means that some members are radically better off than others? Furthermore, given that individuals begin at varying positions of social and economic status, should a society focus on meeting the needs of its disadvantaged members even if that results in an unequal distribution of goods, or should there be as little governmental interference as possible?

It is tempting to see distributive justice as a theoretical moral concern. However, views on what constitute basic needs, what resources should be considered public versus private, and whether or not there should be restrictions on the free market have real, practical ramifications when considered by governing bodies. Given this, it is important to keep in mind the role that principles of distributive justice play in the ideologies discussed below.

Conservatism

Conservativism is a political theory that favors institutions and practices that have demonstrated their value over time and provided sufficient evidence that they are worth preserving and promoting. Conservatism sees the role of government as serving society rather than controlling it and advocates gradual change in the social order, if and when necessary.

Edmund Burke and the French Revolution

Modern conservatism begins with the 18th-century Irish political theorist Edmund Burke (1729–1797), who opposed the French Revolution and whose Reflections on the French Revolution (1790) served as an inspiration for the development of a conservative political philosophy (Viereck et al. 2021). Shocked by the violence of the French Revolution, Burke advocated against radical revolution that destroyed functioning institutions that, though flawed, served a purpose. However, Burke supported the American Revolution because the colonists had already established political institutions, such as courts and administrations, and were taking the next gradual step: asking Britain to let them run these institutions on their own.

Figure 11.7 The Irish political thinker Edmund Burke is credited with developing the theories that form the basis of modern conservatism. (credit: “Edmund Burke” by Duyckinick, Evert A. Portrait Gallery of Eminent Men and Women in Europe and America. New York: Johnson, Wilson & Company, 1873. p. 159/Wikimedia, Public Domain)

Fundamental Principles

Conservatives such as Burke are not opposed to reform, but they are wary of challenges to existing systems that have generally held up well. They believe that any sudden change is likely to lead to instability and greater insecurity. Moreover, conservatives are not against redistribution of resources, especially when it serves to alleviate severe poverty. However, they believe that such actions are best carried out at a local level (as opposed to a state or national level) by those who understand the needs of the individual community. Finally, conservatives are staunch supporters of property rights and oppose any system of reform that challenges them. Property rights serve as a check on governmental power and are seen as an essential part of a stable society (Moseley n.d.). As such, conservatism aligns with some principles of liberalism.

Conservatism maintains that human nature is fundamentally flawed and that we are driven more by selfish desires than by empathy and concern for others. Therefore, it is the job of social institutions such as church and school to teach self-discipline, and it is the job of the government to protect the established, fundamental values of society. Along with this rather Hobbesian view of humankind and belief in the preservation of historical traditions, conservatives believe that weaknesses in institutions and morals will become apparent over time and that they will either be forced to evolve, be discarded, or be gradually reformed (Moseley n.d.).

Liberalism in political philosophy does not have the same meaning as the word liberal in popular American discourse. For Americans, liberal means someone who believes in representative democracy and is politically left of center. For example, liberals generally favor regulating the activities of corporations and providing social welfare programs for the working and middle classes. Liberalism as a political philosophy, however, has quite a different emphasis.

Fundamental Principle of Liberty

British philosopher John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) expresses the fundamental principles of liberalism in his work On Liberty (1859), arguing for limited government on the grounds of utility. His interest is in “Civil, or Social Liberty: the nature and limits of the power which can be legitimately exercised by society over the individual” (Mill [1869] 2018). In this regard, he defends “one very simple principle,” which is the minimizing of government interference in people’s lives:

The sole end for which mankind are warranted, individually or collectively, in interfering with the liberty of action of any of their number, is self-protection. . . . The only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others. His own good, either physical or moral, is not a sufficient warrant. (Mill [1869] 2018)

In Mill’s view, real freedom is when people are able to pursue their own individual idea of “the good” in a manner they see fit. Mill’s claim is at the heart of most variants of liberalism.

Positive and Negative Liberty

We are at liberty when we are neither constrained to act nor obligated to refrain from acting in a certain way. At least since Isaiah Berlin’s (1905–1997) “Two Concepts of Liberty” (1958), this sort of liberty has been called negative liberty . Berlin, a British political theorist, suggests that negative liberty is “the area within which a man can act unobstructed by others” (Berlin 1969, 122). Negative liberty in the political realm often refers to the absence of government control over the lives of individuals, or in what we are reasonably able to do without interference. Conversely, Berlin thinks of positive liberty as “the wish on the part of the individual to be his own master” (131). We want our life decisions to depend on ourselves and not on external forces. “I wish to be the instrument of my own, not of other men’s, acts of will,” says Berlin (131). The ability to participate in democratic institutions, for example, is a form of positive liberty.

The Welfare State and Social Justice

Some theorists hold that negative liberty has limits when it comes to how much liberty, in practice, a person has at their disposal. The theory of justice that sees individuals as having claims on resources and care from others is often called welfare liberalism . Such theorists are not in favor of limited government and believe that the well-being of citizens must be a vital component of our agreement to obey a government. American philosopher John Rawls (1921–2002) famously makes this argument in his seminal book A Theory of Justice (1971), in which he attempts to articulate an account of fairness that satisfies our intuition that human freedom and social welfare are both important.

Rawls begins with the idea that society is a system of cooperation for mutual advantage. Given the fact of today’s pluralistic societies, people reasonably disagree about many important issues, which means we must find a way to live peaceably together with our differences and collectively determine our political institutions. In addition, Rawls believes that there are deep inequalities embedded in any basic social structure, which result from the fact that we are all born into different positions and have different expectations of life, largely determined by the political, economic, and social circumstances that attend those positions. Therefore, Rawls says, we must find a way to distance ourselves from our own particular concepts of such ideas as justice, the good, and religion and begin with relatively uncontroversial facts about human psychology and economics. We should then imagine ourselves in an “original position” behind the “ veil of ignorance ”; that is, we should imagine we do not know any facts about our personal circumstances, such as our economic status, our access to education and health services, or whether we have any talents or abilities that would be beneficial to us (Rawls 1999, 11). We also remain ignorant of any social factors such as our gender, race, class, and so forth. Because Rawls assumes that no one wants to live in a society in which they are disadvantaged, operating from this position offers the greatest chance of arranging a society in a way that is as fair and equitable as possible. For instance, we would not support a system that forbade all left-handed individuals from voting because we ourselves might fall into that group.

Rawls argues that two major principles should govern society. First, the “liberty principle” states that each person has an equal right to the same basic, adequate liberties. Basic liberties are liberties such as freedom of speech, freedom to hold property, and freedom of assembly. Second, the “difference principle” states that any social and economic inequalities must satisfy two conditions: (1) they must be attached to offices and positions open to all under conditions of “fair equality of opportunity,” and (2) they must be to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged members of society. Note that Rawls is not advocating for an equal distribution of goods or advantages; rather, he says that any distribution of goods or power that is not equal can further disadvantage already disadvantaged individuals. His goal is to create a society that seeks to address inherent structural inequalities as well as possible (Rawls 1999, 13).

Egalitarianism

Rawls’s theory of justice has much in common with egalitarian theories. The term egalitarianism refers to a broad family of views that gives primary place to equality. The root egal (from the French) means “equal.” Egalitarian theories assert that all individuals should enjoy equal status and moral worth and that any legitimate system of government should reflect this value. More specifically, egalitarian theories do not argue that all individuals should be treated exactly the same; rather, they insist that individuals are all deserving of rights, including civil, social, and political rights.

Some theorists argue that equality of opportunity for welfare, meaning equality of opportunity to obtain resources, is the most important type of equality. In addition to resources, equality of opportunity includes a consideration of how individuals have acquired certain advantages. For example, nepotism (giving opportunities based on familial connections) and biases based on personal traits such as gender or race interfere with an individual’s ability to compete for resources. Any society that seeks a truly level playing field needs to contend with these issues.

One way to examine equality is to look at what individuals are able to do. The Indian economist Amartya Sen popularized a framework now known as the capability approach , which emphasizes the importance of providing resources to match individual need. This approach creates opportunities for each person to pursue what they need to live a flourishing life. An example of the capability approach is basic income, in which a city, state, or country might combat poverty by awarding everyone below a certain income level $1,000 per month.

The capability approach advocates “treating each person as an end” and “focus[ing] on choice and freedom rather than achievements” (Robeyns and Byskov 2021). According to American philosopher Martha Nussbaum (b. 1947), the capability approach would improve both justice outcomes and quality of life. She argues that a certain number of resources are necessary to enjoy a basic set of positive capabilities that all humans possess. Thus, each individual should be provided with those resources so that their life is not “so impoverished that it is not worthy of the dignity of a human being” (Nussbaum 2000, 72). What is beneficial about the capability approach is that it recognizes and respects the diverse needs of individuals based on different experiences and circumstances.

Listen to philosopher Martha Nussbaum discuss how the capabilities approach aids in creating a positive quality of life.

Martha Nussbaum

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Rather than look to the individual, the often confused triad of socialism, Marxism, and communism examines inequality from an economic perspective. While socialism and communism both seek to address inequalities in goods and resources, socialism says that goods and resources should be owned and managed by the public and allocated based on the needs of the community rather than controlled solely by the state. A socialist system allows for the ownership of private property while relegating most control over basic resources to the government. Sometimes, as with democratic socialism, this is done through the democratic process, with the result that public resources, such as national parks, libraries, and welfare services, are controlled by a government of elected representatives.

Concepts of Socialism

Critique of Capital

While what are commonly called “Marxist ideals” did not originate solely with Karl Marx, he is responsible for coauthoring perhaps the most famous treatise criticizing capitalism, The Communist Manifesto (1848), and laying out a vision of a yet-unrealized true communist society. As such, it is important to examine his ideas in more detail.

Marx is critical of the private accumulation of capital , which he defines as money and commodities. Stockpiling of capital allows for private accumulation of power. Marx holds that the value of an object is determined by the socially necessary amount of labor used in the production of that object. In a capitalist system, labor is also a commodity, and the worker exchanges their work for a subsistence wage. In Marx’s view, workers’ labor in fact creates surplus value, for which they are not paid and which is claimed by the capitalist. Thus, the worker does not receive full value for their labor.

Marx identifies several kinds of alienation that result from the commodification of labor. To illustrate this, imagine some factory workers who have recently moved to a large city. Prior to the move, they lived in a small village, where they worked as furniture makers. They were responsible for each stage of the production, from imagining the design to obtaining the materials and creating the product. They sold the product and kept the profits of their labor. Now, however, they work on an assembly line, where they are responsible for producing a small part of an overall product. They are alienated both from the product and from their own productive nature because they have no hand in the product’s design and are involved in only a small part of its construction. They begin to see their labor, and by extension themselves, as a commodity to be sold.

The result of selling their labor is that they begin to see others as commodities as well. They begin to identify people not by who they are but by what they have accumulated and their worth as a product. In this way, they become alienated from themselves and from others, seeing them always as potential competition. For Marx, this leads to a sense of despair that is filled with material goods, thus solidifying the worker in their dependence on the capitalist system.

While the idea of negative liberty decries unnecessary government intervention in people’s lives, anarchism literally means “no ruler” or “no government.” The absence of a political authority conjures an image of the state of nature imagined by Thomas Hobbes—that is, a state of chaos. Anarchists, however, believe that disorder comes from government. According to this view, rational individuals mostly desire to live peaceful lives, free of government intervention, and this desire naturally leads them to create societies and institutions built on the principles of self-governance.

Motivations for Anarchism

One defense of anarchism is that governments do things that would be impermissible for private individuals. French philosopher Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809–1865) observes that governments monitor citizens’ activities and attempt to control their behavior through force. The more technology governments have, the greater their attempts to control people. Proudhon ([1849] 2012) observes that such treatment is against human dignity.

Proudhonian anarchists are aware of the argument that people may have consented to give up some of their power to the government (as people do in a representative democracy, for example), which means that they must accept the treatment they receive. Yet Proudhon would deny that there is any example in history of a just government. Lysander Spooner (1808–1887), the 19th-century anarchist, says that all governments have come into existence through force and maintain their existence through force (Spooner 1870). Thus, some defend anarchism on the grounds that governments violate human rights.

Limits of Anarchism

Criticisms of anarchy are often twofold. The first is that without an organized police force, society would be unable to control outbreaks of violence. A related concern is that without a judicial system to arbitrate disputes and mete out justice, any resolution would be arbitrary. Anarchists, on the other hand, claim that most incidents of violence are the result of socioeconomic imbalances that would be resolved if the government were dismantled. Social anarchism, for instance, points to community involvement and mutual exchange of goods and services as a solution (Fiala 2021).

Yet some people associate anarchism with political violence, and in fact, some anarchists see violence as an unavoidable result of clashes with a violent and oppressive government. One of the most famous anarchists, Emma Goldman (1869–1940), wrote in her essay “The Psychology of Political Violence,” “Such acts are the violent recoil from violence, whether aggressive or repressive; they are the last desperate struggle of outraged and exasperated human nature for breathing space and life” (1917). However, many anarchists favor nonviolent tactics and civil disobedience, such as protests and the creation of autonomous zones, as opposed to political violence (Fiala 2018).

Anarchism and Feminism

Within anarchism, anarcha-feminism seeks to fight against gendered concepts that create inequity. Traditional gender roles only serve to cement unequal power distribution and further the class divide. Particularly, traditional concepts of women’s role in the domestic sphere mirror the depersonalization of the worker, with the woman seen as an extension of the home and domestic labor, rather than an independent autonomous person. It is worth noting that anarcha-feminism is in direct opposition to Proudhon, who believed that family was an essential aspect of society and that the traditional role of women within the family was necessary for its success (Proudhon 1875).

The author and poet bell hooks believes that the concerns driving anarchism can provide a motivation for current social action. She notes that the gaps between the rich and the poor are widening in the United States and that because of the “feminization of poverty” (by which she means the inequality in living standards due to gender pay disparity), a grassroots radical feminist movement is needed “that can build on the strength of the past, including the positive gains generated by reforms, while offering meaningful interrogation of existing feminist theory that was simply wrongminded while offering us new strategies” (hooks 2000, 43). She sees such a “visionary movement” (43) as grounded in the real-life conditions experienced by working-class and impoverished women.

Feminists historically have had to fight to make space for themselves within anarchist movements. The Spanish female collective Mujeres Libres formed during the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) in reaction to what they saw as a dismissal of women’s issues by the anarchist movement. Members of Mujeres Libres sought to support female activists and improve the lives of working-class women through literacy drives, employment programs, and child care facilities in both neighborhoods and factories (Ackelsberg 1985). These and other initiatives that focused on creating opportunities for women helped develop a sense of social engagement and foster a desire for social change.

Table 11.2 summarizes the political ideologies discussed in this chapter.

Table 11.2 Political Ideologies