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Space Studies Theses and Dissertations

Theses/dissertations from 2023 2023.

Spectral Classification Of Eight Stars In Open Cluster NGC 457 , Anthony Braden

Spacesuit Hard Upper Torso Assembly: Development Of Fit Metrics And Customized Design Frameworks , Will J. Green

Theses/Dissertations from 2022 2022

Performance Of The Shortened Liquid Cooling Warming Garment During Simulated Emergency EVA , Sophie Marie Bielawski

Will Communication Delays Impact Mission Controllers? An Investigation Of Mood, Performance, And Workload During Analog Missions , Madison Diamond

Indigeneity In Space Governance Discussions: Centering Indigenous Knowledges Beyond Earth , Erin Edwards

P&I Club Membership As Potential Incentivization For Adherence To Best Space Traffic Management Practices: A Maritime Analogue , Cristin M. Finnigan

Theses/Dissertations from 2021 2021

VNIR Spectral Properties Of Five G-Class Asteroids: Implications For Mineralogy And Geologic Evolution , Justin Todd Germann

Photometric And Astrometric Analysis Of Three Near-Earth Asteroids , Steven D. Newcomb

Betelgeuse, A Parameter Study Using MESA , Cedric Ramesh

An Evaluation Of Ci Asteroid Regolith As A Plant Growth Medium For Space Crop Production , Steven Jon Russell

Closing The Loop In Life Support Systems For Spaceflight And Habitation: Reutilization Of Human Excrement Through Recovery Of Potable Water And Reclamation Of Waste Materials For In-Space Additive Manufacturing , Brittany Zimmerman

Theses/Dissertations from 2020 2020

Electron Beam Irradiation As A Potential Lipid Decontamination Technique For Life Detection Instruments , Denise Kathleen Buckner

Bio-Regenerative Life Support Systems Functional Stability And Limitations, A Theoretical Modeling Approach , Curt I. Holmer

Photometric Study Of Two Near-Earth Asteroids In The Sloan Digital Sky Survey Moving Objects Catalog , Christopher James Miko

A Preliminary Study Of Leo To Geo Transfers For Inclination Changes Using Libration Point Orbits , John Shepard

Critical Contingency Eva’s For 3D-Printed Planetary Habitats , James Robert Stoffel

Theses/Dissertations from 2019 2019

Formalizing Citizen Science: Creating A New Paradigm In Space Weather Policy , Michael Cook

Thermal Performance Analysis Of The Liquid Cooling And Ventilation Garment (LCVG) With Respect To Tubing Geometry , Kayla Marie Daniels

A Neoclassical Realist’s Analysis Of Sino-U.S. Space Policy , Christopher David Fabian

Can You Hear Me, Major Tom? Open Issues In Extra-Vehicular Activity Communications , Elizabeth Howell

Applying Machine Learning To Asteroid Classification Utilizing Spectroscopically Derived Spectrophotometry , Kathleen Jacinda Mcintyre

Effects Of Locomotion Methods Under Simulated Reduced Gravity Conditions On Muscles And Joints Of The Leg , Sophie Orr

The Influence Of Media Bias Perception On Space Publications , Benjamin Robert Raback-Schink

Design Of A Controlled Descent Lifting Body Glider For High Altitude Payload Recovery , Nanette Valentour

Theses/Dissertations from 2018 2018

Quantifying Extravehicular Activity Performance Degradation Due To Sustenance Deprivation , Eryn Beisner

Calibration Of Calcic Pyroxenes For Interpreting Meteorite And Asteroid Spectra , Margaret Dievendorf

Risk Assessment Of Space Mining Ventures Using Decision Modeling And Monte Carlo Simulation , Michael Roy Jude

Determining The Correlation Significance Between S-Type Asteroid Orbital Inclination And Albedo Attributable To Space Weathering , Benjamin Wright Mcgee

Constraining The Small Binary Asteroid Population Of The Main Belt Using Doublet Craters On Ceres , Paul F. Wren

Theses/Dissertations from 2017 2017

Enhancing Water Purification Via Graphene Oxide, Holey Graphene Oxide And Lignin Membrane Architectures , Chris Buelke

Determining Glacier Drift Ages Using Multispectral Remote Sensing Data , Paula Crock

Design And Construction Of A Robotic Vehicle To Assist During Planetary Surface Operations , Christopher Anthony Follette

Outgassing Of Out-Of-Autoclave Composite Primary Structures For Small Satellites , Alastair Komus

Rotational Study Of Ambiguous Taxonomic Type Asteroids , Tyler Linder

Transit Photometry Of Recently Discovered Hot Jupiters , Sean Peter Mccloat

Lightcurve Study Of V-Type Asteroids , Matt Nowinski

Is The Gefion Dynamical Asteroid Family The Source Of The L Chondrites? , Rachel Roberts

Theses/Dissertations from 2016 2016

A Comparative Analysis Of The Geology Tools Used During The Apollo Lunar Program And Their Suitability For Future Missions To The Moon , Lindsay Kathleen Anderson

How Distribution Of Commercial Satellite Payloads Between Different Launch Providers Affects The National Space Transportation Policy , Jerra Brown

Remote Sensing Of Asteroid Surface Mineralogy , Martin William Hynes

Theses/Dissertations from 2015 2015

Identifying "bad" Asteroid Spectra: A Cross-Correlative Database Study , Iva Gerasimenko

The Evolution Of Outer Space Law: An Economic Analysis Of Rule Formation , Christopher Michael Hearsey

Ceres – VIS-IR Surface Composition Analysis: A Review In Advance Of The DAWN Mission , Daniela Henckel

Hybrid Enhanced Epidermal Spacesuit Design Approaches , Joseph M. Jessup

30 Day Lunar/Martian Planetary Habitation Analog: Subjective Crew Analysis Of Behavioral Health , Travis Nelson

Radiation Shielding Approaches For Planetary Surface Exploration: A Mars Case Study For Und Concepts , Arturo Ortiz

Architecture Study For A Fuel Depot Supplied From Lunar Resources , Thomas Milton Perrin

Assessment of the United States National Security Space Management and Organization , Charles G. Simpson

An Investigation Of Six Poorly Described Close Visual Double Stars Using Speckle Interferometry , Daniel B. Wallace

STEM Education For Girls Of Color , Kam Hung Yee

Theses/Dissertations from 2014 2014

Artificial Soil Formation And Stabilization Of Material Cycles In Closed Ecological Systems For Mars Habitats , Joshua D. Borchardt

A Feasibility Study On The Implementation Of Satellite-To-Satellite Tracking Around A Small Near-Earth Object , Christopher Joseph Church

Development Of A Prototype Movement Assistance System For Extravehicular Activity Gloves , Tyler Hill

Generating A Characterization Method Utilizing The Visible (0.6-1.0 μm) Peak Feature To Aid In Identification Of Ordinary Chondrite Parent Bodies , Cassandra Lynne Johnson

A Foundational Methodology For Determining System Static Complexity Using Notional Lunar Oxygen Production Processes , Nicholas J. Long

Space Tourism Law: Lessons From Aviation, Antarctica, And The International Space Station , Denise Meeks

Progressing Science, Technology, Engineering, And Math (STEM) Education In North Dakota With Near-Space Ballooning , Marissa Elizabeth Saad

A Comparison Of Solar Prominence Data Between Hα And EUV (he II-304Å) , Jonathan Schiralli

Human Performance Profiles For Planetary Analog Extra-Vehicular Activities: 120 Day And 30 Day Analog Missions , Tiffany M. Swarmer

The Structures, Mass Motions And Footpoints Of Solar Filaments , Aparna Venkataramanasastry

Study Of The Suit Inflation Effect On Crew Safety During Landing Using A Full-Pressure IVA Suit For New-Generation Reentry Space Vehicles , Suzuki Wataru

Panic Development Mechanisms And Preventive Methods Analysis , Inga Wuerges

Theses/Dissertations from 2013 2013

Variations Of E-Region Total Electron Content And Electron Density Profiles Over High Latitudes During Winter Solstice 2007 Using Radio Occultation Measurements , Kajli Agrawal

Developing Hybrid Near-Space Technologies For Affordable Access To Suborbital Space , Brian David Badders

An Investigation Of Climate Patterns On Earth-Like Planets Using The NASA GISS Global Climate Model II , Robert Mark Elowitz

Air Circulation Under Reduced Atmospheric Pressures , Lendell E. Hillhouse

The Influence Of Television And Film On Interest In Space And Science , Katrina Marie Jackson

Crew Training Requirements For Long Duration Missions , Ann Wargetz

Theses/Dissertations from 2012 2012

Testing The Gefion Family As A Possible Parent Body For The L-Chondrite Meteorites , Jessica Ronnie Blagen

Size-Dependent Earth Impactor Warning Times And Corresponding Campaign Mission Recommendations , Todd Alexander Borzych

Presidents, Politics, And Policy: How The Apollo And Shuttle Decisions Shaped Nasa , Marc Fusco

A Proposed Legal Framework On The Extraction And Consumption Of Outer Space Resources , Melissa M. Gordon

Stellar Spectral Classification Of Previously Unclassified Stars Gsc 4461-698 And Gsc 4466-870 , Darren Moser Grau

Design And Testing Validation Of An Extendable Pressurized Tunnel For An Inflatable Lunar Habitat , Timothy Jani Holland

Caution Light: The Anik E2 Solar Disruption And Its Effect On Telesat Canada , Elizabeth Howell

H-Alpha Narrow Band Filter Commissioning And Imaging At The Und Observatory , Rakesh R. Nath

Introducing Astronomy Into High School Physics Curriculum Through The Use Of The University Of North Dakota Observatory , Caitlin Marie Nolby

Integration Of Small Unmanned Aircraft Systems Into Precision Agriculture: Putting The Power Of Remote Sensing Into The Hands Of Farmers , Jeremy Richard Smith

Atmospheric Mass Loss And Orbital Evolution Of Exoplanets , Nicole Thom

Theses/Dissertations from 2009 2009

Group Dynamics in Extreme Earth Environments: Analogs for Space Missions (Past and Present Expeditions Analysis) , Matthew M. Allner

Theses/Dissertations from 2007 2007

Identification Of Psychological Stressors For Long Duration Space Missions: Psychological Stressors Among Five Astronauts And Cosmonauts , Melinda S. Marsh

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Research Topics

Reach for the stars: research topics on space exploration.

With recent advances in commercial space exploration, we have curated a list of our best Research Topics on outer space. Explore collections edited by experts from NASA, The Goddard Space Flight Center, Space Science Institute, German Aerospace Center, Canadian Space Agency, National Space Science Center, European Space Agency, International Space University, and many more.

Research Topics:

Optimization of Exercise Countermeasures for Human Space Flight – Lessons from Terrestrial Physiology and Operational Implementation

Biology in Space: Challenges and Opportunities

Microbiology of Extreme and Human-Made Confined Environments (Spacecraft, Space Stations, Cleanrooms, and Analogous Sites)

Geospace Observation of Natural Hazards

Astrobiology of Mars, Europa, Titan and Enceladus - Most Likely Places for Alien Life

Imagining the Future of Astronomy and Space Science

Brains in Space: Effects of Spaceflight on the Human Brain and Behavior

Creative Performance in Extreme Human Environments: Astronauts and Space

Space Traffic Management: a new era in Earth orbit

Wound Management and Healing in Space

Robotic Manipulation and Capture in Space

A Multidisciplinary Approach to designing Sensorimotor Adaptation countermeasures for space exploration missions

Active Experiments in Space: Past, Present, and Future

On-orbit Manufacturing and Assembly Technologies for Future Space Activities

Current and Future Instrumentation for the Detection and Identification of Signatures of Life on Mars and Beyond

On-Orbit Servicing and Active Debris Removal: Enabling a Paradigm Shift in Spaceflight

Space Weather with Small Satellites

AI in the Space Sciences

Higher Plants, Algae and Cyanobacteria in Space Environments

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October 11, 2021

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The History of Space Exploration

During the time that has passed since the launching of the first artificial satellite in 1957, astronauts have traveled to the moon, probes have explored the solar system, and instruments in space have discovered thousands of planets around other stars.

Earth Science, Astronomy, Social Studies, U.S. History, World History

Apollo 11 Astronauts on Moon

A less belligerent, but no less competitive, part of the Cold War was the space race. The Soviet Union bested its rival at nearly every turn, until the U.S. beat them to the finish line by landing astronauts on the moon.

NASA photograph

We human beings have been venturing into space since October 4, 1957, when the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (U.S.S.R.) launched Sputnik, the first artificial satellite to orbit Earth. This happened during the period of political hostility between the Soviet Union and the United States known as the Cold War. For several years, the two superpowers had been competing to develop missiles, called intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), to carry nuclear weapons between continents. In the U.S.S.R., the rocket designer Sergei Korolev had developed the first ICBM, a rocket called the R7, which would begin the space race. This competition came to a head with the launch of Sputnik . Carried atop an R7 rocket, the Sputnik satellite was able to send out beeps from a radio transmitter. After reaching space, Sputnik orbited Earth once every 96 minutes. The radio beeps could be detected on the ground as the satellite passed overhead, so people all around the world knew that it was really in orbit. Realizing that the U.S.S.R. had capabilities that exceeded U.S. technologies that could endanger Americans, the United States grew worried. Then, a month later, on November 3, 1957, the Soviets achieved an even more impressive space venture. This was Sputnik II, a satellite that carried a living creature, a dog named Laika. Prior to the launch of Sputnik, the United States had been working on its own capability to launch a satellite. The United States made two failed attempts to launch a satellite into space before succeeding with a rocket that carried a satellite called Explorer on January 31, 1958. The team that achieved this first U.S. satellite launch consisted largely of German rocket engineers who had once developed ballistic missiles for Nazi Germany. Working for the U.S. Army at the Redstone Arsenal in Huntsville, Alabama, the German rocket engineers were led by Wernher von Braun and had developed the German V2 rocket into a more powerful rocket, called the Jupiter C, or Juno. Explorer carried several instruments into space for conducting science experiments. One instrument was a Geiger counter for detecting cosmic rays. This was for an experiment operated by researcher James Van Allen, which, together with measurements from later satellites, proved the existence of what are now called the Van Allen radiation belts around Earth. In 1958, space exploration activities in the United States were consolidated into a new government agency, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). When it began operations in October of 1958, NASA absorbed what had been called the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), and several other research and military facilities, including the Army Ballistic Missile Agency (the Redstone Arsenal) in Huntsville. The first human in space was the Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin, who made one orbit around Earth on April 12, 1961, on a flight that lasted 108 minutes. A little more than three weeks later, NASA launched astronaut Alan Shepard into space, not on an orbital flight, but on a suborbital trajectory—a flight that goes into space but does not go all the way around Earth. Shepard’s suborbital flight lasted just over 15 minutes. Three weeks later, on May 25, President John F. Kennedy challenged the United States to an ambitious goal, declaring: “I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before the decade is out, of landing a man on the moon and returning him safely to Earth." In addition to launching the first artificial satellite, the first dog in space, and the first human in space, the Soviet Union achieved other space milestones ahead of the United States. These milestones included Luna 2, which became the first human-made object to hit the Moon in 1959. Soon after that, the U.S.S.R. launched Luna 3 . Less than four months after Gagarin’s flight in 1961, a second Soviet human mission orbited a cosmonaut around Earth for a full day. The U.S.S.R. also achieved the first spacewalk and launched the Vostok 6 mission, which made Valentina Tereshkova the first woman to travel to space. During the 1960s, NASA made progress toward President Kennedy’s goal of landing a human on the moon with a program called Project Gemini, in which astronauts tested technology needed for future flights to the moon, and tested their own ability to endure many days in spaceflight. Project Gemini was followed by Project Apollo, which took astronauts into orbit around the moon and to the lunar surface between 1968 and 1972. In 1969, on Apollo11, the United States sent the first astronauts to the Moon, and Neil Armstrong became the first human to set foot on its surface. During the landed missions, astronauts collected samples of rocks and lunar dust that scientists still study to learn about the moon. During the 1960s and 1970s, NASA also launched a series of space probes called Mariner, which studied Venus, Mars, and Mercury. Space stations marked the next phase of space exploration. The first space station in Earth orbit was the Soviet Salyut 1 station, which was launched in 1971. This was followed by NASA’s Skylab space station, the first orbital laboratory in which astronauts and scientists studied Earth and the effects of spaceflight on the human body. During the 1970s, NASA also carried out Project Viking in which two probes landed on Mars, took numerous photographs, examined the chemistry of the Martian surface environment, and tested the Martian dirt (called regolith ) for the presence of microorganisms . Since the Apollo lunar program ended in 1972, human space exploration has been limited to low-Earth orbit, where many countries participate and conduct research on the International Space Station. However, unpiloted probes have traveled throughout our solar system. In recent years, probes have made a range of discoveries, including that a moon of Jupiter, called Europa, and a moon of Saturn, called Enceladus, have oceans under their surface ice that scientists think may harbor life. Meanwhile, instruments in space, such as the Kepler Space Telescope , and instruments on the ground have discovered thousands of exoplanets , planets orbiting other stars. This era of exoplanet discovery began in 1995, and advanced technology now allows instruments in space to characterize the atmospheres of some of these exoplanets.

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Related Resources

Stephen Hawking: Everything you need to know about the thesis that 'broke the Internet'

Your cheat sheet into the mind of one of the world’s greatest physicists.

Scribbled in pencil on one of its early pages is "no copying without the author's consent". In October 2017, Stephen Hawking allowed his PhD thesis — Properties of Expanding Universes — to be made available online through the University of Cambridge's Apollo portal. The website crashed almost immediately under the sheer weight of traffic. It was downloaded almost 60,000 times in the first 24 hours alone.

Hawking was 24 years old when he received his PhD in 1966 and, despite being diagnosed with motor neurone disease at just 21, could still handwrite that "this dissertation is my original work." In a statement to accompany its release, the late physicist said: "By making my PhD thesis Open Access, I hope to inspire people around the world to look up at the stars and not down at their feet; to wonder about our place in the universe and to try and make sense of the cosmos." 

Here, we break it down, guiding you through the physics until we reach the conclusion that made Hawking a household name.

Step 1: What’s it about?

Hawking's PhD thesis relates to Albert Einstein's General Theory of Relativity — the more accurate theory of gravity that replaced Isaac Newton 's original ideas. Newton said gravity was a pull between two objects. Einstein said that gravity is the result of massive objects warping the fabric of space and time (space-time) around them. According to Einstein, Earth orbits the sun because we're caught in the depression our star makes in space-time.

Hawking applies the mathematics of general relativity to models of the birth of our universe ( cosmologies ). The earliest cosmologies had our universe as a static entity that had existed forever. This idea was so ingrained that when Einstein's original calculations suggested a static universe was unlikely, he added a "cosmological constant" to the math in order to keep the universe static. He would later reportedly call it his "greatest blunder".

Things began to change when Edwin Hubble made an important discovery. Hawking writes: "the discovery of the recession of the nebulae [galaxies] by Hubble led to the abandonment of static models in favor of ones in which we're expanding."

Step 2: Our expanding universe

Some astronomers seized the idea of an expanding universe to argue that the universe must have had a beginning — a moment of creation called the Big Bang . The name was coined by Fred Hoyle, an advocate of the alternative Steady State Model. This theory states that the universe has been around forever, and that new stars form in the gaps created as the universe expands. There was no initial creation event.

Hawking spends chapter one of his thesis taking down the premise, formally encapsulated in a model called Hoyle-Narlikar theory. Hawking laments that although the General Theory of Relativity is powerful, it allows for many different solutions to its equations. That means many different models can be consistent with it. He says that's "one of the weaknesses of the Einstein theory."

The famous physicist then shows that a requirement of Hoyle-Narlikar theory appears to "exclude those models that seem to correspond to the actual universe." In short, the Steady State Model fails to match observation.

Step 3: Space: It looks the same everywhere

Hawking says that the assumptions of the Hoyle-Narlikar theory are in direct contradiction of the Robertson-Walker metric, named after American physicist Howard P. Robertson and British mathematician Arthur Walker. Today it is more widely called the Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker (FLRW) metric. A metric is an exact solution to the equations of Einstein's General Theory of Relativity. Devised in the 1920s and 1930s, FLRW forms the basis of our modern model of the universe. Its key feature is that it assumes matter is evenly distributed in an expanding (or contracting) universe — a premise backed up by astronomical observations. 

Interestingly, Hawking offers Hoyle and Narlikar a ray of hope. "A possible way to save the Hoyle-Narlikar theory would be to allow masses of both positive and negative sign," he writes, before adding: "There does not seem to be any matter having these properties in our region of space." Today, we know that the expansion of the universe is accelerating, perhaps due to dark energy — a shadowy entity with an anti-gravitational property perhaps akin to particles with a negative mass.

Step 4: The problem with galaxies

Even geniuses get it wrong sometimes. Hawking's second chapter covers perturbations — small variations in the local curvature of space-time — and how they evolve as the universe expands. He says that a small perturbation “will not contract to form a galaxy." Later in the chapter he goes on to say: "We see that galaxies cannot form as the result of the growth of small perturbations."

That couldn't be further from our modern-day picture of how galaxies form. The key ingredient Hawking was missing is dark matter , an invisible substance thought to be spread throughout the universe, which provides a gravitational glue that holds galaxies together. Dark matter gathered around small space-time perturbations, eventually drawing in more and more material until early galaxies formed.

Our modern working cosmological picture is known as the ΛCDM model (pronounced Lambda CDM). Lambda is the Greek letter cosmologists use to denote the cosmological constant that Einstein originally introduced (albeit for the wrong reasons). CDM stands for cold dark matter. These two factors have been added to the FLRW model since Hawking wrote his thesis.

Step 5: Gravitational waves don’t disappear

Where Hawking was wrong on galaxies, he was very right on gravitational waves —ripples in the fabric of space-time that move outwards through the universe. They were predicted by Einstein when he first devised his Theory of General Relativity back in 1915, and in Hawking's time were also known as gravitational radiation.

Hawking uses Einstein's equations to show that gravitational waves aren't absorbed by matter in the universe as they travel through it, assuming the universe is largely made of dust. In fact, Hawking says that "gravitational radiation behaves in much the same way as other radiation fields [such as light]."

The physicist does note how esoteric the topic is in the 1960s. "This is slightly academic since gravitational radiation has not yet been detected, let alone investigated."

It would take physicists until September 2015 to detect gravitational waves for the first time using the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO). They were produced by the collision of two black holes — one 36- and the other 29-times the mass of the sun — about 1.3-billion-light-years away.

Related: Lab-grown black hole analog behaves just like Stephen Hawking said it would

Step 6: Are we living in an open, closed, or flat cosmos?

Hawking is heading for a groundbreaking conclusion, but first he sets himself up by introducing the idea of the overall shape of space. There are three general forms the curvature of space can take: open, closed, or flat.

A closed universe resembles Earth's surface — it has no boundary. You can keep traveling around the planet without coming to an edge. An open universe is shaped more like a saddle. A flat universe, as the name suggests, is like a sheet of paper. 

Imagine a triangle drawn onto the surface. We all learn at school that the angles inside a triangle sum to 180 degrees. However, that's only the case for triangles on flat surfaces, not open or closed ones. Draw a line from the Earth's North Pole down to the equator, before taking a 90-degree turn to travel along it. Then make another 90-degree turn back towards the North Pole. The angle between your path away from and towards the North Pole cannot be zero, so the angles inside that triangle must add up to more than 180 degrees.

Step 7: The universe is flat!

Hawking then links the idea of open and closed universes to Cauchy surfaces, named after the French mathematician and physicist Augustin-Louis Cauchy (1789—1857). A Cauchy surface is a slice through space-time, the equivalent of an instant of time. All points on the surface are connected in time. A path along a Cauchy surface cannot see you revisit a previous moment. In Hawking's own words: “A Cauchy surface will be taken to mean a complete, connected space-like surface that intersects every time-like and null line once and once only.”

He then says that closed universes are known as "compact" Cauchy surfaces, and open universes as “non-compact” ones. The former example is said to have "positive" curvature, the latter "negative" curvature. 

A flat universe has zero curvature. He moves on to set up the landmark assertions he's about to make about singularities by saying they are “applicable to models... with surfaces... which have negative or zero curvature.” Modern astronomers believe the universe is flat, meaning its zero curvature satisfies Hawking's conditions. 

Step 8: Hawking drops a bombshell

Most of the early chapters of Hawking's thesis are unremarkable — they don't offer anything particularly revolutionary, and he even gets a few things wrong. However, in his final chapter the physicist drops a bombshell that will make his name and ignite a stellar career, during which he will become one of the most famous scientists on the planet.

He says that space-time can begin and end at a singularity , and what's more he can prove it. A singularity is an infinitely small and infinitely dense point. It literally has zero size, and space and time both end (or begin) at a singularity. They had been predicted for decades, particularly when physicists started to apply Einstein's General Theory of Relativity to the picture of an expanding universe. 

If the universe is expanding today then it was smaller yesterday. Keep working back, and you find all matter in the universe condensed into a tiny, hot point — the moment of creation, a Big Bang. But just how do you prove that you can indeed get singularities in space-time?

Step 9: Hawking’s proof that the Big Bang happened

Hawking's proof leans on a very old method for proving a mathematical theory: Proof by contradiction. First you assume the thing you are trying to prove isn't true, then show that the resulting conclusions are demonstrably false. In fact, Hawking's most important section begins with the words "assume that space-time is singularity-free." There then follows some very complicated maths to show that such a universe would be simultaneously both open and closed — compact and non-compact at the same time. "This is a contradiction," Hawking said. "Thus the assumption that space-time is non-singular must be false." 

In one swoop, Hawking had proven that it is possible for space-time to begin as a singularity — that space and time in our universe could have had an origin. The Big Bang theory had just received a significant shot in the arm. Hawking started to write his PhD in October 1965, just 17 months after the discovery of the Cosmic Microwave Background — the leftover energy from the Big Bang. Together, these discoveries buried the Steady State Model for good.

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Essay on Space Exploration

• Updated on  
• Jun 11, 2022

For scientists, space is first and foremost a magnificent “playground” — an inexhaustible source of knowledge and learning that is assisting in the solution of some of the most fundamental existential issues concerning Earth’s origins and our place in the Universe. Curiosity has contributed significantly to the evolution of the human species. Curiosity along with the desire for a brighter future has driven humans to explore and develop from the discovery of fire by ancient ancestors to present space explorations.  Here is all the information you need and the best tips to write an essay on space exploration.

What is Space Exploration?  

Space Exploration is the use of astronomy and space technology to explore outer space. While astronomers use telescopes to explore space, both uncrewed robotic space missions and human spaceflight are used to explore it physically. One of the primary sources for space science is space exploration, which is similar to astronomy in its classical form. We can use space exploration to validate or disprove scientific theories that have been created on Earth. Insights into gravity, the magnetosphere, the atmosphere, fluid dynamics, and the geological evolution of other planets have all come from studying the solar system.

Advantages of Space Exploration 

It is vital to understand and point out the advantages of space exploration while writing an essay on the topic.

New inventions have helped the worldwide society. NASA’s additional research was beneficial to society in a variety of ways. Transportation, medical, computer management, agriculture technology, and consumer products all profit from the discoveries. GPS technology, breast cancer treatment, lightweight breathing systems, Teflon fibreglass, and other areas benefited from the space programme.

It is impossible to dispute that space exploration creates a large number of employment opportunities around the world. A better way to approach space exploration is to spend less and make it more cost-effective. In the current job market, space research initiatives provide far too much to science, technology, and communication. As a result, a large number of jobs are created.

Understanding

NASA’s time-travelling space exploration programmes and satellite missions aid in the discovery of previously unknown facts about our universe. Scientists have gained a greater understanding of Earth’s nature and atmosphere, as well as those of other space entities. These are the research initiatives that alert us to impending natural disasters and other related forecasts. It also paves the way for our all-powerful universe to be saved from time to time.

Disadvantages of Space Exploration

Highlighting disadvantages will give another depth to your essay on space exploration. Here are some important points to keep in mind.

Pollution is one of the most concerning issues in space travel. Many satellites are launched into space each year, but not all of them return. The remnants of such incidents degrade over time, becoming debris that floats in the air. Old satellites, various types of equipment, launch pads, and rocket fragments all contribute to pollution. Space debris pollutes the atmosphere in a variety of ways. Not only is space exploration harmful to the environment, but it is also harmful to space.

A government space exploration programme is expensive. Many people believe that space mission initiatives are economical. It should be mentioned that NASA just celebrated its 30th anniversary with $196.5 billion spent.

Space exploration isn’t a walk in the park. Many historical occurrences demonstrate the dangers that come with sad situations. The Challenger space shuttle accident on January 28, 1986, must be remembered. The spacecraft exploded in under 73 seconds, resulting in a tremendous loss of life and property.

Conclusion 

There are two sides to every coin. To survive on Earth, one must confront and overcome obstacles. Space exploration is an essential activity that cannot be overlooked, but it can be enhanced by technological advancements.

Space Exploration Courses

Well, if your dream is to explore space and you want to make a career in it, then maybe space exploration courses are the right choice for you to turn your dreams into reality.

Various universities offering space exploration courses are :

• Arizona State University, USA
• Bachelor of Science in Earth and Space Exploration
• Earth and Space Exploration (Astrobiology and Biogeosciences)
• Earth and Space Exploration (Astrophysics)
• University of Leicester, UK
• Space Exploration Systems MSc
• York University
• Bachelor of Engineering (BEng) in Space Engineering

Tips to write an IELTS Essay  on Space Exploration

• The essay’s word count should be at least 250 words. There is no maximum word count. If you write less than 250 words, you risk submitting an incomplete essay. The goal should be to write a minimum of 250-words essay.
• There will be more than one question on the essay topic. The questions must be answered in their entirety. For example, for the topic ‘crime is unavoidable,’ you might see questions like 1. Speak in favour of and against this topic, 2. Give your opinion, and 3. Suggest some measures to avoid crime. This topic now has three parts, and all of them must be answered; only then will the essay be complete.
• Maintain a smooth writing flow. You can’t get off track and create an essay that has nothing to do with the issue. The essay must be completely consistent with the question. The essay’s thoughts should be tied to the question directly. Make use of instances, experiences, and concepts that you can relate to.
• Use a restricted number of linking phrases and words to organise your writing. Adverbial phrases should be used instead of standard linking words.
• The essay should be broken up into little paragraphs of at least two sentences each. Your essay should be divided into three sections: introduction, body, and conclusion. ( cheapest pharmacy to fill prescriptions without insurance )
• Don’t overuse complicated and long words in your essay. Make appropriate use of collocations and idioms. You must be able to use words and circumstances effectively.
• The essay must be written correctly in terms of grammar. In terms of spelling, grammar, and tenses, there should be no mistakes. Avoid using long, difficult sentences to avoid grammatical problems. Make your sentences succinct and to-the-point.
• Agree/disagree, discuss two points of view, pros and disadvantages, causes and solutions, causes and effects, and problem-solution are all examples of essay questions to practise.
• Make a strong beginning. The opening should provide the reader a good indication of what to expect from the rest of the article. Making a good first impression and piquing your attention starts with a good introduction.
• If required, cite facts, figures, and data. It’s best to stay away from factual material if you’re not sure about the statistics or stats. If you’re unsure about something, don’t write it down.
• The essay’s body should be descriptive, with all of the points, facts, and information listed in great detail.
• The conclusion is the most noticeable part. Your IELTS band is influenced by how you end your essay.
• Make sure there are no spelling errors. If you’re not sure how to spell something, don’t use it. It is preferable to utilize simple, everyday terms.
• Do not include any personal or casual remarks. It is strictly forbidden.
• Once you’ve finished drafting your essay, proofread it. It enables you to scan for minor and large grammar and spelling problems.

This was the Essay on Space Exploration. We hope it was helpful to you. Experts at Leverage Edu will help you out in writing your essays for IELTS, SOPs and more!

Sonal is a creative, enthusiastic writer and editor who has worked extensively for the Study Abroad domain. She splits her time between shooting fun insta reels and learning new tools for content marketing. If she is missing from her desk, you can find her with a group of people cracking silly jokes or petting neighbourhood dogs.

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Please note you do not have access to teaching notes, space tourism-past to future : a perspective article.

Tourism Review

ISSN : 1660-5373

Article publication date: 19 December 2019

Issue publication date: 20 February 2020

This paper aims to briefly review the history and future expectations for space tourism.

Design/methodology/approach

Historical review.

After a series of successes in space travel, culminating by the Apollo 11 Moon landings in 1969, governmental efforts at space travel stalled. In the early twenty-first century, private entrepreneurs inspired new life into space travel and tourism, offering commercial suborbital trips, but none have as yet actually taken place. However, despite impediments, a significant expansion of space travel and tourism is expected to occur in the course of the twenty-first century.

Originality/value

The paper offers a synoptic view of past and projected future developments in space travel and tourism.

• 75th Anniversary issue
• Space Tourism
• Space travel
• Near-Earth suborbital

Cohen, E. and Spector, S. (2020), "Space tourism-past to future : a perspective article", Tourism Review , Vol. 75 No. 1, pp. 136-139. https://doi.org/10.1108/TR-03-2019-0083

Emerald Publishing Limited

Copyright © 2019, Emerald Publishing Limited

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Space Tourism: Eliminating Social, Economical, and Emotional Challenges Proposal

Introduction, background information of the space tourism predicament, thesis/problem statement, objectives of the study, significance of the study operations, the procedure of the study/research methodology, literature review.

Today there is a hot debate regarding the future of space tourism because resent research findings indicate that the phenomenon mostly involves the wealthy corporate or individuals like Dennis Tito: the Californian Multi-Millionaire. Space tourism especially hotel and catering services is one of the main goal of large developing space ship companies such as the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), Scaled Composites, Blue Origin, and SpaceX.

The main detractor in this industry is the costs involved. Millionaires such as Dennis Tito, Mark Shuttleworth, Anousheh Ansari, Charles Simonyi and, Greg Olsen have spent approximately $20 million for a couple of days tour to space. In line with Laliaberte Guy (1, 2009), the seventh private client to take a space adventure in September 30, 2009 in a poetic special mission to create public awareness regarding the “ONE DROP” foundation, the costs are quite high and therefore the characterized with the rich.

Probably the future aspiration of the investors is to make space tourism available at affordable rates with the aim of capturing the middle class. Some year back, people anticipated the emergence of space tour, today the goals shifts to space tourism thus the high growth expectations and experiences.

The capability for space transportation has had very little advancement over the years to facilitate solutions to the big obstacle of space development. New programs and equipments are essential requirements to facilitate space development and access. The reasons why people suffer from high space tourism costs links to the availability of resources.

This means that companies launch space ships that are highly volatile and thus the disposals after only a few usages. Today, there is urgent need for an approach that will move to a more rational and affordable space visit program. The biggest challenge is the ability to come up with a more robust, highly reliable but frequently reusable space ship.

The basis of this paper is on the future expectations of space tourism; it is an analysis of patterns and available perspectives into the key themes of the proposed innovative developments concerning infrastructure, technological advancement, and reusability of resources.

What is the partnership between the government and private sector? Does existence of collaboration enhance capabilities to make the development affordable and available to more willing participants? Hypothetically, the proposal takes the assumption that the future for Space tourism is a program for the rich and one of its key contributors on development advances.

The main purpose of this study is to evaluate the consequences and key concepts involved in the development of space tourism and eventually offer suggestions from the research findings on ways of reducing or eliminating the social, economical and emotional challenges behind the tourism sector.

The proposal will lay out needs for researching the background as well as future expectations of space tourism. It will specify the impact to the society as well as those involved in the assessment over the importance of the future endeavours and possible policy recommendations.

The key topics to be covered in the research entails the focus over commercial architecture and the funding required for fostering implementation. The possibility to lower requirement for the developing space tourism and its drive towards lower transportation cost to avail the next generation of efficiency over operations.

What are the challenges faced by the International Space Station (ISS) with regards to cost overruns in facilitation of the key elements for starting the developmental phase? Which are the possible next-generation systems?

The literature reviews of the research will enable better understanding of the topic and the research proposal enhances and quantifies the research as a study topic and prepares for respondents. Information collected will equally tabulate and assist in ranking the findings form broad areas and help to narrow the scope to the objectives of the study analysis. The analysis will then draw the conclusion from generally analyzed data in the literature review.

The research findings will entail data collected through websites of the concern companies as well as marketing companies in the study area, observation of the proceedings over the specified data collection period. For the study analysis, the collected data and studies conducted will discern patterns and formulate principles that might guide future action of the study subject.

In this case, study of space tourism the research checks the background information, progress, surveillance and examination of current state of matter and the involvement with other related cases.

The analysis of records regarding internal as well as external consequences is equally important. Comparison of various space tourism vehicles manufactured today offers better understanding and analysis results. Correlation-prediction will involve statistically correlation and prediction of coefficients between aspiring and involved tourists. The term paper will therefore attempt to find or describe space tourism principles and explain existing status or competitions and propose future direction for the industry.

The main issues prohibiting the launce of more available and affordable space shuttle for potential clients entail costs and markets. Considering production, initiating the new reusable space vehicles would be expensive considering there are only a small number of reusable units.

Secondly, the current technologies are equally expensive. Would large SRB reusable boosters for commercial purposes be economically justifiable? Would the system lower the cost? Is there a compromise over technology? Other major problem includes ability to pay up developmental and production costs in the aim of making a profit. Can the current markets economically justify the cost of space vehicle?

It is easy to imagine the exotic and elegance of the outer space comfort and cruise experience but in these orbital technologies and lifestyles, what markets are better to engage? In line with the Space Tourism Society (1, n.d), the marketing strategies would require knowledge over the facilities to include in the space such as hotels, and the products and services to sustain in such an awkward environments.

According to Futon Corporation (2005), an industrial leader for forecasting the markets related to space tourism, people like travelling and having fun and thus will be willing for the same in spaceships. Currently, the race over space tourism is between commercial enterprises.

Upon the first commercial trip by Dennis Tito aboard a “Soyuz TM-32,” (Shayler, 1), in 2004 “British aviator-financier Richard Branson announced the launch of Virgin Galactic, a company which aimed at use of Spaceship One technology, with hopes of launching sub-orbital flights by 2008”. This race for space tourism was evident with the launch of the “Virgin Galactic’s space vehicles.”

This is a positive step since it has hybrid rocket motor power for enhancing reusability due to high amount of control it avails the pilots over landing. According to Virgin Galactic, for the size of such a space ship, it has the ability to perform by manoeuvring over great heights (Virgin Galactic, 1).

Today most governments fail to recognize the potential of space tourism investment as prospective “revenue generating tax base or a drive to greater market drive for next generation” (Whalen, 3).

However, National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has greater initiative programs for generating reports over procedures to reduce risks and availing architectural requirements that meet the future generation space vehicles. The aim for space advancement has been a race between the Soviet Union and United States since 1957 when Soviet launched “Sputnik 1” (Siddiqi, 1).

Nations such as China are in a position of increasing competition over exploration of space tourism. Their funding may be excessively low in comparison to ESA and NASA but they have a success basis concerning “Shenzhou 5 and Shenzhou 6.”

The space tourism industry is similar to the past airline history. There are many potential passengers willing to venture the sector or participate and the governments should therefore consider this as an eminent opportunity to solve the current costly space access inconveniences.

If the corporation between the private sector and the government is able to drive admission charges to a lower level with the aim of encouraging rebirth of a new arena that encourages commerce and industry, then there will be a great utilization of the space opportunities for growth. The space tourism is an identified market niche that might catalyze utilization of infrastructure in space especially due to future discoveries.

Futron Corporation. “Space Tourism Market Study orbital space travel & destinations with suborbital space travel.” Wisconsin, Bethesda, Maryland, MD. 2002. Web.

Shayler, David J. “Soyuz: A Universal Spacecraft .” Rex Hall Associates Limited, London, 2003.

Siddiqi, Asif A. “Sputnik and the Soviet Space Challenge.” Florida, FL. University Press Publishers. 2003.

Space Tourism Society. “The Orbital Lifestyle.” A non-profit visionary space experience research and design organization. (n.d). Retrieved from < http://spacetourismsociety.org/ >.

Virgin Galactic. “Spaceships: Virgin Galactic’s Vehicles.” (n.d). Retrieved from < https://www.virgingalactic.com/ >.

Whalen, David J. “Communications Satellites: Making the Global Village Possible .”

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). 2007. Retrieved from < https://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/satcomhistory.html >.

• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2022, June 20). Space Tourism: Eliminating Social, Economical, and Emotional Challenges. https://ivypanda.com/essays/proposal-for-a-research-paper-on-space-tourism/

"Space Tourism: Eliminating Social, Economical, and Emotional Challenges." IvyPanda , 20 June 2022, ivypanda.com/essays/proposal-for-a-research-paper-on-space-tourism/.

IvyPanda . (2022) 'Space Tourism: Eliminating Social, Economical, and Emotional Challenges'. 20 June.

IvyPanda . 2022. "Space Tourism: Eliminating Social, Economical, and Emotional Challenges." June 20, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/proposal-for-a-research-paper-on-space-tourism/.

1. IvyPanda . "Space Tourism: Eliminating Social, Economical, and Emotional Challenges." June 20, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/proposal-for-a-research-paper-on-space-tourism/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Space Tourism: Eliminating Social, Economical, and Emotional Challenges." June 20, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/proposal-for-a-research-paper-on-space-tourism/.

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Smithsonian Voices

From the Smithsonian Museums

SMITHSONIAN BOOKS

How Black Women Have Changed the Face of Spaceflight

From Uhura to Katherine Johnson, learn about Black women’s impact on space travel in this excerpt from “Afrofuturism.”

Matthew Shindell

On September 15, 2021, at age fifty-one, Sian Proctor became the first Black woman to pilot a spacecraft, taking the controls of a SpaceX Crew Dragon spacecraft on its three-day orbital flight. She did so not as a NASA astronaut, but as a member of the four-person crew of the privately funded Inspiration4 mission. Flying in space was a lifelong dream for Proctor, but for much of her life, there were no astronaut role models who looked like her. Indeed, Proctor was already twenty-two years old when Mae Jemison became the first Black woman to fly in space in 1992.

Afrofuturism: A History of Black Futures

Now in paperback! This timely and gorgeously illustrated companion book to an exciting Smithsonian exhibition explores the power of Afrofuturism to reclaim the past and reimagine Black futures

During the early years of NASA’s human spaceflight program, equality was decidedly not on display. But recently recovered history has revealed that though women and minorities were not the public face of NASA, employees such as mathematician Katherine Johnson, a Black woman, were critical to the successes of the human spaceflight program, including the Apollo lunar landings. Johnson’s successes, and those of her colleagues, were told in the book (and successful movie of the same name)  Hidden Figures . A groundbreaking NASA mathematician, Johnson spent her thirty-three-year career working at Langley Laboratory in Hampton. When the agency hired her as a “computer” in 1953, it had just opened some departments to Black women. Despite working in a segregated environment, Johnson rose through the ranks and performed calculations for some of NASA’s most significant space missions between 1953 and 1986. She was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2015 for her contributions to space travel.

NASA’s culture began to change, thanks in part to Black women working behind the scenes. In 1973, NASA fired and then was forced to rehire Ruth Bates Harris, the first Black woman to hold a senior position at the agency. NASA administrators labeled Harris a “disruptive force” after she authored an internal report decrying the “near total failure” of the agency’s equal opportunity programs. Despite being an early adopter of antidiscrimination policies, the agency’s staff was only 5.6 percent minority and 18 percent women (well below the government averages of 20 and 34 percent, respectively), and little diversity could be found in high civil service positions. As for the astronauts, the report pointed out, “During an entire generation—from 1958 until the end of this decade—NASA will not have had a woman or a minority astronaut in training.” Firing Harris only brought NASA congressional hearings and bad press, and made the agency look out of touch with a changing nation. Congress ordered NASA to double its equalemployment budget and threatened to closely monitor its equal opportunity hiring and promotion programs. In 1974, Harriett Jenkins took over as NASA’s assistant administrator for equal opportunity programs.

Nichols’s portrayal of a future space explorer brought her into contact with real spaceflight, and she found that many NASA employees were dedicated fans of Star Trek. After hearing NASA scientists speak at Star Trek conventions and touring several NASA facilities as a VIP guest, the actor developed a passion for the agency. Her interest in space and her participation in NASA events earned her a seat on the board of the National Space Institute.

When NASA began recruiting astronauts for its new Space Shuttle program in 1977, the agency was dismayed to see that few women or minorities applied. Jenkins, still leading the equal employment opportunity efforts, and Administrator James Fletcher invited Nichols to meet with them to discuss their recruitment problems. Nichols explained that NASA had a long way to go to convince women and minorities that they were serious about diversifying the astronaut corps. But Nichols was impressed by Jenkins, the first Black administrator she had met, and was convinced the agency was sincere. Nichols proposed that NASA contract her company, Women in Motion, to help with a new publicity campaign aimed at women and people of color. NASA accepted.

NASA gave Women in Motion six months to find “the astronauts of tomorrow.” Nichols threw herself into the task: in addition to a media blitz, she traveled the country, spoke at colleges and organizations in every major city, and delivered the message that is was time to change the face of spaceflight. Her work paid dividends. Harris's 1973 plea that the agency "must convince young minorities and women that is not NASA's intention to colonize the universe but that they too will have heroes and heroines in space," was answered in NASA's 1978 astronaut class. Notable astronauts added that year included the first woman to travel to space, Sally Ride; Guion "Guy" Bluford, Jr., the first Black American man to travel to space; and Frederick Gregory, NASA's first Black deputy administrator. Future astronauts Judith Resnik and Mae Jemison credited their careers to Nichols' campaign.

After the 1983 and 1992 flights of Bluford and Jemison, Black American boys and girls—and the country at-large—had new real-life space heroes and heroines. Since then, NASA astronauts Stephanie Wilson, Joan Higginbotham, and Jessica Watkins, along with Sian Proctor, have joined the ranks of spacefaring Black women—a remarkable, if still short list that offers hope for the future, yet also suggests the need for continued diligence. As Proctor’s example demonstrates, the rise of commercial spaceflight may create even more opportunities for astronauts of all backgrounds.

Afrofuturism  is available from Smithsonian Books. Visit  Smithsonian Books’ website  to learn more about its publications and a full list of titles. 

"Black Women Change the Face of Spaceflight" by Matthew Shindell excerpted from  Afrofuturism  © 2023 by Smithsonian Institution

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