research topic for unemployment

205 Unemployment Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

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• Unemployment Leads to Crime Essay In the 1990s, the rate of unemployment was low and so was the rate of property crime. Crime rates increase steadily in society, and the rate of crime is connected to unemployment and low wages.
• Youth Unemployment as a Social Issue Different factors have led to the high levels of youth unemployment, with the most widely studied of them being the skills that are available to the unemployed youths.
• Youth Unemployment and Policy Solutions The inability to address the problem of unemployment in the given age group may result in the growth of criminal activity, child poverty, and people’s negative perceptions of life.
• The Philippines’ Unemployment, Inequality, Poverty However, despite the strong emphasis of the government on income equality and poverty reduction along with the growth of GDP, both poverty and economic and social inequality remain persistent in the Philippines.
• Unemployment The following are some of the advantages of using the hard system method It provides a deeper understanding and analysis of the problem of unemployment and answers the question of how to mitigate the unemployment […]
• The Increasing Rate of Unemployment In the United State of America, the rate of unemployment was at its highest in the year 2007. The topic of unemployment is important due to the impact that it has on the current economy.
• Unemployment: Causes and Effects Employers seek to recoup the costs of inflation by constantly increasing the financial performance of sales. One of these methods is to increase the gross profit ratio by reducing the cost of production.
• Unemployment Rate Due to Impact of Technology By understanding the role of technology on unemployment, the public can develop innovative mechanisms to overcome the issue. The impact of technology on the labor market is relevant to my present and future life.
• Unemployment in Sweden: Causes and Solutions This research looks at one of her most celebrated program that turned out later on to be the source of misery to a good number of her population; that is the welfare program that was […]
• Unemployment and Lack of Economic Opportunity Having the majority of the population employed is critical for the economic and social stability of a nation. The third reason why employment and economic opportunities must be facilitated together is that it impacts the […]
• Downsizing and Delayering in Organization The best way to do it is to refer to the experience of the firms, which have already faced a similar dilemma.
• Entrepreneurship: Reducing Unemployment The simultaneous demand for new skills, the training of which is still little accessible due to their novelty, and the loss of relevance of acquired skills lead to unemployment.
• Keynesian Theory of Unemployment This brings to the conclusion that during such times the government should implement policies that are aimed at increasing aggregate demand According to Robert the, policies which the government may implement in order to reduce […]
• Employment Law: Worker Termination and Dismissal While determining reasonable notice, companies should focus on such aspects as the age of a worker, the length of employment, the health of an employee, and the availability of jobs in the community.
• Gender Gap’s Effect on Unemployment Rate In fact, the latter, namely, the rise in the extent of the COVID-19 pandemic, has increased the rates of unemployment significantly.
• Unemployment and Underemployment This decision became a major step in relieving the social strain and allowing millions of people to survive the economic hardships caused by the imposed restrictions
• Inflation and Unemployment in the United States In the 21st century, there are so many issues in the economy of the United States. This is increasing the demand for skilled workers by the day as opposed to the unskilled.
• Social Theory & its Relation to Social Problems: Unemployment. Furthermore, classical economists perceive unemployment as a result of excess supply that is influenced due to elevated price level of work labor.
• Causes of Rising Unemployment However, this is usually not the case as the rate of employment opportunities being created are very few compared to the demands of the population and this means that many people will be unemployed regardless […]
• The Current Impact of Inflation and Unemployment on Germany’s Political/Economic System It is notable to recognize the fact that the rate of savings in the nation is quite high causing a dip in the rate of inflation.
• Relationship Between Unemployment and Crimes Agnew, argue that crime is caused by strain that a person face throughout life, and this can be contributed to the degree of educational inequality in society.
• Robots as a Factor in Unemployment Patterns One of the prevailing arguments in regards to this problem is that the advent of the robot technology is contributing towards a high rate of unemployment.
• Downsizing: Reasons and Consequences The reason for the perceived lack of alternatives may lie in the lack of creative thinking on the part of the manager, however.
• Mergers, Acquisitions, and Downsizing This paper will highlight the differences between mergers, acquisitions, and downsizing and extrapolate the circumstances that can lead a company to adopt any of the three measures. The merging of companies in a horizontal arrangement […]
• Purposive Research Methodology for Saudi Economic Study This will allow the investigative nature of the study to be attained. The questions will be developed in cognizance to the research topic and will be based on the set objectives.
• Corporate Downsizing: A Guide to Planning and Execution To define the extent of downsizing and the rearrangement of roles and responsibilities that will be assigned to the rest of the staff, a company’s key goals will have to be determined, including the domains […]
• Government’s Role in Macroeconomic Stability: The Need for Stronger Fiscal Policies The role of government in influencing the macroeconomic sphere of the economy is one that cannot be understated. One of the foremost negative effects of such fiscal policy is that the influx of government-induced money […]
• US Unemployment: Economic Analysis and Solutions In the first news article titled “The US has a Jobs Crisis: Here’s How to Fix it,” the authors use the latest statistics to demonstrate the problem of unemployment in the US, before relying on […]
• Unemployment Rate: Impact on GDP and Inflation In such a way, the scenario shows it is vital to preserve the balance and avoid decisions focusing on only one aspect of the economy.
• Unemployment and Economic Dynamism This type of unemployment is a natural part of the economy and is generally considered to be healthy, as it allows workers to move to new, better-paying jobs.
• Unemployment Among Emerging Adults The high rate of unemployment among emerging adults is due to the following reasons: personal skills, level of education, behavioral characteristics, and lack of capital.
• Stimulus Checks: Impact of Unemployment A stimulus check is sent to taxpaying consumers to boost the economy as it provides funds for them to consume. The stimulus check offered included a high economic relief bill to deal with the pandemic.
• The Unemployment Issue in China The People’s Republic of China is the largest country in terms of population and the third largest country in the world in terms of territory.
• Downsizing for Optimizing Firm Efficiency The adoption of downsizing to mitigate the challenges mentioned above forms the basis of discussion for this paper. The section below highlights some of the benefits accrue to a firm that adopts the policy.
• Jamaica’s Unemployment and Positive Youth Development Although a recent positive trend in decreasing levels of joblessness is apparent as the country revitalizes its main source of income, the problem of the high level of unemployment among youth is persistent.
• How COVID-19 Affected Unemployment Rate Around the World A study on the effects of COVID-19 on the employment levels in the European economies found that the pandemic led to rapid unemployment in the economies of Germany, Italy, Spain, and the UK.
• Unemployment and Business Cycle in Australia The unemployment rate calculation formula is quite simple the number of unemployed people is divided by the total number of people in the civilian workforce.
• Unemployment Rate After COVID-19 However, there is a visible disparity between the national unemployment rate and that of the Hispanic or Latino demographic group, which was 12.
• Unemployment Analysis and Its Measures The Federal Reserve Economic Data graphs indicate that before the Great Recession, the unemployment and total unemployment rates were relatively low at 5% and 8.
• The Federal Unemployment Tax Some percent of wages is retained by the employer from the employee’s pay, who then remits the funds to the government on the worker’s behalf.
• The Federal Unemployment Tax Act Rates In conclusion, FUTA rates regulate the unemployment rates by punishing states that fail to keep their economies balanced in times of crisis, yet they are essential for preventing a decline in the job market.
• Income and Unemployment in the US Economy Further, one may say that both fiscal and monetary policies work to promote the U.S.economy’s achievement of the three goals, including full employment, economic growth, and stable prices.
• The Unemployment Problem in Panama This paper aims to review two current news articles about Panama, which reveal the issue of the high unemployment rate in this country, which continues to increase and has taken the form of a crisis.
• Issue of Unemployment: Social Inequality The deep socio-economic divides in American society have impacted the unemployment rates even before the COVID-19 pandemic; however, the virus has exacerbated the issue.
• Unemployment Disparity Affecting African Americans Systemic racism in the U.S.is the primary cause of the unemployment gap. Compared to white Americans, African Americans have a relatively low rate of education in the U.S.
• Forecasting Unemployment Rate With Value-Factor Model The peculiarity of the article is that the study is aimed at the consequences in the future, also considering the changes that occurred at the beginning of the pandemic.
• Economic Growth and Unemployment Relationship in the USA The corresponding figures characterize the structure of economic dynamics and the diversification of the labor market. The research limitation is the multifactorial nature of economic growth and unemployment indicators.
• CBS News Unemployment Report and Its Future Impression The labor system in America also requires reevaluation to ensure that jobs available meet the skills and abilities of the American people.
• Unemployment and Inflation Relation However, the level of unemployment and its prevailing types can differ significantly depending on the state of the economies of countries and the policies they use to combat unemployment.
• Media Coverage of Unemployment Content analysis on the topic of coverage of unemployment in the media allows you to analyze the mood and opinion of society, the tone of expression in the published media, and conclude the nature of […]
• Poverty and Unemployment Due to Increased Taxation The government on its side defended the move while trying to justify the new measures’ benefits, a move that would still not benefit the country.
• Unemployment Rate and COVID-19 in Egypt, the UAE, and Bahrain The topic chosen for this study is the influence of COVID-19 on the rate of unemployment in Egypt, the United Arab Emirates, and Bahrain.
• The Impact of Trade Policy on Unemployment According to Dutt, Mitra, and Ranjan, there is a strong link between trade and unemployment, and, therefore, adaptations of various trade policies are bound to impact unemployment indirectly. Dutt, Mitra, and Ranjan note that there […]
• Unemployment and Recession: Causes and Relationship Another cause of recession is stringent monetary policy and increased cost of oil imports which tend to lower the rate of demand in the economy.
• Unemployment in the US and Europe The level of unemployment in the United States and Europe has continued to push the recession to unprecedented levels. Most of the jobs that were lost in the United States and Europe were in the […]
• Court Sentencing: Juvenile Status and Unemployment These provisions allowed that based on prior criminal history and in consideration of the current offense, they could be transferred for trial in adults courts.
• Unemployment Rates and Value of Houses The calculation carried is as follows:- The accompanying table shows the performance of real estate in some states Test the hypothesis that unemployment rate influences house values.Use.
• KSA Vision 2030 and Its Impact on Unemployment This resolution intends to reduce the rates of unemployment in Saudi Arabia and increase employment opportunities for women in the kingdom.
• Unemployment Within the 20th Century The purpose of this research is about showing the issue of unemployment in the 20th century, the results that it led to, the human struggle against unemployment, and the predictions of unemployment in the future.
• Macroeconomics in Unemployment Frictional unemployment is described as the unemployment that takes place because of the movement of people from one occupation to another.
• Unemployment as the Consequence of the Development of New Technologies. What Should Private Firms and Government Do? The development of new technologies has been considered to be the way to the high level of life on the one hand and one of the main reasons for unemployment on the other hand.
• Global Recession and Unemployment Growth Connection However, the increased unemployment and the collapse of the steel industry in the United States results from the domination of companies at the microeconomic level seeking an absolute advantage at international stage. Similarly, it has […]
• UAE and GCC Economic Analysis: Inflation and Unemployment This is explained by the fact that UAE is less dependent on oil trade, hence, the inflation and unemployment rate in the UAE is lower in comparison with the countries of GCC.
• Teacher Evaluation, Discipline, and Dismissal With help of the findings of the given research, probable ideas on how to improve the existing system of teacher’s evaluation at school can be suggested, which will result in the increase of the efficiency […]
• Gender, Family, and Unemployment in Ontario’s Great Depression The introduction and all the background that Campbell gives are firmly in line with the goals of this course. The first part of the study is the business and the economic history.
• Public Administration: Unemployment Economic Impact The “official” unemployment rate is released by the U. S government is not a correct reflection of the actual state of unemployment in the nation.
• The Future of Unemployment in the United States The significance of unemployment makes it a major issue that neither the federal government nor the citizens can ignore given the fact that is one of the indicators of the strength of the economy.
• The Take-Up of Unemployment Study in USA The take up of unemployment is beneficial because it will enable the living standard of people to increase and contributes to the general performance of the economy. Small business funding ensures that more people are […]
• Financial Position of AT&T Through Downsizing As mentioned, due to the tough economic conditions that were being experienced the world over in the year 2008 and partly through 2009, the company decided to lay off close to 4% of its workforce.
• Downsizing Strategy: The Reasons and Benefits Firstly it is important to note that downsizing has implications to the remaining workforce in terms of confidence and loyalty to the organization.
• Gasoline Prices, Rates of Unemployment, Inflation, and Economic Growth The data which has been queried from the database are related to gasoline prices in California, the unemployment rate in the US, the inflation rate in the US, and Real GDP.
• Pakistan: GDP and Unemployment This shows a clear relationship between the economy of the country and the employment that it is able to generate. This unemployment is increasing in both the rural areas and the urban areas of the […]
• Measuring Unemployment Issues in Society Types of unemployment include; frictional unemployment, cyclical unemployment, seasonal unemployment, and structural unemployment. Seasonal unemployment is a result of the rise and fall of a particular job.
• Macroeconomics and Unemployment The author of the article is Jennifer Steinhauer and the source where the article is taken from is the newspaper “The New York Times”, issued on September 18, 2009, that is why the information under […]
• Outsourcing, Downsizing, and Delayering On the whole, outsourcing can be defined as transferring some of the firms activities to a third party or subcontractor for a certain period of time.
• The US and the Philippines: Unemployment and Inflation In cyclical terms, this rising inflation is actually the product and not the cause of these record-high oil prices and the idea that the U.S.had failed to think of the above-discussed alternatives to the energy […]
• Youth Unemployment in Africa: A Challenge for Public Policy Makers With a large population to take care of the market for labour is overstretched from Johannesburg to Tangiers and cannot accommodate the influx of young job seekers leading to shortage or in some cases the […]
• Franklin D. Roosevelt Speech on Unemployment Reaction As, I sat down to listen on the FDR’s speech over the radio, and being one of the unemployed labor in the country, I did hope that a better future was on the way.
• Automation Impact on Unemployment Scope: The scope of the article is to analyze and overview the connection between productivity and employment figures in the US.
• How Falling Unemployment Affect College Enrollment It is common to associate the relationship between unemployment and college enrollment with the financial crisis of 2007-2008 and the Great Recession on the border of the 2000s-2010s.
• Macroeconomics: Unemployment Rate in North America Such indicators of economic development as the labor force rate and the unemployment rate are the significant aspects of state development and its policies regarding the labor market.
• Unemployment and Social Exclusion In the countries of Europe, the rate of unemployment varies between 3 and 23 percent with the highest numbers in Ireland and Greece and the lowest in Iceland, Norway, Germany, and Malta; the United States […]
• Unemployment Rates and Credit Card Debts in the US The reduction of the unemployment rate is logical as changes have affected the labor market. Concerning debts on loans, too open system of bank lending to the population can be an additional factor causing this […]
• Consumer Price Index and Unemployment Rate The first issue is related to the tendency of consumers to adjust their preferences based on prices faster than the CPI can reflect, leading to inaccurate representations of the data in the index.
• Econometrics: Poverty, Unemployment, Household Income The goal of this project is to come up with a model that relates to the poverty level in the United States and the unemployment rate and total household income.
• Recommendations for Determining the Dismissal of Jessie In her complaint, Jessie argues that she has been discriminated against because of her impairment and that her supervisor did not give her a reasonable allowance to accommodate her disability.
• United States Unemployment Rates in 2013-2014 In the first four months of 2014, the rate of unemployment in the United States dropped to about 6. 3 percent, and the number of the unemployed dropped by about 1.
• Business Cycle and Unemployment The other phase is the recovery phase which occurs after the recession and is seen by a steady rise on GDP.
• Due Process and Fair Dismissal of Teachers in Texas Specifically, the due process does not explain why a teacher should be dismissed but provides the procedures that should be followed by a school to dismiss a teacher.
• Unemployment Types in Spain and the United States Firms and companies in Spain have no requirement to hire more people and this is because of the state of the economy.
• Unemployment Rates in KNPR’s “State of Nevada” The discussion concentrated on unemployment rates in the State of Nevada and its potential solutions. The unemployment rate in the State of Nevada was 12% for March.
• Unemployment and Its Social Consequences One of the impacts of unemployment that connects the unemployed individual with the social fraternity is the lost self-esteem that an individual suffers.
• Self-Reported Community Health and Unemployment Rate The initiative to increase the number of job offerings instead of spending money on health fairs and educational programs can positively affect the mental well-being of the community.
• Unemployment Values: Types and Impacts The first impact of unemployment on the economy is the extra financial costs that a government may have to incur when unemployed persons are paid some stipends.
• Unemployment and Suicide Rates Correlation in the US The problem of correlation between the levels of unemployment and suicide rates has been previously investigated in the research literature. However, the association between unemployment and suicide rates was discovered in the data collected during […]
• Foreign Direct Investment Role in Unemployment The following report explores the evidence behind the claims of both the advocates and the opponents of globalization and one of its prominent manifestations foreign direct investment to determine whether its effect could be used […]
• Unemployment as a Local Economic Issue The evaluation of these aspects is crucial to the current research for the reason that it would help highlight the weak spots of the modern employment apparatus and suggest novel ways of dealing with unemployment.
• Naked Economics: Understanding the Dismissal Science Thus, the chapter tackles the topic of the value of money, which is confusing and often misinterpreted by the public. While the topic of international trade seems to be interesting only to the specialists in […]
• The Relationship Between Fiscal Spending and Unemployment The Obama administration passed the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 in response to the financial crisis caused by the disappearance of the $5 trillion household wealth of the country in just 12 weeks.
• Organizational Downsizing and Survival Syndrome However, in case the rate of mass lay-offs following the downsizing of many firms exceeds the number of newly opened companies, the move to reduce the size of the available workforce is said to produce […]
• Unemployment as National Economic Health Indicator Unemployment is considered a key indicator of national economic health as it directly reflects on the efficiency of government policy and the population purchasing potential. The concept of the natural level of employment in the […]
• Unemployment as a Sorting Criterion The researchers developed a study to evaluate the relationship between the length of unemployment and the stigmatization attitude associated with employers when they handle the affected job applicants.
• Spain and Its Unemployment Problems The low rate of employment is the most renowned characteristic of the Spanish economy as per the close of the Twentieth Century.
• Unemployment Insurance Extension in the US In this way, extended UI lets them realize that they are not forgotten by the rest of society, and there is still an opportunity to find an appropriate job.
• Unemployment Insurance Policy in the United States Despite some of the efforts embraced by different communities, the issue of unemployment has continued to affect the welfare of many citizens in the country.
• African Americans’ Unemployment Rate in 2014 The African American racial group has the highest rate of unemployment in the United States, continuing a longstanding pattern whereby Blacks always find themselves at the periphery of the American labor force.
• Unemployment Reduction Strategy for Chesapeake, VA A comprehensive unemployment reduction strategy implemented within Chesapeake, VA, would drive the current unemployment rate of 4. The unemployment rate exacerbates local economic concerns in terms of healthcare costs, household income, and living standards.
• Employment Status, Dismissals and Exit Interviews Secondly, the status helps to determine the obligations of the employer towards the individual, and the rights of the individual. For example, only employees may present claims of unfair dismissal by an employer and the […]
• Dismissal Meeting: The Art of Delivering Bad News Therefore, sympathy toward the employee and the recognition of the latter’s contribution to the company’s growth, as well as the acknowledgment of their professional expertise, must be viewed as the foundation for the communication.
• Policy: The Aftermath of War – Servicemen Facing Unemployment However, after retiring from their job with disabilities, the most significant issue that faces the transitioning service individuals to reintegrate effectively with the civilian society has been the need to find and cultivate organizational attachments […]
• US Teachers’ Rights, Dismissal, and Discrimination First of all, the principal violates the First Amendment since she deprives the woman of her freedom of expression and the ability to speak freely.
• Unemployment Forms and Causes: Economic Standpoint Unemployment could be defined as the state in the economy where there are many people who are willing and able to work but they do not get a chance to employ their skills to the […]
• Unemployment in Sydney: Spatial Patterns Analysis In contrast, such areas as North West Sydney or Upper North Shore that have the lowest level of unemployment and the highest level of household income.
• Unemployment in Abu Dhabi and Dubai: Causes and Solutions Various studies have concluded that there is a correlation between the level of unemployment in the country and the strength of the economy.
• Unemployment Rate as the Biggest National Economy Challenge The United States has the largest national economy and it is the largest trading nation in the world. The recent financial crisis of 2008 increased the rate of unemployment, and impacted the economy negatively.
• The Level of Unemployment Among Veterans Veterans are some of the most important segments of the USA’s population, bearing in mind that they sacrificed their lives and time to serve the nation in the past.
• The US Unemployment Benefits Evaluation The timeliness of these statistics is essential for the gauging of the labor market health and in extension, the performance in of the economy in general. The analysis of the data provides for the selection […]
• Unemployment Rate of Saudi Arabia This paper discusses the impact of unemployment on the economy of a country and explores the rates of unemployment and GDP growth in Saudi Arabia.
• Unemployment Issue in the United States Though a shrinkage in the number of vacancies and the rapid increase in the number of part-time jobs have had their toll on the unemployment rates, the lack of vacancies still remains the key cause […]
• Unemployment and State of the US Economy However, it is necessary to emphasize that the consideration of a great number of various key points at the same time is the guaranty of the efficient and prosperous economy of the state.
• Unemployment in Saudi Arabia Much effort has been in place to from the government of Saudi Arabia in order to address the question of unemployment despite the fact that the nation is full of vast deposits of crude oil.
• Men’ and Women’ Unemployment Disparity Purpose of research: This study aimed at establishing the difference in gap of the rate of unemployment between women and men during the 2007 recession.
• Unemployment and Inflation Issues In most cases, if one is suffering structural unemployment, it is as a result of improvement in a certain area, or a change in the way things are done.
• Unemployment in the United States It could be assumed that unemployment is a critical issue in the United States of America, as it has a strong impact on the society and other spheres of everyday life.
• Unemployment Effects on Lithuania Individuals The reduction is attributed to the efforts made by the government to resuscitate the economy through export promotion and improving efficiency in the public sector.
• The Unemployment Situation in the United States This article reviews the current unemployment situation in the United States and the actions that the Obama administration is taking to improve the situation.
• Public Policies for Reducing Unemployment In the recent times, the issue of unemployment has taken a new dimension in the United States. After reflecting on the economic problems facing the United States, it is important to tackle the issue of […]
• Predicting Unemployment Rates to Manage Inventory 81 1949 6.1 0.04 4.74 1.32 1. 15 2000 4.0 1.82 6.
• The Youth Unemployment Crisis in Spain In order to further identify the root cause of the problem of the high levels of unemployment in Spain, it is necessary to evaluate the evolution of the unemployment among the youth in the country, […]
• David Jones Company’s Strategies for Downsizing Furthermore, this report looks at the procedures of downsizing and other viable options in lieu of downsizing or in the event that the strategy fails to produce the expected results.
• Reasons and Solutions for Unemployment in USA Unemployment provides statistical evidence of the economic health and performance of a Government and is defined as a count of the number of people who are not actively engaged in gainful jobs, have failed to […]
• Youth Unemployment in UK and Talent Management Challenges The economic recession that began in 2007 continues to affect a great number of U.K.businesses and one of its effects is the decrease in the number of jobs available to young people.
• Dismissal Meeting The dismissal meeting should be conducted by the immediate boss, who is usually the most conversant with the employee and the reasons for the dismissal.
• Downsizing in the U.S. Military A number of structural policies and strategies guide the military; these provide explanations on the business of the military and the values it upholds.
• Change Management Process: Downsizing and Outsourcing Managing change After defining the problem that needed to be addressed by the change to come, the management decided to appoint a steering committee of three people, including the engineering manager; the choice of the […]
• The Euro Zone’s Rising Inflation and Unemployment Rate However, the euro zone found itself in a predicament from late 2009 after the economic downturns that faced some countries in the euro zone.
• The Implications of Downsizing to the Employees, Communities and Families of the Employees This paper seeks to establish the effects of downsizing to the employees, communities and the families of the employees. Effects of downsizing on the community in general The economic effects of downsizing are not limited […]
• Unemployment Issue in Europe The European Member States should recommend the use of economic stimulus package in order to spur economic activity in the region.
• Concept of Downsizing Strategy in Business The purpose of this research is to provide a clear illustration of the impacts of downsizing on the three levels of an organization.
• Reasons for Increasing Unemployment in U.S The credit crunch that was experienced between from 2007 to 2009 greatly battered the private sector labor market and resulted in a decline in the number of people who are gainfully employed in the US.
• Long-Term Unemployment in the U.S. From the article, Seib identifies a number of issues that contribute to the problem of the long-term unemployed. This has adverse effects on the ability of such children to get employed in future.
• Unemployment in California The unemployment rate increased due to various reasons such as uncertainty arising from the slow growth in the economy, current slide in the stock market and the debt crisis from the European region, which spooked […]
• Unemployment, Labor, and Government Economic Forces The article, “The State of Economics”, is an article that discusses the turmoil between economists of the current age in trying to reconcile economic principles with both the classical and Keynesian economic theories of the […]
• Definition of Unemployment and Its Types The major limitation of the insurance programs policy is that the employees have to make regular contributions of some amount to the program.
• Unemployment in UK To analyze why unemployment is set to rise in the UK To illustrate the true level of unemployment in UK To evaluate how technology affects unemployment in UK To analyze how inflation affects UK unemployment […]
• Concept of Employee Downsizing Consequently, the article tests the hypothesis that employees with health problems before downsizing in an organization are the target of layoffs, while the health of leavers after downsizing is dependent of reemployment.
• Concept of Automation of Services and their Effect on Unemployment Increased wage rate has the effect of increasing the cost of production and since firms are in the business to make profits, they will increase the prices of their products.
• An Employee Layoff Process: Conducting the Dismissal Meeting If they fail to respect the emotions, the management might fail to control the anxiety and the fear of employees in the restructured company.
• Detrimental Effects of Unemployment on People’s Health It is necessary to note that unemployment is regarded as one of the social determinants of health discussed by Wilkinson and Marmot.
• Unemployment in New Jersey There has been a rise in the number of those employed from 143,328 in October 2012 to 143,568 in October 2013.
• Corporate Downsizing Concept and Proper Execution The advancements that have rocked the technological sector are seen to be the greatest influence behind the idea and have to a great extent contributed to the popularity of downsizing.
• Unemployment as a Social Problem To gauge the rate of unemployment the number of the people who are idle is calculated versus the number of people who have been hired.
• The Unemployment Reasons in the UAE In conclusion, the high unemployment rate in the UAE is a result of poor training, the influx of foreign expatriates and government failure to create more jobs for the locals.
• Immigrants in Qatar and the UAE: Laws and Regulations. The Threat of Unemployment vs. the Concern for Social Identity Focusing on the issues of immigration in general and the complexities which the GCC countries have in relation to the issue of immigration in particular, the given paper provides a detailed account of the current […]
• Corporate Downsizing and Restructuring Challenges Concurrently, in the context of restructuring and downsizing business operations, some organisations collaborate with other organisations to attain the desired competitive advantages.
• Labor and Unemployment Rate This ensures that these people make a useful contribution to the economic growth of the country. In addition, lack of stability may also reduce the need to have children.
• Mehdi Hasan: Unemployment Matters More Than GDP or Inflation The writer is of the opinion that job creation is more important for the euro zone populace than solving the problems of inflation and GDP growth.
• Unemployment, Downsizing, and Deindustrialization The effects of both deindustrialization and downsizing that are evidenced due to changing demographics and changing geographic locations of industries depending on the costs to be incurred have very many negative consequences on both the […]
• Youth Unemployment in the UK Such programmes have led to an increase in the level of people who are self-employed. This has led to rise of people who are self-employed in the UK over the years.
• Unemployment in the US: Job Favoritism Spiggs, an official at the “Department of Labor,” insinuated that it could not be easy for the government to determine the extent of the setback.
• Unemployment Rates in the U.S. Chetty has found that 10 % increase in the UI benefits have resulted in the increase of unemployment duration by 4.8%.
• Historical Analysis on Unemployment The city of Los Angeles is one of the places that are worst hit by the catastrophe. The report summarizes that the situation is worse in the US and more particularly in Los Angeles because […]
• Benefits Run Out for Spain’s Jobless: Theories of Unemployment The aim of the paper is to summarize the article on unemployment and establish a connection between the article and the economic theories unemployment.
• Unemployment Rates in the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics The rise in the unemployment rate in 2008 can be termed as cyclical unemployment rate, i.e.the unemployment that occurs due to changes in business cycle.
• National Unemployment & Recession When the recession is severe, there is an increase in the rate of national unemployment and hence a rise in the number of unemployed individuals in the society.
• Employee Benefits, Unemployment Insurance and Workers Compensation Employee benefits are not counted as part of salary or wages earned by the employees and are provided to the employees in exchange for their contribution towards the organization.
• Being Unemployed and the Impact of Unemployment as a Broad Issue In as much as we would like to take the issue of unemployment at an individual level, it is not possible since it touches on the society as whole and hence the need to discuss […]
• Addressing the Downsizing in America However, in 2007, the company was hit hard by the global financial crisis and one of the restructuring strategies adopted by the management was to outsource the sales department. Downsizing is the result of a […]
• Unemployment Problem in the US Millions of people experience short-term unemployment each year, which last a couple of weeks, during their switch of jobs due to the flexibility to the job market.
• Unemployment as Sosial Problem Many specialists predict that the problems are going to last for some period of time and the countries which are included in the Euro zone should try hard to remove the problem and to return […]
• Analysis of Unemployment and Inflation in the United States This was at the height of the recession that continues to grapple the country with major negative implications in the economy.
• Unemployment in UAE Unwillingness of Men and Women to Work in Certain Occupations One of the factors that have been cited as a cause of unemployment in UAE is that both men women have not been prepared to […]
• Downsizing 10 per Cent of the Staff It may seem that the most complicated task an HR manager faces is finding and hiring a new employee who will meet the requirements of the workplace and the expectations of the company.
• High Unemployment to Last for Years The best measure of unemployment is taking a sample of households, and taking the number of unemployed in that particular household and also looking at the number of people who have registered in employment agencies.
• Does Broadband Internet Reduce the Unemployment Rate?
• Can Slowly Adjusting Wages Explain Involuntary Unemployment?
• Does Culture Affect Unemployment?
• Are Early Educational Choices Affected by Unemployment Benefits?
• Does European Unemployment Prop Up American Wages?
• Can Black Workers Escape Spatial Mismatch?
• Does Higher Language Proficiency Decrease the Probability of Unemployment?
• Are Protective Labor Market Institutions at the Root of Unemployment?
• Does a High Unemployment Rate Result in a High Divorce Rate?
• Can Google Econometrics Predict Unemployment?
• Does Industrial Diversity Always Reduce Unemployment?
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• Does Job Search Monitoring Intensity Affect Unemployment?
• Are Unemployment Benefits Harmful to the Stability of Working Careers?
• Does Liquidity Substitute for Unemployment Insurance?
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• How Can Unions Result in Higher Unemployment Rates?
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137 Unemployment Essay Topics

🏆 best essay topics on unemployment, 🔎 easy unemployment research paper topics, 👍 good unemployment essay topics to write about, 🎓 most interesting unemployment research titles, 💡 simple unemployment essay ideas, ❓ unemployment research questions.

• Causes of Youth Unemployment
• The Impact of Unemployment on Crime Rates
• Artificial Intelligence and Unemployment
• Economics: Unemployment, Its Causes and Types
• Unemployment Rates Among Young College Graduates
• Unemployment, Its Types and Government Intervention
• Unemployment’ Nature and Possible Causes
• Social Problems and Policy: Youth Unemployment and Mental Health In the history of the US, the federal and state governments have been at the forefront to facilitate effective social programs.
• The Effects of the Minimum Wage on Overall Unemployment The raised minimum wage would create more jobs for low-wage workers, as this rise would prompt the goods and services demand of such workers who would now be able to afford more.
• Natural Rate of Unemployment In determining the natural rate of unemployment, analysts focus on evaluating price and wage settings in the labour market.
• Social and Economic Aspects of Unemployment in the UAE Despite the UAE having the lowest level of unemployment in the world, the number of foreign workers exceeds its native employees.
• AI Development, Unemployment, and Universal Basic Income The theme of AI-human relationships takes an important place in science fiction literature, movies, and video games, but it is not limited by them.
• Unemployment Rates in the United States Unemployment is unevenly distributed across the US population, with regards to race, age, gender, and education.
• “Unemployment and Terrorism” TED Talk by Mohamed Ali In this TED talk, Mohamed Ali explores the relationship between unemployment and terrorism. Ali incorporates stories from his native country to support his arguments.
• Building a Business to Address Youth Unemployment An opportunity to build a business based on the youth unemployment problem has both strengths and weaknesses, also opportunities for further development.
• Homelessness Due to Unemployment During COVID-19 This paper is a research on how unemployment resulting from the Covid-19 pandemic has left many homeless in the United States.
• Domestic Violence in Melbourne: Impact of Unemployment Due to Pandemic Restrictions The purpose of this paper is to analyze to what extent does unemployment due to pandemic restrictions impact domestic violence against women in Melbourne.
• Unemployment and Its Macroeconomic Implications In the process of learning about macroeconomic trends, one obtains an opportunity to expand their knowledge about particular factors and their outcomes for the economy.
• Counter-Terrorism and Unemployment Approaches A more novel approach to unemployment that considers the needs of a disenchanted youth is vital to reducing the draw towards terrorist activities.
• The Long-Term Unemployment Positive Tendency The article argues that the level of long-term unemployment has fallen significantly compared to the previous years, reaching the lowest point in 9 years.
• The Unemployment and Inflation Causes in Australia The change in the Australian 2021 indicator of unemployment is the representation of cyclical unemployment since it lasted less than a year.
• Why the Unemployment Rate Needs Fixing in the US The article Latest Jobs Report Shows Why the Unemployment Rate Needs Fixing regards the issue of the inadequateness of the currently established formal indicator in the US.
• Unemployment After the US Industrial Revolution Since the commencement of the industrial revolution, the process of automation, or more broadly the replacement of human employees by machines, has piqued widespread interest.
• Unemployment and Political Regime Unemployment should be considered one of the critical factors influencing the economy of states and political stability. This paper discusses unemployment and political regime.
• The Hispanic Unemployment Issue in the US A Hispanic person in the US is more likely to be unemployed than an average American. People of color have historically been one of the most discriminated groups.
• The US Fiscal Policy and Unemployment Rate The problem to be discussed will be centered around the relationship between fiscal policies in regard to the unemployment rate in the United States.
• Unemployment Rates in the State of Georgia In this essay, the author will present the current unemployment statistics and job outlook in the state of Georgia.
• The High Unemployment Rate as a Most Serious Threat to Americans Although the United States has one of the highest economic indicators globally, thousands of Americans are unemployed across the country.
• Unemployment Rates in the United States due to COVID-19 The increase in unemployment in the United States is associated with the country’s epidemiological situation and the tightening of quarantine measures taken by states.
• Unemployment Rate During COVID-19 COVID-19 and subsequent lockdown measures significantly affected the civilian labor force participation and unemployment rates.
• An Article Review: “Metropolitan Area Employment and Unemployment” The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics published a short article that reports the results of the analysis of the changes in the “nonfarm payroll employment” in metropolitan areas.
• Inflation and Unemployment in Bavaria Considering the normal state of the economy and the existing level of employment close to full, the President of Bavaria is not recommended to pursue an expansionary fiscal policy.
• Economic Issues: Factors of Production Growth and Unemployment Rates Assessing the factors such as the rates of production growth, the selected financial systems, and the rates of unemployment is essential for determining the threat to the state economy.
• Federal Poverty, Welfare, and Unemployment Policies In the paper, the federal policies regarding the above mentioned areas of public interest will be scrutinized and discussed at length.
• Unemployment: Types And Factors Unemployment is one of the greatest social evils in our society today. This is because of the unfriendly impacts it has on the economy.
• Unemployment and Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale The concept of self-esteem is derived from self–theory. A basic assumption of self-theory is the need to appreciate oneself and be appreciated by others.
• “Unemployment Checks: Keep ‘Em Coming” by Owens and Stettner: Article Review In the article, Owens and Stettner underline that current unemployment affects both the economy and employers, the government financial resources, and the jobless population.
• Youth Unemployment in the United Kingdom Over the years, there have been remarkable unemployment rates among the youths all across the globe as compared to the age brackets that are regarded as adults.
• Economics for Management. Unemployment in Spain Spain has the potential to reduce the unemployment rate, especially since it has already decreased significantly from 2016.
• The Relationship Between Unemployment and Economic Growth Among the factors that define economic growth and development, human resources and unemployment are considered to be the most vital.
• Unemployment Rates in the US The state of the American economy is getting closer to full employment, whereas the unemployment rates (as of 2017) remain to be approximately 4.4%.
• Frictional Unemployment and Hyperinflation Frictional unemployment is also known as voluntary unemployment. It cannot be eliminated from the economy. There are some economic benefits associated with it.
• Offshoring, Risks, and Unemployment The offshoring is fairly simple, yet this phenomenon has affected a range of companies across the globe, making it possible to enhance the quality of end products and services.
• Youth Unemployment Rates in Canadian Society The problem under investigation is the fact that the unemployment rate among people in the 18-25 age group is higher than any other age group in Canadian society.
• 2008 Great Recession, Unemployment and Stagnation This paper is looking into the case of the financial crisis, which results in an economic recession and the further sustained effects.
• Unemployment and the Labour Market in Australia The paper studies forces of supply and demand in the Australian labor market, the labor force participation rate and the trends in labour force participation of older workers.
• Reduced Unemployment in the UK In order to understand why there has been a decline in unemployment rate in the UK, it is essential to understand the reasons affecting UK unemployment.
• Earnings-Related Unemployment Security, Employment and Lifetime Income
• Employment, Unemployment and Real Economic Growth
• Business Cycles and Compositional Variation in US Unemployment
• Crime, Earnings Inequality, and Unemployment in England and Wales
• European Unemployment: Cause and Cure
• Demographic and Education Effects on Unemployment in Europe: Economic Factors and Labour Market Institutions
• Centralized Wage Bargaining and Regional Unemployment
• Capital Shortages and Asymmetries in UK Unemployment
• Disarmament, Unemployment, Budgets, and Inflation
• Demography, Capital Flows, and Unemployment
• Duty-Free Zone, Unemployment, and Welfare a Note
• Factors Affecting the Adjustments to Unemployment
• Capital, Wages, and Structural Unemployment
• Earnings, Unemployment, and Housing in Britain
• Canada’s Interwar Unemployment From 1919 Until 1939
• Aging and the Labor Market: Age Structure, Cohort Size, and Unemployment
• Community Unemployment and Immigrants’ Health in Montreal
• Employment, Unemployment, and Underemployment in Africa
• Correlation Between Crime and Unemployment
• Equilibrium Labor Turnover, Firm Growth and Unemployment
• Changing Identity: Retiring From Unemployment
• Equilibrium Unemployment and Retirement
• Employment Turnover and Unemployment Insurance
• Embodied Technical Change and the Fluctuations of Wages and Unemployment
• Eligibility for Unemployment Benefits in Great Britain
• Capital Immobility, Informal Sector, and Urban Unemployment
• Age Structure and the UK Unemployment Rate
• Economics Instability Increases the Unemployment Rate in Malaysia
• Australian Unemployment, Inflation, and Economic Growth
• Broadband Infrastructure and Unemployment – Evidence for Germany
• Economic Recession, Skilled Unemployment, and Welfare
• Construction Industry Growth Economic Unemployment
• Agglomeration, Job Flows, and Unemployment
• Entrepreneurship, Asymmetric Information, and Unemployment
• Economic Freedom and Unemployment in Emerging Market Economies
• Absenteeism, Unemployment and Employment Protection Legislation: Evidence From Italy
• Environmental Policy, Efficient Taxation, and Unemployment
• Dynamic Contracts and Equilibrium Unemployment
• Agro-Manufactured Export Prices, Wages and Unemployment
• Banking Crises, Labor Reforms, and Unemployment
• Environmental Policy, Pollution, Unemployment, and Endogenous Growth
• Demographic Evolutions and Unemployment: An Analysis of French Labour Market With Workers Generations
• Employment and Unemployment Insurance Schemes
• Disability, Unemployment, and Poverty
• Business Volatility, Job Destruction, and Unemployment
• Aggregate Demand, Productivity, and Disguised Unemployment in the Chinese Industrial Sector
• Child Support and Involuntary Unemployment
• Efficiency-Wage Unemployment and Endogenous Growth
• Addressing Education, Inequality, and Unemployment in Uganda
• Economic Freedom and Unemployment Around the World
• Dual Labor Markets, Urban Unemployment, and Multicentric Cities
• Employment, Unemployment, and Problem Drinking
• Correlations Between Recessions and Unemployment
• Employment and Unemployment Effects of Unions
• Collective Bargaining, Firm Heterogeneity and Unemployment
• Equilibrium Unemployment During Financial Crises
• Capital, Heterogeneous Labour, Global Goods Markets and Unemployment
• Economic Policy, Industrial Structure, and Unemployment in Russia’s Regions
• Capital Stock, Unemployment and Wages in the UK and Germany
• Environmental Fiscal Reform and Unemployment in Spain
• Why Did Unemployment Persist Despite the New Deal?
• Can More FDI Solve the Problem of Unemployment in the EU?
• What Is the Current Rate of Unemployment in the UK 2022?
• Who Can Get Unemployment Benefits in Germany?
• What Are Relationships Between Short-Term Unemployment and Inflation?
• Does Broadband Internet Reduce the Unemployment Rate?
• Are Education Systems Modern as Well as Practical Enough to Eliminate Unemployment, and Thus Poverty?
• What Us State Has the Lowest Unemployment Rate?
• Does High Unemployment Rate Result in a High Divorce Rate?
• Does Culture Affect Unemployment?
• Why Unemployment Is a Problem?
• What Is the Unemployment Rate in Canada?
• Are Early Educational Choices Affected by Unemployment Benefits?
• How Long Does Unemployment Take To Get Approved?
• Which Country Has the Lowest Unemployment Rate?
• What’s the Lowest You Can Get From Unemployment?
• Why Is the Us Unemployment Rate So Low?
• How Does Unemployment Rate Affect Everyone?
• Are Interest Rates Responsible for Unemployment in the Eighties?
• Does Employment Protection Lead To Unemployment?
• Are Searching and Non-searching Unemployment Distinct States When Unemployment Is High?
• What Are the Solutions to Unemployment?
• Can Google Econometrics Predict Unemployment?
• How Far Was Unemployment the Most Important Reason for the Rise of the Nazis in Germany Between 1918 and 1933?
• Are Protective Labor Market Institutions at the Root of Unemployment?
• What Is China’s Unemployment Rate?
• What Are the Five Causes of Unemployment?
• What Are the Main Causes of Unemployment in an Economy?
• What City Has the Lowest Unemployment Rate?
• Can Insider-Outsider Theories Explain the Persistence of Unemployment?

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Unemployment in the time of COVID-19: A research agenda ☆

David l. blustein.

a Boston College, United States of America

b University of Florida, United States of America

Joaquim A. Ferreira

c University of Coimbra, Portugal

Valerie Cohen-Scali

d Conservatoire National des Arts et Métiers, France

Rachel Gali Cinamon

e University of Tel Aviv, Israel

Blake A. Allan

f Purdue University, United States of America

This essay represents the collective vision of a group of scholars in vocational psychology who have sought to develop a research agenda in response to the massive global unemployment crisis that has been evoked by the COVID-19 pandemic. The research agenda includes exploring how this unemployment crisis may differ from previous unemployment periods; examining the nature of the grief evoked by the parallel loss of work and loss of life; recognizing and addressing the privilege of scholars; examining the inequality that underlies the disproportionate impact of the crisis on poor and working class communities; developing a framework for evidence-based interventions for unemployed individuals; and examining the work-family interface and unemployment among youth.

This essay reflects the collective input from members of a community of vocational psychologists who share an interest in psychology of working theory and related social-justice oriented perspectives ( Blustein, 2019 ; Duffy, Blustein, Diemer, & Autin, 2016 ). Each author of this article has contributed a specific set of ideas, which individually and collectively reflect some promising directions for research about the rampant unemployment that sadly defines this COVID-19 crisis.

Our efforts cohere along several assumptions and values. First, we share a view that unemployment has devastating effects on the psychological, economic, and social well-being of individuals and communities ( Blustein, 2019 ). Second, we seek to build on the exemplary research on unemployment that has documented its impact on mental health ( Paul & Moser, 2009 ; Wanberg, 2012 ) and its equally pernicious impact on communities ( International Labor Organization, 2020b ). Third, we hope that this contribution charts a research agenda that will inform practice at individual and systemic levels to support and sustain people as they grapple with the daunting challenge of seeking work and recovering from the psychological and vocational fallout of this pandemic.

The advent of this period of global unemployment is connected causally and temporally to considerable loss of life and illness, which is creating an intense level of grief and trauma for many people. The first step in developing a research agenda for unemployment during the COVID-19 era is to describe the nature of this process of loss in so many critical sectors of life. A major research question, therefore, is to what extent does this unemployment crisis vary from previous bouts of unemployment which were linked to economic fluctuations? In addition, exploring the role of loss and trauma during this crisis should yield research findings that can inform psychological and vocational interventions as well as policy guidance to support people via civic institutions and communities.

1. Recognizing and channeling our own privilege

In Joe Pinker's (2020) Atlantic essay entitled, “ The Pandemic Will Cleave America in Two”, he highlights two distinct experiences of the pandemic. One is an experience felt by those with high levels of education in stable jobs where telework is possible. Lives are now more stressful, work has been turned upside down, childcare is challenging, and leaving the house feels ominous. The other is an experience felt by the rest of the working public – those who cannot work from home and thus are putting themselves at risk every day, whose jobs have been either lost or downsized, and who are wondering not only if they will catch the virus but whether they have the means and resources to survive. As psychologists and professors, the vast majority of “us” (those writing this essay and those reading it) are extremely fortunate to be in the first group. The pandemic has only served to exacerbate the extent of this privilege.

Given our relative position of power, what are ways we can change our research to be more meaningful and impactful to those outside of our bubble? We propose that the recent work on radical healing in communities of color – where the research is often done in collaboration with the participants and building participant agency is an explicit goal - can inform our path forward ( French et al., 2020 ; Mosley et al., 2020 ). Work has always been a domain where individuals experience distress and marginalization. However, in the current pandemic and into the unforeseeable future, this will only exponentially increase. Sure, we can do surveys about people's experiences and provide incentives for their time. And of course qualitative work will allow us to more directly connect with participants and hear their voices. But what is most needed is research where participants receive tangible benefits to improve their work lives. We, as privileged scholars, need to think about how we can use our expertise in studying work to infuse our studies with real world benefits. We see this as occurring on a spectrum in terms of scholars' time and resources available – from information sharing about resources to providing job-seeking or work-related interventions. In our view, now is the time to truly commit to using work-related research not just as a way to build scholarly knowledge, but as a way to improve lives.

2. Inequality and unemployment

Focusing research efforts on real-world benefits means acknowledging how the COVID-19 pandemic has exposed and exacerbated existing inequities in the labor market. Millions of workers in the U.S. have precarious jobs that are uncertain in the continuity and amount of work, do not pay a living wage, do not give workers power to advocate for their needs, or do not provide access to basic benefits ( Kalleberg, 2009 ). Power and privilege are major determinants of who is at risk for precarious work, with historically marginalized communities being disproportionately vulnerable to these job conditions ( International Labor Organization, 2020a ). In turn, people with precarious work experience chronic stress and uncertainty, putting them at risk for mental health, physical, and relational problems ( Blustein, 2019 ). These risk factors may further worsen the effects of the COVID-19 crisis while simultaneously exposing inequities that existed before the crises.

The COVID-19 pandemic is an opportunity for researchers to define and describe how precarious work creates physical, relational, behavioral, psychological, economic, and emotional vulnerabilities that worsen outcomes from crises like the COVID-19 pandemic (e.g., unemployment, psychological distress). For example, longitudinal studies can examine how precarious work creates vulnerabilities in different domains, which in turn predict outcomes of the COVID-19 pandemic, including unemployment and mental health. This may include larger scale cohort studies that examine how the COVID-19 crisis has created a generation of precarity among people undergoing the school-to-work transition. Researchers can also study how governmental and nonprofit interventions reduce vulnerability and buffer the relations between precarious work and various outcomes. For example, direct cash assistance is becoming increasingly popular as an efficient way to help people in poverty ( Evans & Popova, 2014 ). However, dominant social narratives (e.g., the myth of meritocracy, the American dream) blame people with poor quality work for their situations. Psychologists have a critical role in (a) documenting false social narratives, (b) studying interventions to provide accurate counter narratives (e.g., people who receive direct cash assistance do not spend money on alcohol or drugs; most people who need assistance are working; Evans & Popova, 2014 ), and (c) studying how to effectively change attitudes among the public to create support for effective interventions.

3. Work-family interface

Investigating the work-family interface during unemployment may appear contradictory. It can be argued that because there is no paid work, the work-family interface does not exist. But ‘work’ is an integral part of people's lives, even during unemployment; for example, working to find a job is a daunting task that is usually done from home. Thus, the work-family interface also exists during unemployment, but our knowledge about this is limited. Our current knowledge on the work-family interface primarily focuses on people who work full-time and usually among working parents with young children ( Cinamon, 2018 ). As such, focusing on the work-family interface during periods of unemployment represents a needed research agenda that can inform public policy and scholarship in work-family relationships.

The rise in unemployment due to COVID-19 relates not only to the unemployed, but also to other family members. Important research questions to consider are how are positive and negative feelings and thoughts about the absence of work conveyed and co-constructed by family members? What family behaviors and dynamics promote and serve as social capital for the unemployed and for the other members of the family? Do job search behaviors serve as a form of modeling for other family members? What are the experiences of unemployed spouses and children, and how do these experiences shape their own career development? These issues can be discerned among unemployed people of different ages, communities, and cultures.

Several research methods can promote this agenda. Participatory action research can enable vocational researchers to be proactive and involved in increasing social solidarity. This approach requires mutual collaboration between the researcher and families wherein one of the parents is unemployed. By giving them voice to describe their experiences, thoughts, ideas, and suggested solutions, we affirm inclusion of the individuals living through the new reality, thereby conveying respect and acknowledgment. At the same time, we can bring ideas, knowledge, and social connections to the families that can serve as social capital. In addition, longitudinal quantitative studies among unemployed families that explore some of the issues noted above would be important as a means of exploring how the new unemployment experience is shaping both work and relationships. We also advocate that meaningful incentives be offered to participants in all of these studies, such as online job search workshops and career education interventions for adolescents.

4. Strategies for dealing with unemployment in the pandemic of 2020

Forward-looking governments and organizations (such as universities) should begin thinking about how to deal with the immediate and long-term consequences of the economic crisis created by COVID-19, especially in the area of unemployment. Creating meaningful interventions to assist the newly unemployed will be difficult because of the unprecedented number of individuals and families that are affected and because of the diverse contextual and personal factors that characterize this new population. Because of this diversity of contextual and personal factors, different interventions will be required for different patterns of individual/contextual characteristics ( Ferreira et al., 2015 ).

In broad outline, a research program to address the diversity of issues identified above could be envisioned to consist of several distinct phases: First, it would be necessary to carefully assess the external circumstances of the unemployed individual's job loss, including the probability of re-employment, financial condition, family composition, and living conditions, among others. Second, an assessment should be made of the individual's strengths and growth edges, particularly as they impact the current situation. These assessments could be performed via paper or online questionnaire. Based on these initial assessments, the third phase would involve using statistical analyses such as cluster analysis to form distinct groups of unemployed individuals, perhaps based in part on the probability of re-employment following the pandemic. The fourth phase would focus on determining the types (and/or combinations) of intervention most appropriate for each group (e.g., temporary government assistance; emotional support counseling; retraining for better future job prospects; relocation, etc.). Because access to specific types of assistance is frequently a serious challenge, especially for underprivileged individuals, the fifth phase should emphasize facilitating individuals' access to the specific assistance they need. Finally, the sixth phase of research should evaluate the efficacy of this approach, although designing such a large research program in a crisis situation requires ongoing process evaluation throughout the design and implementation stages of the research program.

5. Unemployment among youth

As reflected in a recent International Labor Organization (2020a) report on the impact of the COVID-19 crisis, youth were already vulnerable within the workforce prior to the crisis; the recent advent of massive job losses and growing precarity of work is having particularly painful impacts on young people across the globe. The COVID-19 economic crisis with vast increases in unemployment (and competition between workers) and the probable growth of digitalization may result in a major dislocation of young workers from the labor market for some time ( International Labor Organization, 2020b ). To provide knowledge to meet this daunting challenge, researchers should develop an agenda focusing on two major components—the first is a participatory mode of understanding the experience of youth and the second is the development of evidence-based interventions that are derived from this research process.

The data gathering aspect of this research agenda optimally should focus on understanding unemployed youths' perception of their situation (opportunities, barriers, fears, and intentions) and of the new labor market. We propose that research is needed to unpack how youth are constructing this new reality, their relationship to society, to others, and to the world. This crisis may have changed their priorities, the meaning of work, and their lifestyle. For example, this crisis may have led to an awareness of the necessity of developing more environmentally responsible behaviors ( Cohen-Scali et al., 2018 ). These new life styles could result in skills development and increased autonomy and adaptability among young people. In addition, the focus on understanding youths' experience, which can encompass qualitative and quantitative methods, should also include explorations of shifts in youths' sense of identity and purpose, which may be dramatically affected by the crisis. The young people who are without work should be involved at each step of the research process in order to improve their capacities, knowledge, and agency and to ensure that the research is designed from their lived experiences.

Building on these research efforts, interventions may be designed that include individual counseling strategies as well as systemic interventions based on analyses of the communities in which young people are involved (for example, families and couples and not only individuals). In addition, we need more research to learn about the process of collective empowerment and critical consciousness development, which can inform youths' advocacy efforts and serve as a buffer in their career development ( Blustein, 2019 ).

6. Conclusion

The research ideas presented in this contribution have been offered as a means of stimulating needed scholarship, program development, and advocacy efforts. Naturally, these ideas are not intended to be exhaustive. We hope that readers will find ideas and perspectives in our essay that may stimulate a broad-based research agenda for our field, optimally informing transformative interventions and needed policy interventions for individuals and communities suffering from the loss of work (and loss of loved ones in this pandemic). A common thread in our essay is the recommendation that research efforts be constructed from the lived experiences of the individuals who are now out of work. As we have noted here, their experiences may not be similar to other periods of extensive unemployment, which argues strongly for experience-near, participatory research. We are also advocating for the use of rigorous quantitative methods to develop new understanding of the nature of unemployment during this period and to develop and assess interventions. In addition, we would like to advocate that the collective scholarly efforts of our community include incentives and outcomes that support unemployed individuals. For example, online workshops and resources can be shared with participants and other communities as a way of not just dignifying their participation, but of also providing tangible support during a crisis.

In closing, we are humbled by the stories that we hear from our communities about the job loss of this pandemic period. Our authorship team shares a deep commitment to research that matters; in this context, we believe that our work now matters more than we can imagine.

☆ The order of authorship for authors two through six was determined randomly; each of these authors contributed equally to this paper.

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Unemployment, employability and covid19: how the global socioeconomic shock challenged negative perceptions toward the less fortunate in the australian context.

• 1 Research School of Population Health, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia
• 2 Institute of Child Protection Studies, The Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
• 3 Melbourne Institute of Applied Economic and Social Research, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

Unemployed benefit recipients are stigmatized and generally perceived negatively in terms of their personality characteristics and employability. The COVID19 economic shock led to rapid public policy responses across the globe to lessen the impact of mass unemployment, potentially shifting community perceptions of individuals who are out of work and rely on government income support. We used a repeated cross-sections design to study change in stigma tied to unemployment and benefit receipt in a pre-existing pre-COVID19 sample ( n = 260) and a sample collected during COVID19 pandemic ( n = 670) by using a vignette-based experiment. Participants rated attributes of characters who were described as being employed, working poor, unemployed or receiving unemployment benefits. The results show that compared to employed characters, unemployed characters were rated substantially less favorably at both time points on their employability and personality traits. The difference in perceptions of the employed and unemployed was, however, attenuated during COVID19 with benefit recipients perceived as more employable and more Conscientious than pre-pandemic. These results add to knowledge about the determinants of welfare stigma highlighting the impact of the global economic and health crisis on perception of others.

Introduction

The onset of COVID19 pandemic saw unemployment climb to the highest rate since the Great Depression in many regions globally 1 . Over just one month, from March to April 2020 unemployment rate in the United States increased from 4.4% to over 14.7% and in Australia the effective rate of unemployment increased from 5.4 to 11.7% ( Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2020 ) 2 . In Australia, a number of economic responses were rapidly introduced including a wage subsidy scheme (Jobkeeper) to enable employees to keep their employees connected to the workforce, one-off payments to many welfare recipients, and a doubling of the usual rate of the unemployment benefits (Jobseeker payment) through a new Coronavirus supplement payment. At the time of writing in July 2020, many countries, including Australia remain in the depths of a health and economic crisis.

A rich research literature from a range of disciplines has documented the pervasive negative community views toward those who are unemployed and receiving unemployment benefits, with the extent of this “welfare stigma” being particularly pronounced in countries with highly targeted benefit systems such as the United States and Australia ( Fiske et al., 2002 ; Baumberg, 2012 ; Contini and Richiardi, 2012 ; Schofield and Butterworth, 2015 ). The stigma and potential discrimination associated with unemployment and benefit receipt are known to have negative impacts on health, employability and equality (for meta-analyses, see Shahidi et al., 2016 ). In addition, the receipt of unemployment benefits co-occurs with other stigmatized characteristics such as poverty and unemployment ( Schofield and Butterworth, 2018a ). The changing context related to the COVID19 crisis provides a novel opportunity to better understand the determinants of stigmatizing perceptions of unemployment and benefit receipt.

Negative community attitudes and perceptions of benefit recipients are commonly explained by the concept of “deservingness” ( van Oorschot and Roosma, 2017 ). The unemployed are typically seen as less deserving of government support than other groups because they are more likely to be seen as responsible for their own plight, ungrateful for support, not in genuine need ( Petersen et al., 2011 ; van Oorschot and Roosma, 2017 ), and lacking reciprocity (i.e., seen as taking more than they have given – or will give – back to society; van Oorschot, 2000 ; Larsen, 2008 ; Petersen et al., 2011 ; Aarøe and Petersen, 2014 ). Given the economic shock associated with COVID19, unemployment and reliance on income support are less likely to seen as an outcome within the individuals control and may therefore amplify perceptions of deservingness. Prior work has shown that experimentally manipulating perceived control over circumstances does indeed change negative stereotypes ( Aarøe and Petersen, 2014 ).

A number of experimental paradigms have been used to investigate perceptions of “welfare recipients” and the “unemployed.” The stereotype content model (SCM; Fiske et al., 2002 ), for example, represents the stereotypes of social groups on two dimensions: warmth, relating to being friendly and well–intentioned (rather than ill–intentioned); and competence, relating to one’s capacity to pursue intentions ( Fiske et al., 2002 ). Using this model, the “unemployed” have been evaluated as low in warmth and competence across a variety of welfare regime types ( Fiske et al., 2002 ; Bye et al., 2014 ). The structure of stereotypes has also been studied using the Big Five personality dimensions ( Schofield and Butterworth, 2018b ; Schofield et al., 2019 ): Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Emotional Stability (for background on the Big Five see: Goldberg, 1993 ; Hogan et al., 1996 ; Saucier and Goldberg, 1996 ; McCrae and Terracciano, 2005 ; Srivastava, 2010 ; Chan et al., 2012 ; Löckenhoff et al., 2014 ). There are parallels between the Big Five and the SCM: warmth relating to the dimension of Agreeableness, and competence relating to Conscientiousness ( Digman, 1997 ; Ward et al., 2006 ; Cuddy et al., 2008 ; Abele et al., 2016 ) and these constructs have been found to predict employability and career success ( Barrick et al., 2001 ; Cuesta and Budría, 2017 ). Warmth and agreeableness have also been linked to the welfare-specific characteristics of deservingness ( Aarøe and Petersen, 2014 ).

The term “employability” has been previously defined as a set of achievements, skills and personal attributes that make a person more likely to gain employment and leading to success in their chosen career pathway ( Pegg et al., 2012 ; O’Leary, 2017 , 2019 ). While there are few studies examining perceptions of others, perceptions of one’s own employability have been recently studied in university students, jobseekers ( Atitsogbe et al., 2019 ) and currently employed workers ( Plomp et al., 2019 ; Yeves et al., 2019 ), consistently showing higher levels of perceived employability being linked to personal and job-related wellbeing as well as career success. Examining other’s perceptions of employability may be more relevant to understand factors impacting on actual employment outcomes. A majority of studies examining other’s perceptions of employability have focused on job specific skills study ( Lowden et al., 2011 ; Dhiman, 2012 ; Saad and Majid, 2014 ).

Building on this previous work, our own research has focused on the effects of unemployment by drawing on frameworks of Big Five, SCM and employability in pre-COVID19 samples ( Schofield and Butterworth, 2018b ; Schofield et al., 2019 ). Our studies consistently show that unemployed individuals receiving government payments are perceived as less employable (poorer “quality” workers and less desirable for employment) and less Conscientious. We found similar but weaker pattern related to Agreeableness, Emotional Stability, and the extent that a person is perceived as “uniquely human” ( Schofield et al., 2019 ). Further, we found that vignette characters described as currently employed but with a history of welfare receipt were indistinguishable from those described as employed and with no reference to benefit receipt ( Schofield et al., 2019 ). Findings such as this provide experimental evidence that welfare stigma is malleable and can be challenged by information inconsistent with negative stereotype ( Schofield and Butterworth, 2018b ; Schofield et al., 2019 ; see also Petersen et al., 2011 ).

The broad aim of the current study was to extend this previous work by examining the impact of COVID19 on person perceptions tied to employment and benefit recipient status. It repeats a pre-COVID19 study of an Australian general population sample in the COVID19 context, drawing on the same sampling frame, materials and study design to maximize comparability. The study design recognizes that the negative perceptions of benefit recipients may reflect a combination of difference sources of stigma: poverty, lack of work, and benefit receipt. Therefore, the original study used four different conditions to seek to differentiate these different sources: (1) Employed ; (2) Working poor ; (3) Unemployed ; and (4) Unemployed benefit recipient . Finally, for the COVID19 sample we added a novel fifth condition: (5) Unemployment benefit recipient also receiving the “Coronavirus” supplement . We except that the reference to a payment specifically applicable to the COVID19 context may lead to more favorable perceptions (more deserving) than the other unemployed and benefit receipt characters.

The study capitalizes on a major exogenous event, the COVID19 crisis, which we hypothesize will alter perceptions of deservingness by fundamentally challenging social identities and perceptions of one’s own vulnerability to unemployment. The study tests three hypotheses, and in doing so makes an important empirical and theoretical contribution to understanding how deservingness influences person perception, and understanding of the potential “real world” barriers experienced by people seeking employment in the COVID19 context.

Hypothesis 1

The pre-COVID19 assessment uses a subset of data from a pre-registered study, but this reuse of the data was not preregistered 3 . We hypothesize that, at Time 1 (pre-COVID19 assessment) we will find that employed characters will be rated more favorably than characters described as unemployed and receiving unemployment benefits, particularly on dimensions of Conscientiousness, Worker and Boss suitability. Moreover, we expect a gradient in perceptions across the four experimental conditions, from employed to working poor, to unemployed to unemployed receiving benefits and to show a similar trend for the other outcome measures included in the study.

Hypothesis 2

We hypothesize that the character in the unemployed condition(s) would be rated less negatively relative to the employed condition(s) at Time 2, compared to Time 1. We predict a two-way interaction between time and condition for the key measures (Conscientiousness, Worker and Boss suitability) and a similar trend on other outcomes.

Hypothesis 3

We expect that explicit reference to the unemployed benefit character receiving the “Coronavirus supplement” payment will increase the salience of the COVID19 context and lead to more positive ratings of this character relative to the standard unemployed benefit condition in the pre-COVID19 and COVID19 occasions.

Materials and Methods

Participants.

Two general population samples (pre-COVID19 and COVID19) were recruited from the same source: The Australian Online Research Unit (ORU) panel. The ORU is an online survey platform that provides access to a cohort of members of the general public who are interested in contributing to research. The ORU randomly selects potential participants who meet study eligibility criteria, and provides the participant with an incentive for their participation. The sample for the Time 1 (pre-COVID19) occasion was part of a larger study (768 participants) collected in November 2018. From this initial dataset, we were able to use data from 260 (50.1% female, M Age = 42.1 [16.7] years, range: 18–82) participants who were presented with the one vignette scenario that we could replicate at the time of the social restrictions applicable in the COVID19 context (i.e., the vignette character was not described as going out and visiting friends, as these behaviors were illegal at Time 2). The sample for Time 2 (COVID19) was collected in May–June 2020, at the height of the lock down measures in Australia and included 670 participants (40.5% female, M Age = 51.0 [15.8] years, range: 18–85). The two samples were broadly similar (see below), though the proportion of male participants at Time 2 was greater than at Time 1.

The pre-COVID assessment at Time 1 was restricted to those participants who completed the social-distancing consistent vignette in the first place to avoid potential order/context effects. This provided, on average, 65 respondents in each of the four experimental conditions. Using the results from our previous published studies as indicators of effect size ( Schofield and Butterworth, 2018b ; Schofield et al., 2019 ). Monte Carlo simulation was used to identify the Time 2 sample size that would provide 90% power to detect an interaction effect that represented a 50% decline in the difference between the two employment and two unemployment conditions on the three-key measures at the COVID occasion relative to the pre-COVID difference. This sample size of 135 per condition also provided between 60 and 90% power to detect a difference of a similar magnitude between the employed and unemployment benefit conditions across the two measurement occasions. Given previous evidence that the differences between employed and unemployed/welfare conditions is robust and large for Conscientiousness and Worker suitability ( Schofield and Butterworth, 2018b ), the current study is also adequately powered to detect the most replicable effects of unemployment and welfare on perceptions of a person’s character (even in the absence of the hypothesized interaction effect).

Materials and Procedure

The procedures were identical on both study occasions. Participants read a brief vignette that described a fictional character, and then rated the character on measures reflecting personality dimensions, their suitability as a worker or boss, morality, warmth, and competence, and the participant’s beliefs the character should feel guilt and shame, or feel angry and disgusted. At Time 1 (pre-COVID19 context) participants then repeated this process with a second vignette, but we do not consider data from the second vignette.

Manipulation

The key experimental conditions were operationalized by a single sentence embedded within the vignette that was randomly allocated to different participants (employed: “S/he is currently working as a sales assistant in a large department store”; working poor: “S/he is currently working as a sales assistant, on a minimum-wage, in a large department store”; unemployed: “S/he is currently unemployed”; and receipt of unemployment benefits: “S/he is currently unemployed, and is receiving government benefits due to his/her unemployment”). The four experimental conditions were identical at both time points. At Time 2, an additional COVID19-specific condition was included (to maximize the salience of the COVID19 context): “S/he is currently unemployed and is receiving government benefits, including the Coronavirus supplement, due to his/her unemployment.”

All three study conditions will imply poverty/low income. In Australia, few minimum-wage jobs are supplemented by tips, and so a minimum-wage job indicates a level of relative poverty. A full-time worker in a minimum wage job is in the bottom quartile of income earners ( Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2017 ). Prior to the COVID19 crisis and the increase in payment level, a single person with no dependents receiving unemployment benefits received approximately 75% of the minimum-wage in cash assistance. During COVID19 and at the time of the data collection, the rate of pay exceeds the minimum-wage.

Several characteristics of the vignette character, including age and relationship status, were balanced across study participants. Age was specified as either 27 or 35 years, relationship status was either “single” or “lives with his/her partner.” The character’s gender was also varied and names were stereotypically White.

For Time 1, manipulated characteristics yielded 32 unique vignettes, comprised of four key experimental conditions (employed, working poor, unemployed, and unemployment benefits) × 2 ages × 2 genders × 2 relationship statuses. For Time 2, manipulated characteristics yielded 40 unique vignettes, comprised of five key experimental conditions (employed, working poor, unemployed, unemployment benefits, and unemployed + coronavirus supplement) × 2 ages × 2 genders × 2 relationship statuses. The vignette template construction is presented in Figure 1 including each component of the vignette that was randomly varied.

Figure 1. Outline of vignette construction in 4 parts. Bullet pointed options replace the underlined text, with gendered pronouns in each option selected to match character name.

Comprehension Checks

In both studies, participants were required to affirm consent after debriefing or had their data deleted. Participant comprehension of the vignettes was checked via three free-response comprehension questions about the character’s age and weekend activities. Participants who did not answer any questions correctly were not able to continue the study.

Outcome Measures

Personality, employability (suitability as a worker or boss), communion and agency, cognitive and emotional moral judgments, and dehumanization were included as the study outcomes. While not all personality or character dimension measures can be considered as negative or positive, higher scores were used in the study to indicate more “favorable” perceptions by the participants of the characters.

Personality

The Ten Item Personality Inventory was used to measure the Big Five ( Gosling et al., 2003 ) and adapted to other–oriented wording (i.e., “I felt like the person in the story was…”) ( Schofield et al., 2019 ). Two items measured each trait via two paired attributes. One item contained positive attributes and one contained negative attributes. Participants indicated the extent to which “I think [Name] is [attributes]” from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). The order of these 10 items was randomized. Agreeableness (α = 0.54) was assessed from “sympathetic, warm” and “critical, quarrelsome” (reversed); Extraversion (α = 0.50) was assessed from “extraverted, enthusiastic” and “reserved, quiet” (reversed); Conscientiousness (α = 0.76) was assessed from “dependable, self-disciplined” and “disorganized, careless” (reversed); Openness to experience (α = 0.36) was assessed from “open to new experiences, complex” and “conventional, uncreative” (reversed); Emotional stability (α = 0.65) was assessed from “calm, emotionally stable.” and “anxious, easily upset” (reversed). The order of these 10 items was randomized.

Employability

Single item measures: “I think [Name] would be a good worker” ( Worker suitability ) and “I think [Name] would be a good boss” ( Boss suitability ) were rated on the same scale as the personality measure. The order of these two items was randomized. Higher scores indicated better employability.

Communion and Agency

Communion and agency was assessed using Bocian et al. (2018) adaptation of Abele et al. (2016) scale that measures the fundamental dimensions of communion and agency using two-subscales for each dimension. The morality and warmth subscales are seen as measures of communion (referred to as warmth in SCM; Fiske, 2018 ); while the competence and assertiveness subscales measure agency (what Fiske refers to as competence in SCM; Fiske, 2018 ). This subscale structure has been identified in multiple samples. Participants indicated the extent to which “I think [Name] [attributes]” from 1 (not at all) to 5 (very much so). Morality (α = 0.92) was measured with six items, e.g., “is just,” “is fair”; Warmth (α = 0.96) with six items, e.g., “is caring,” “is empathetic”; Competence (α = 0.90) with five items, e.g., “is efficient,” “is capable”; and Assertiveness (α = 0.83) with six items, e.g., “is self-confident,” “stands up well under pressure.” These items were presented in a random order.

Dehumanization

Dehumanization was measured with a composite scale of two-items drawn from Bastian et al. (2013) . Based on prior research, we measured dehumanization with two items: “I think [Name] is mechanical and cold, like a robot” and “I think [Name] lacked self-restraint, like an animal” order of these two items was randomized. We reverse coded the two items for the analyses for consistency for the other variables, so that higher scores were indicative of more favorable perceptions.

Moral Emotions

Moral emotions were measured by four items that asked about emotional responses to the character that were framed as self-condemning or other-condemning ( Haidt, 2003 ; Giner-Sorolla and Espinosa, 2011 ). Two other-condemning items asked the participant about their own emotional response to the character in the vignette (Anger: “[Name]’s behavior makes me angry”; Disgust: “I think [Name] is someone who makes me feel disgusted,” α = 0.92). The two self-condemning items asked about the character’s emotional response (Guilt: “[Name] should feel guilty about [his/her] behavior”; Shame: “I think [Name] should feel ashamed of [him/her]self”; α = 0.95). We reverse coded the two scales to ensure consistency with other variables, with higher scores indicative of more favorable perceptions.

Analytical Strategy

With the exception of the Moral emotion (and Communion and Agency) scales that are new to this study and the previously tested Openness to Experience, our previous research has demonstrated differences between the ratings of employed and unemployed characters on the included outcome measures ( Schofield and Butterworth, 2018b ; Schofield et al., 2019 ). We undertake the analysis using a four-step process. We use mixed-effects multi-level models, with the 14 outcome measures nested within participants, and predicted by fixed (between-person) terms representing the experimental “Condition,” “Time” (pre-/COVID19) and their interaction, and controlling for measure differences and allowing for random effects at the participant level: i) We initially assessed the effect of condition in the pre-COVID19 occasion to establish the baseline pattern of results; ii) we then evaluated the interaction term and, specifically, the extent to which the baseline difference observed between employment and unemployment conditions is attenuated at Time 2 (COVID19 occasion); iii) we tested the three-way interaction between condition, occasion and measure to assess whether this two-way interaction varies across the outcome measures; and if significant iv) repeated the modeling approach using separate linear regression models for each outcome measure. Our initial model contrasts the two employed (employed and working poor) and unemployed (unemployed and benefit receipt) conditions. The second model examines the four separate vignette conditions separately, differentiating between unemployed and unemployed benefit conditions. Finally, we contrast the three unemployment benefit conditions: (1) unemployment benefit recipients at Time 1; (2) unemployment benefit recipients at Time 2; and (3) unemployment benefit recipients receiving the Coronavirus payment at Time 2. For all models, we consider unadjusted and adjusted results (controlling for participant demographics). To address a potential bias from gender differences between samples, post-stratification weights were calculated for the COVID19 sample to reflecting the gender by age distribution of the pre-COVID19 sample. All models were weighted.

The two samples from Time 1 (pre-COVID19) and Time 2 (COVID19) were comparable on all demographic variables, except for gender (χ 2 [1, 923] = 7.04, p < 0.001) and employment (χ 2 [1, 910] = 27.66, p < 0.001): The gender distribution was more balanced at Time 1 with 49.8% of males, compared to 59.5% of males at Time 2. There was also a significant increase in unemployment with 20.9% of Time 1 participants out of work compared to 39.3% of the Time 2 participants. This was likely reflective of the employment rate nearly doubling in Australia during COVID19 crisis. Bivariate correlations showed significant positive correlations between all 14 outcomes ( p ’s < 0.001), except for Extraversion that was only positively correlated with Emotional Stability, boss suitability, warmth, assertiveness, and competence ( p’ s < 0.05).

Contrasting Employed and Unemployed Characters

The results, both adjusted and unadjusted, from the initial overall multilevel model using a binary indicator of whether vignette characters were employed (those in the employed or working poor conditions) or unemployed (unemployed or welfare) and testing the interaction between vignette Condition and Time (pre-COVID19 vs COVID19) are presented in the Supplementary Table S1 . The adjusted results (holding participant age, gender, employment, and education constant) indicated that the unemployed characters were rated lower than the employed characters at Time 1 ( b = −0.57). This difference in the ratings of employed and unemployed characters was reduced in the COVID19 assessment at Time 2, declining from 0.57 to 0.26, across all the outcome measures. The addition of the three-way interaction between Condition, Time and outcome measure significantly improved overall model fit, χ 2 (52) = 482.94, p < 0.001, indicating the interaction between Condition and Time varied over measures.

A series of separate regression models considering each outcome separately (see Supplementary Table S2 ) showed a significant effect of Condition (employment rated higher than unemployment) at Time 1 (pre-COVID) for all outcomes except Openness and Extraversion. The lower ratings for unemployed relative to employed characters were significantly moderated at Time 2 on the Competence, Worker and Boss suitability, and Guilt/Shame outcomes ( p’ s < 0.05).

COVID19 and Perceptions of Unemployment Benefit Recipients

The next set of analyses consider the four separate vignette conditions, differentiating between the unemployed and unemployed benefit recipient conditions. The overall mixed-effects multilevel model incorporating the four distinct vignette conditions provided evidence of significant effects for Condition and Condition by Time in both adjusted and unadjusted models. The result for the adjusted model ( Table 1 ), averaged across the various outcomes, replicated the previous finding of a difference in ratings of employed and unemployed characters at Time 1 (pre-COVID19): relative to the employed condition, there was no difference in ratings of the working poor, but the unemployed and the unemployed benefit recipient characters were rated less favorably. There was some evidence of a gradient across the unemployed characters: the average rating of the unemployed condition was higher than the unemployed benefit condition, though this difference was not statistically significant. In the presence of the interaction effect, the non-significant effect of Time shows that, averaged across all the outcome measures, there was no difference in the rating of the characters in the employed condition on the pre-COVID19 and COVID19 occasions. We tested for the effect of sociodemographic characteristics as covariates in the adjusted models (employment and benefit receipt status, education, age, and gender) but found no main effects of any of the covariates except for gender: females tended to rate characters higher ( b = 0.13, 95% CI [0.04, 0.21]) compared to males. Testing the heterogeneity of these patterns across outcomes via the inclusion of a three-way interaction between vignette condition, occasion and measure significantly improved overall model fit, χ 2 (104) = 533.40, p < 0.001, prompting analysis of each outcome separately.

Table 1. Adjusted fixed effects estimates of outcomes as a function of interactions between condition and time.

The separate linear regressions for each outcome measure ( Supplementary Table S3 ) show that ratings of unemployed benefit recipients at the Time 1 (pre-COVID19) were significantly lower than the employed characters for all outcomes except Openness and Extraversion. Statistically significant Condition by Time terms indicated that the unemployed benefit effect was moderated at Time 2 (COVID19) for the three key outcome measures identified in previous research (Conscientiousness, Worker and Boss suitability) and for the measure of Guilt and Shame. Figure 2 depicts this interaction for these four outcomes. These occurred in two profiles. For Conscientiousness, Worker and Boss suitability, COVID19 attenuated the negative perceptions of unemployed relative to employed characters, providing support for Hypothesis 2. By contrast, COVID19 has induced a new difference, such that participants thought employed characters should feel higher levels Guilt and Shame at Time 2, compared to Time 1. While the “working poor” condition was not central to the COVID19 hypotheses, we note that we found no evidence that ratings of these characters on any outcome differed from the standard employed character, or that this difference was changed in assessment at Time 2 (COVID19 occasion).

Figure 2. Interaction effect of Time (COVID19) by Condition marginal mean ratings on four outcomes: Conscientiousness, Worker suitability, Boss suitability, and Guilt and Shame (reversed).

The Impact of COVID19 on Perceptions of Unemployment Benefit-Recipients

The inclusion of the fifth COVID19-specific unemployment benefit condition did not generate more positive (or different) ratings than the standard unemployment benefit condition. Overall mixed-effects multilevel models, both adjusted and unadjusted, indicated that participants in the Coronavirus supplement condition (adjusted model: b = 0.26, 95% CI [0.06, 0.45]) and the general unemployed benefit recipient condition at Time 2 (adjusted model: b = 0.28, 95% CI [0.08, 0.48]) were both rated more favorably in comparison to unemployed benefit recipients at Time 1. There was no difference between these two Time 2 benefit recipient groups ( b = 0.03, 95% CI [−0.12, 0.19]). These results did not support hypothesis 3.

Previous research has demonstrated that people who are unemployed, and particularly those receiving unemployment benefits, are perceived more negatively and less employable than those who are employed. However, the economic shock associated with the COVID19 crisis is likely to have challenged people’s sense of their own vulnerability and risk of unemployment, and altered their perceptions of those who are unemployed and receiving government support. The broad aim of the current study was to examine the potential effect of this crisis on person perceptions tied to employment and benefit recipient status. We did this by presenting brief vignettes describing fictional characters, manipulating key experimental conditions related to employment status, and asking study participants to rate the characters’ personality and capability. We contrasted results from two cross-sectional general population samples collected before and during the COVID19 crisis.

The pre-COVID19 assessment replicated our previous findings (e.g., Schofield and Butterworth, 2018b ) showing that employed characters are perceived more favorably than those who were unemployed and receiving government benefits on measures of Conscientiousness and suitability as a worker. These findings supported Hypothesis 1. In comparison, the assessment conducted during the COVID19 crisis showed that unemployed and employed characters were viewed more similarly on these same key measures, with a significant interaction effect providing support for Hypothesis 2. Our third hypothesis, suggesting that n reference to the Coronavirus Supplement (an additional form of income support introduced during the pandemic) would enhance ratings of unemployed benefit recipients at the second assessment occasion, was not supported. We found that benefit recipients at Time 2 were rated more favorably than the benefit group at Time 1, irrespective of whether this COVID19-specific payment was referenced. This suggests the broader context in which the study was conducted was responsible for the change in perceptions.

We sampled participants from the same population, used identical experimental procedures, and found no difference over time in the ratings of employed characters on the key outcome measures of employability (Worker and Boss suitability) and Conscientiousness. The more favorable ratings of unemployed and benefit receiving characters at Time 2 is likely to reflect how the exogenous economic shock brought about by the COVID19 crisis challenged social identities and the stereotypes held of others 4 . The widespread impact and uncontrollable nature of this event are inconsistent with pre-COVID19 views that attribute ill-intent to those receiving to unemployment benefits ( Fiske et al., 2002 ; Baumberg, 2012 ; Contini and Richiardi, 2012 ; Bye et al., 2014 ). We suggest the changing context altered perceptions of the “deservingness” of people who are unemployed as unemployment in the context of COVID19 is less indicative personal failings or a result of one’s “own doing” ( Petersen et al., 2011 ; van Oorschot and Roosma, 2017 ). It is important to recognize, however, that the negative perceptions of unemployed benefit recipients were attenuated in the COVID19 assessment, but they continued to be rated less favorably than those who were employed on the key outcome measures.

In contrast to our findings on the key measures of employability and Conscientiousness, the previous and current research is less conclusive for the other outcome measures. The current study showed a broadly consistent gradient in the perception of employed and unemployed characters for all outcome measures apart from Openness and Extraversion. Findings on these other measures have been weaker and inconsistent across previous studies ( Schofield and Butterworth, 2018b ; Schofield et al., 2019 ), and the current experiment was not designed with sufficient power to demonstrate interaction effects for these measures. There was, however, one measure that showed significant divergence from the expected profile of results. A significant interaction term suggested that study participants at the Time 2 (COVID19) assessment reported that the employed characters should feel greater levels of Guilt and Shame than those who participated in the pre-COVID19 assessment. In contrast, there was consistency in the ratings of unemployed characters on this measure across the two assessment occasions. While not predicted, these results are also interpretable in the context of the pervasive job loss that accompanied the COVID19 crisis. Haller et al. (2020) , for example, argue that the highly distressing, morally difficult, and cumulative nature of COVID19 related stressors presents a perfect storm to result in a guilt and shame responses. The context of mass job losses may leave “surviving” workers feeling increasingly guilty.

The main findings of the current study are consistent with previous experimental studies that show that the stereotypes of unemployed benefit recipients are malleable ( Aarøe, 2011 ; Schofield et al., 2019 ). These previous studies, however, have demonstrated malleability by providing additional information about unemployed individuals that was inconsistent with the unemployed benefit recipient stereotype (e.g., the external causes of their unemployment). In contrast, the current study did not change how the vignette characters were presented or the experimental procedures. Rather, we assessed how the changing context in which study participants were living had altered their perceptions: suggesting the experience of COVID19 altered stereotypical views held by study participants rather than presenting information about the character that would challenge the applicability of the benefit recipient stereotype in this instance.

Perceptions and stereotypes of benefit recipients can be reinforced (and potentially generated) by government actions and policies. Structural stigma can be used as a policy tool to stigmatize benefit receipt as a strategy to reduce dependence on income support and encourage workforce participation ( Moffitt, 1983 ; Stuber and Schlesinger, 2006 ; Baumberg, 2012 ; Contini and Richiardi, 2012 ; Garthwaite, 2013 ). In the current instance, however, the Australian government acted quickly to provide greater support to Australians who lost their jobs (e.g., doubling the rate of payment, removing mandatory reporting to the welfare services) and this may have reduced the stigmatizing structural features of the income support system and contributed to the changed perceptions of benefit recipients identified in this study.

Limitations

The current study took advantage of a natural experimental design and replicated a pre-COVID19 study during the COVID19 crisis. The study is limited by the relatively small sample size at Time 1, which was not designed for current purposes but part of another study. We were not able to include most of the participants from the original Time 1 study as most of the experimental conditions described activities that were illegal/inconsistent with recommend activity at the time of the COVID19 lockdown and social restriction measures. Finally, the data collection for the current study occurred very quickly after the initial and sudden COVID19 lockdowns and economic shock, which is both a strength and a limitation for the generalizability of the results. The pattern of results using the same sampling frame offers compelling support for our hypothesis that the shared economic shock and increase in unemployment attenuates stigmatizing community attitudes toward those who need to receive benefits. Our current conclusions would be further strengthened by a subsequent replication when the public health and economic crises stabilize, to test whether pre-COVID perceptions return.

The current study provides novel information about impact of the COVID19 health and economic crisis, and the impact of the corresponding policy responses on community perceptions. This novel study shows how community perceptions of employment and benefit recipient status have been altered by the COVID19 pandemic. These results add to knowledge about the determinants of welfare stigma, particularly relating to employability, highlighting societal level contextual factors.

Data Availability Statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Ethics Statement

The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by Melbourne University Human Research Ethics Committee. The patients/participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author Contributions

AS led the review conceptualized by TS and PB. AS and PB conducted the analyses and wrote up the review. TS led the data collection, reviewed and edited the manuscript, and provided data management support. This manuscript is based on previous extensive work by TS and PB on stereotypes toward the unemployed and welfare benefit recipients. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

This study was funded by the Australian Research Council (ARC) grant # DP16014178.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Supplementary Material

The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.594837/full#supplementary-material

• ^ https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/UNRATE
• ^ The Australian figure includes individuals working zero hours who had “no work, not enough work available or were stood down.” The US Bureau of Labor Statistics noted that some people on temporary layoff were not classified as such and the unemployment rate could have been almost 5 percentage points higher.
• ^ https://osf.io/wknb6
• ^ https://pursuit.unimelb.edu.au/articles/our-changing-identities-under-covid-19

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Keywords : COVID19, employability, personality, Big Five, public policy, unemployment

Citation: Suomi A, Schofield TP and Butterworth P (2020) Unemployment, Employability and COVID19: How the Global Socioeconomic Shock Challenged Negative Perceptions Toward the Less Fortunate in the Australian Context. Front. Psychol. 11:594837. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.594837

Received: 14 August 2020; Accepted: 22 September 2020; Published: 15 October 2020.

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Copyright © 2020 Suomi, Schofield and Butterworth. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Aino Suomi, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Unemployment Scarring Effects: An Overview and Meta-analysis of Empirical Studies

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• Mattia Filomena   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4099-9168 1 , 2  

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This article reviews the empirical literature on the scarring effects of unemployment, by first presenting an overview of empirical evidence relating to the impact of unemployment spells on subsequent labor market outcomes and then exploiting meta-regression techniques. Empirical evidence is homogeneous in highlighting significant and often persistent wage losses and strong unemployment state dependence. This is confirmed by a meta-regression analysis under the assumption of a common true effect. Heterogeneous findings emerge in the literature, related to the magnitude of these detrimental effects, which are particularly penalizing in terms of labor earnings in case of unemployment periods experienced by laid-off workers. We shed light on further sources of heterogeneity and find that unemployment is particularly scarring for men and when studies’ identification strategy is based on selection on observables.

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Data availability.

The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Moreover, further outcomes discussed by the literature on scarring are family formation, crime and negative psychological implications in terms of well-being, life satisfaction and mental health (see e.g. Helbling and Sacchi 2014 ; Strandh et al. 2014 ; Mousteri et al. 2018 ; Clark and Lepinteur 2019 ).

A further strand of the recent literature focuses on the effect of adverse labor market conditions at graduation, for example focusing on the effect of local unemployment rate or graduating during a recession (see e.g. Raaum and Roed, 2006 ; Kahn 2010 ; Oreopoulos et al. 2012 ; Kawaguchi and Murao 2014 ; Altonji et al. 2016 ). The consequences of economic downturns on wages, labor supply and social outcomes for young labor market entrants have been recently surveyed by Cockx ( 2016 ), Von Wachter (2020) and Rodriguez et al. ( 2020 ).

The stigma effect means that individuals who have been unemployed face lower chances of being hired because employers may use their past history of unemployment as a negative signal.

Thus, papers using traditional multivariate descriptive analysis, duration models, or OLS regressions with a reduced number of controls which do not properly address endogeneity issues and are unlikely to have a causal interpretation (endogeneity issues are discussed in SubSect.  3.2 ).

For intergenerational scars we mean that studies focused on the effect of parents’ unemployment experiences on the children’ future employment status (see e.g. Karhula et al. 2017 ). For macroeconomic conditions at graduation we mean that we excluded that literature focused on the local unemployment rate at graduation or other local labor market conditions, rather than on individual unemployment experience and state dependence (see e.g. Oreopoulos et al. 2012 ; Raaem and Roed, 2006 ).

When we could not directly retrieve the t -statistics because not reported among the study results, we computed them as the ratio between the estimated unemployment effects ( \({\beta }_{i}\) ) and their standard errors. If studies only displayed the estimated effects and their 95% confidence intervals, the standard error can be calculated by SE  = ( ub − lb )/(2 × 1.96), where ub and lb are the upper bound and the lower bound, respectively.

We removed from the meta-regression analysis 8 articles because they did not contain sufficient information to compute the t -statistic of the estimated scarring effect. They are reported in italics in Tables 5 and 6 .

For employment outcomes we mean the likelihood of experiencing future unemployment, the probability to have a job later (employability), the fraction of days spent at work or the hours worked during the following years (labor market participation), the call-backs from employers in case of field experiment. Earning outcomes include hourly wages, labor earnings, income, etc.

Since many studies did not provide precise information on the number of covariates, we approximated \({dk}_{i}\) with the number of observations minus 2. Indeed, given that in microeconometric applications the sample sizes are very often much larger than the number of the parameters, the calculation of the partial correlation coefficient is quite robust to errors in deriving \({dk}_{i}\) (Picchio 2022 ).

The publication bias is the bias arising from the tendency of editors to publish more easily findings consistent with a conventional view or with statistically significant results, whereas studies that find small or no significant effects tend to remain unpublished (Card and Krueger 1995 ).

We employed the Precision Effect Estimate with Standard Error (PEESE) specification because its quadratic form of the standard errors has been proven to be less biased and often more efficient to check for heterogeneity than the FAT-PET specification when there is a nonzero genuine effect (Stanley and Doucouliagos 2014 ). Nevertheless, the results from the FAT-PET specification are very similar to the ones from the PEESE model.

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Acknowledgements

The author acknowledges financial support from the Cariverona Foundation Ph.D. research scholarship. He is particularly grateful to Matteo Picchio and Claudia Pigini for their comments and suggestions on a preliminary version of this paper. He also thanks the Associate Editor Massimiliano Bratti and two anonymous reviewers, whose comments were very useful for an important improvement of the paper.

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The long-lasting impact of unemployment on life satisfaction: results of a longitudinal study over 20 years in East Germany

• Ernst Peter Richter 1 ,
• Elmar Brähler 2 ,
• Yve Stöbel-Richter 3 ,
• Markus Zenger 4 &
• Hendrik Berth   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1491-9195 1  

Health and Quality of Life Outcomes volume  18 , Article number:  361 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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Economic disruption in East Germany at the time of reunification (1990) resulted in a noticeable increase in unemployment. The present study provides data from a German cohort for over 20 years. The aim was to examine how the frequency of experiencing unemployment affects life satisfaction and whether their relationship changes over time.

In the Saxon Longitudinal Study, an age-homogeneous sample was surveyed annually from 1987 to 2016. Since 1996, 355 people (54% female) have been examined for issues related to unemployment. Life satisfaction was measured with both the Global Satisfaction with Life Scale and the Questions on Life Satisfaction Modules questionnaire.

In 1996, the participants were 23 years old and 50% of the sample was affected by unemployment. At all 16 different measuring points, participants who were never unemployed indicated higher life satisfaction than those who were once unemployed. The repeatedly unemployed consistently reported the lowest values of life satisfaction. In each year, there were significant differences with small to medium effect sizes.

Our results support the notion that the adverse effects of unemployment on life satisfaction increase with the time spent unemployed. In 2016, only 2% of the cohort were currently unemployed, but differences between people with and without unemployment experience still exist. This indicates that the negative effect of the unemployment experience will last for a very long time. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study that demonstrates the effect so persistently at so many measurement points for over 20 years.

Unemployment is strongly associated with an increased risk of morbidity, mortality, mental health problems, and lower life satisfaction levels. The topic of unemployment has evoked a growing interest in 2020. The COVID-19 pandemic, which began in spring 2020, led to a collapse of the global economy and a massive increase in the unemployment rate [ 1 ]. A recent analysis of more than 1 million health insured individuals in Germany showed that the long-term unemployed had a more than 80 percent higher likelihood of hospitalization due to COVID-19 infection than the employed [ 2 ]. There is also evidence of a link between unemployment and suicides. A longitudinal analysis between 2000–2011 indicated that the relative risk of suicide associated with unemployment has increased by about 20–30% [ 3 ]. There was a massive increase in unemployment after the German reunification in 1990. The restructuring of the former East German economy led to the closure of many state-owned enterprises, resulting in massive job losses. The following unemployment rates were much higher than in West Germany. Despite considerable political efforts, these differences remain a social reality to this day. According to federal statistics, over 2 million people (5.3%) were unemployed in February 2017 in Germany. The differences between the East German states (7.0%) and the old West German states (4.9%) are significant [ 4 ].

Since 1990, almost all citizens of the East German states had experienced unemployment either themselves or within their family and acquaintances. The experience of unemployment in East Germany was a mass phenomenon with profound consequences [ 5 ]. A large number of studies have reported various links between unemployment and adverse psychological reactions, such as a higher number of mental disorders or more global aspects of daily life, such as impaired life satisfaction [ 6 , 7 ]. Earlier studies concluded that the non-monetary effect of unemployment is much higher than the impact of the associated loss of income [ 8 ]. The consequences of unemployment include loss of social contact and identity, along with reduced self-esteem.

Life satisfaction can be defined as the cognitive aspect of subjective well-being and refers to the global assessment of the quality of life [ 9 ].

Hahn et al. [ 10 ] examined 908 individuals from 3 years before until 3 years after becoming unemployed. The results showed that experiencing unemployment leads to a significant decline in life satisfaction. Even when people found employment again, life satisfaction stagnated at a low level for many years after the period of being unemployed [ 11 , 12 ].

While the effects of unemployment have been extensively investigated in cross-sectional studies, only a few longitudinal studies on the association of unemployment and life satisfaction have been conducted [ 13 ]. The present study provides data from a German cohort for over 20 years. We annually examined the link between life satisfaction and the frequency of experienced unemployment by using a large cohort from the Saxon longitudinal study. We want to investigate how the frequency of experienced unemployment affects life satisfaction and whether this relationship changes over time. Furthermore, we performed stepwise linear regression analyses in 1996 and 2016. We want to investigate whether life satisfaction is more strongly affected by current unemployment and its consequences or by the experience of past unemployment. Besides, we were interested if there were differences between the years 1996 and 2016 regarding the prediction of life satisfaction.

The Saxon Longitudinal Study (“Sächsische Längsschnittstudie”) [ 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 ] started in 1987 in the former German Democratic Republic (GDR). A sample ( N  = 1281) of 14-year-old students was selected as a representative group for the East German cohort of 1973. The sample was age-homogeneous because all the participants were in the eighth grade.

They were interviewed repeatedly until spring 1989. After the third survey in spring 1989, 587 of these participants agreed to continue participating in the study. The study continues after the German reunification until today. The Ethics Committee of the Technische Universität Dresden, Germany, approved the study protocol (No. EK8012011). The main topics of the study were political and social questions; for example, questions related to the long-term development of the GDR citizens’ socialization, their experience of the German reunification, and the changes in their living conditions. Since 1996, research into the consequences of unemployment has been a further focus of the study [ 19 , 20 ].

In 2016, the 29th survey was conducted. On average, the 270 respondents in the 29th survey were 43 years old (53% female) and 77% had children. In 2016 the response rate was 46% based on the 587 people who had agreed to continue participating in 1989. Most of the respondents completed their vocational training; only 2% had no completed vocational training. Further information on the participants in the 12th (1996) and 29th (2016) surveys is provided in Table 1 .

Questionnaires

Besides the socio-demographic parameters in the study, we have also collected a great deal of information on peoples’ experiences of the reunification and the transformation of East Germany [ 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 ]. Unemployment data were recorded by asking: “How many times have you been unemployed since 1990?”. Possible answers were “none”, “once”, and “several times”.

Furthermore, since 1996, the life satisfaction of the respondents has been measured annually with a self-developed, single-item scale—the Global Satisfaction with Life Scale (G-SLS). In the G-SLS, the respondents were asked to provide an answer to the question, “Taking all together, how do you assess your current life situation? With my life situation, I am.…” (in the original German: “Wie schätzen Sie—Alles in allem—Ihre gegenwärtige Lebenssituation ein? Mit meiner Lebenssituation bin ich…”). Participants answered on a symmetrical 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 “very satisfied” to 5 “not satisfied at all”.

The FLZ M (Questions on Life Satisfaction Modules , in the original German: Fragen zur Lebenszufriedenheit Module )) is a valid and widely used questionnaire to assess general life satisfaction. This questionnaire covers eight domains of daily life (e.g., family, work, health), and the respondents were asked to rate the subjective importance and their immediate satisfaction with each domain [ 21 ]. The Saxon longitudinal study has many different topics. For economic reasons, we therefore only used the single-item scale (G-SLS) to measure life satisfaction at all points in time. The longer, well-established questionnaire FLZ M was only used at three points in time (2003, 2005, 2016). To check the validity of the G-SLS, we calculated the Pearson correlation with the well-established FLZ M . Table 2 shows the correlations of G-SLS with the other method of measuring life satisfaction. In our sample, the G-SLS correlates strongly with the well-established questionnaire FLZ M , which indicates a high convergent validity. The correlations are negative because the single-item scale (G-SLS) is inversely coded, with higher scores indicating lower life satisfaction. Whereas in the FLZ M , higher scores indicate higher life satisfaction.

Statistical analysis

The data were analyzed using SPSS software version 25 [ 22 ]. The mean values and the standard deviations ( SD ) for life satisfaction measures (G-SLS, FLZ M ) between groups (times of unemployment) were reported.

First, the data were analyzed using the Shapiro–Wilk test to determine whether they followed a normal distribution. The study found that the data did not follow a normal distribution. Therefore, the results were further analyzed nonparametrically using the Mann–Whitney-U-test and Kruskal–Wallis rank test. The Kruskal Wallis test is conservative and does not assume population normality, nor homogeneity of variance, and requires at least ordinal scaling of the dependent variable [ 22 ].

We calculated differences in respondents’ life satisfaction dependent on different frequencies of experienced unemployment (several times, once, none). Effect size eta squared ( η 2 ) was calculated for H -statistic to describe the magnitude of the effect [ 23 ]. Eta squared is defined as the proportion of variance in scores on the outcome variable that is predictable from group membership [ 24 ]. An effect size (ES) of η 2  = 0.01 was defined as small, η 2  = 0.06 as medium and η 2  = 0.14 as large [ 25 ]. We set the significance level at p  < 0.05 (two-tailed).

Two multiple linear regression analyses with stepwise inclusion were carried out. Depend variable was life satisfaction (G-SLS) in 1996 and 2016, regressed on gender, have children, type of occupation as dummy variables (unemployed, student, home keeper, blue-collar worker, white-collar worker, self-employed, public servant), and frequencies of experienced unemployment as dummy variables (none, once, several times). The stepwise inclusion method provided a measure of the relative effect of each predictor variable upon life satisfaction. These analyses started with the strongest predictor and added additional predictors if they explained significant additional variance in the dependent variable. The entered predictors were deleted in subsequent steps if they no longer contributed considerable unique predictive power to the regression. We set the inclusion criterion to p  = 0.05 and the exclusion criterion to p  = 0.10. The method terminated when no further variables were eligible for inclusion or exclusion. This minimized the possibility of entering two highly correlated predictor variables into the model. This method was used to identify the optimal set of predictors [ 26 ]. We reported standardized regression coefficients ( β ), which can be interpreted in the same way as regression coefficients.

Gender aspects

In 1996, the participants were 23 years old and were surveyed on their unemployment experiences for the first time. Even then, 50% of the sample was affected by unemployment, 17% of the respondents several times and 33% once. Until 1990, the respondents were unemployed for a total of 6.5 months on average. In 1996, significant gender differences were found: The cumulative duration of unemployment was 4.9 months for men and 7.8 months for women since 1990 ( Z  = − 2.60; p  = 0.01).

By 2016, 70% of the remaining sample was affected by unemployment, 40% several times, and 30% one time. On average, the cumulative duration of unemployment since 1990 was 10.9 months. In 2016 only descriptive differences in the duration of unemployment between men (9.0 months) and women (13.2 months) could be found, but those were no longer significant ( Z  = − 0.54; p  = 0.59).

The effect of unemployment periods and differences in life satisfaction

Table 3 summarizes the results in terms of life satisfaction (G-SLS) between the groups of never-, once- and several times unemployed from 1996 to 2015. At all 16 different points in time, people who were never unemployed reported higher life satisfaction than people who were once unemployed. Several times unemployed participants always reported the lowest values of life satisfaction.

In each year of data collection, there were significant differences between the three groups. The differences between the groups were highly significant almost every year ( p  < 0.001), all of small to medium effect sizes ( η 2  = 0.014–0.113).

Table 4 presents the results of the years 2003, 2005, and 2016, in which life satisfaction was measured with both the single-item scale G-SLS and the well-established questionnaire FLZ M . At all different points in time, there were differences in life satisfaction measured by G-SLS and also FLZ M between the people who were never, once and several times unemployed ( p  < 0.02) with small to medium effect sizes [ η 2 (G-SLS) = 0.055–0.099; η 2 (FLZ M ) = 0.023–0.093]. The significance levels and effect sizes showed a high descriptive degree of convergence in their level between the two questionnaires.

Predictors of life satisfaction

Two stepwise linear multiple regression analyses were performed to identify which variables explained variance in life satisfaction in 1996 and 2016. The G-SLS score was used as a criterion variable of life satisfaction. Predictive variables were: gender, having children, different types of occupation, and the frequency of unemployment. The two multiple regression analyses showed that in 1996 and 2016, there was only one significant and consistent predictor of life satisfaction in each case. In 1996, currently unemployed as type of occupation ( β  = 0.81, p  < 0.001) and in 2016, a repeated experience of unemployment ( β  = 0.24, p  = 0.009) was associated with lower life satisfaction. The remaining predictor variables (gender, having children, and the different types of occupations) did not explain any additional variance in life satisfaction scores in our analysis.

The results of the study show that people who have experienced unemployment in their occupational biography reported lower life satisfaction. This negative effect of unemployment is robust and persists for many years; it could be measured convergently with small to medium effect sizes by using two different questionnaires to assess life satisfaction. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study that demonstrates the effect so persistently at so many measurement points for over 20 years.

Lucas et al. [ 11 ] and Winkelmann and Winkelmann [ 8 ] analyzed data from the German Socio-Economic Panel and found a similar pattern among people who have experienced unemployment, but only over a few measurement points. The negative effect was observed during unemployment and even during the period of re-employment. Our results support the assumption that the negative influence of unemployment increases with its frequency, as several times, the unemployed reported the lowest and the never unemployed the highest levels of life satisfaction. In order to avoid many multiple comparisons and alpha error inflation, we presented these differences only descriptively. The highly significant differences between people with and without the experience of unemployment could be shown consistently in all 16 surveys, both with the G-SLS and FLZ M questionnaires for measuring life satisfaction. Our analyses showed that this effect has a small to medium effect sizes. This magnitude of the effect was also found in other analyses. A meta-analysis revealed that unemployment has a strong negative effect on the self-reported global life satisfaction with a mean medium effect size ( d  = − 0.44) [ 6 ]. Clark et al. [ 12 ] showed that life satisfaction is lower not only among people who reported a higher degree of previous unemployment but also among people who were currently unemployed (relative to the employed). We also found this association.

Our stepwise regression analysis showed that being currently unemployed was the only predictor for lower life satisfaction in 1996. It suggests that unemployment has a strong negative effect because gender, having children, frequency of experienced unemployment, or different types of occupation explained no further incremental variance. Other studies have shown that the other predictors from our regression may affect life satisfaction. An analysis of the World Value Survey of 34 countries revealed that people who had children showed significantly higher life satisfaction [ 27 ]. McKee-Ryan, Song, Wanberg, & Kinicki [ 6 ] reported in their meta-analysis that women are slightly less satisfied with their lives during unemployment than men. In Germany, unemployment rates have decreased significantly over the last 20 years. Since 1996, the unemployment rate in East Germany has almost been halved [ 28 ]. Unlike in 1996, in the regression analysis, being currently unemployed was not a significant predictor of life satisfaction in 2016. Only the repeatedly unemployed were significantly associated with life satisfaction in the stepwise regression. One possible explanation for the changed predictors could be that a five times smaller proportion of our sample was currently unemployed in 2016 than in 1996 (2% vs. 11%). In 2016, 98% of the cohort was employed, but differences between people with and without the experience of unemployment still existed. It indicates that the negative effect of unemployment experience will last for a very long time. Our results are constrained by some methodological limitations that should be considered in future studies. First, the Saxon longitudinal study is an investigation with more than 30 surveys by now. Due to non-compliance, not every person responded at all times, which leads to a different sample for different surveys. With the known limitation, we analyzed the data in the study only cross-sectionally. Due to a large number of different topics in the Saxon longitudinal study, we are only able to analyze the changes in life satisfaction by using a one-item scale in most surveys. It would be interesting to know whether similar results were found for other components of subjective well-being, for example, quality of life. Overall, our results support the idea that the adverse effects will cumulatively increase with the time spent unemployed and are persistent for many years. Therefore, it is crucial to see unemployment as a potential pathogenic factor. Future studies could investigate whether these effects still occur in older people, even if they are already receiving a retirement pension.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are available in the GESIS – Leibniz-Institut für Sozialwissenschaften in Mannheim (German) repository, https://www.bit.ly/sls-gesis and from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Change history

05 march 2021.

The original article has been revised to include a funding note.

Abbreviations

Effect size

German Democratic Republic

Global Satisfaction with Life Scale

Questions of Life Satisfaction

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Acknowledgements

We acknowledge support by the Open Access Publication Funds of the SLUB/TU Dresden.

Open Access funding enabled and organized by Projekt DEAL. The study was funded by the German Research Foundation, the Hans Böckler Foundation, the Otto Brenner Foundation, the Rosa Luxemburg Foundation, the Friedrich Ebert Foundation, the Federal Foundation for the Reappraisal of the SED Dictatorship, the Saxon State Ministry for Higher Education, Research and Arts, the University of Applied Science Erfurt and the University of Applied Science Zittau-Görlitz.

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HB, YSR, MZ, and EB constructed the study design. HB, EB, and YSR had been involved in the acquisition of data. EPR and HB wrote the first draft of the manuscript and revised it. EPR, MZ, YSR, and contributed to statistical analysis, data interpretation, and manuscript drafting. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Richter, E.P., Brähler, E., Stöbel-Richter, Y. et al. The long-lasting impact of unemployment on life satisfaction: results of a longitudinal study over 20 years in East Germany. Health Qual Life Outcomes 18 , 361 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12955-020-01608-5

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12955-020-01608-5

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The latest inflation readings showed a mixed bag as drops in grocery and used car prices balanced out increases in rent and gasoline.

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F.19 Research Initiation Awards (RIA) aims to broaden the base of institutions involved in the SMD research and technology development ecosystem. The program has two principal objectives:

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• Half of Latinas Say Hispanic Women’s Situation Has Improved in the Past Decade and Expect More Gains

Government data shows gains in education, employment and earnings for Hispanic women, but gaps with other groups remain

Table of contents.

• Assessing the progress of Hispanic women in the last 10 years
• Views of Hispanic women’s situation in the next 10 years
• Views on the gender pay gap
• Latinas’ educational attainment
• Latinas’ labor force participation
• Latinas’ earnings
• Latinas as breadwinners in their relationships
• Bachelor’s degrees among Latinas
• Labor force participation rates among Latinas
• Occupations among working Latinas
• Earnings among Latinas
• Latinas as breadwinners in 2022
• Appendix: Supplemental charts and tables
• Acknowledgments
• The American Trends Panel survey methodology
• Methodology for the analysis of the Current Population Survey

This report explores Latinas’ economic and demographic progress in the last two decades – and their perceptions of that progress – using several data sources.

The first is a Pew Research Center survey of 5,078 Hispanic adults, including 2,600 Hispanic women. Respondents were asked whether U.S. Latinas saw progress in their situation in the last decade, whether they expected any in the future decade, and how big a problem the U.S. gender pay gap is. The survey was conducted from Nov. 6 to 19, 2023, and includes 1,524 respondents from the American Trends Panel (ATP) and an additional 3,554 from Ipsos’ KnowledgePanel .

Respondents on both panels are recruited through national, random sampling of residential addresses. Recruiting panelists by mail ensures that nearly all U.S. adults have a chance of selection. This gives us confidence that any sample can represent the whole population, or in this case the whole U.S. Hispanic population. (For more information, watch our Methods 101 explainer on random sampling.) For more information on this survey, refer to the American Trends Panel survey methodology and the topline questionnaire .

The second data source is the U.S. Census Bureau’s and Bureau of Labor Statistics’ 2003, 2008, 2013, 2018 and 2023 Current Population Survey (CPS) Monthly and Annual Social and Economic Supplement (ASEC) data series, provided through the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series (IPUMS) from the University of Minnesota.

The CPS Monthly microdata series was used only to calculate median hourly earnings for those ages 25 to 64 years old and who were not self-employed. Medians were calculated for the whole year by considering all wages reported in that year, regardless of month. Median wages were then adjusted to June 2023 dollars using the Chained Consumer Price Index for All Urban Consumers for June of each year. For more information on the demographic analysis, refer to the methodology for the analysis of the Current Population Survey .

The terms  Hispanic  and  Latino  are used interchangeably in this report.

The terms Latinas and Hispanic women are used interchangeably throughout this report to refer to U.S. adult women who self-identify as Hispanic or Latino, regardless of their racial identity.

Foreign born  refers to persons born outside of the 50 U.S. states or the District of Columbia. For the purposes of this report, foreign born also refers to those born in Puerto Rico. Although individuals born in Puerto Rico are U.S. citizens by birth, they are grouped with the foreign born because they are born into a Spanish-dominant culture and because on many points their attitudes, views and beliefs are much closer to those of Hispanics born outside the U.S. than to Hispanics born in the 50 U.S. states or D.C., even those who identify themselves as being of Puerto Rican origin.

The terms  foreign born  and  immigrant  are used interchangeably in this report. Immigrants are also considered first-generation Americans.

U.S. born  refers to persons born in the 50 U.S. states or D.C.

Second generation  refers to people born in the 50 U.S. states or D.C. with at least one immigrant parent.

Third or higher generation  refers to people born in the 50 U.S. states or D.C., with both parents born in the 50 U.S. states or D.C.

Throughout this report, Democrats are respondents who identify politically with the Democratic Party or those who are independent or identify with some other party but lean toward the Democratic Party. Similarly, Republicans are those who identify politically with the Republican Party and those who are independent or identify with some other party but lean toward the Republican Party.

White, Black  and  Asian each include those who report being only one race and are not Hispanic.

Civilians are those who were not in the armed forces at the time of completing the Current Population Survey.

Those participating in the labor force either were at work; held a job but were temporarily absent from work due to factors like vacation or illness; were seeking work; or were temporarily laid off from a job in the week before taking the Current Population Survey. In this report, the labor force participation rate is shown only for civilians ages 25 to 64.

The phrases living with children or living with their own child describe individuals living with at least one of their own stepchildren, adopted children or biological children, regardless of the children’s ages. The phrases not living with children or not living with their own child describe individuals who have no children or whose children do not live with them.

Occupation and occupational groups describe the occupational category of someone’s current job, or – if unemployed – most recent job. In this report we measure occupation among civilians participating in the labor force. Occupational groups are adapted from the U.S. Census Bureau’s occupation classification list from 2018 onward .

Hourly earnings , hourly wages and hourly pay all refer to the amount an employee reported making per hour at the time of taking the Current Population Survey where they were employed by someone else. Median hourly wages were calculated only for those ages 25 to 64 who were not self-employed. Calculated median hourly wages shared in this report are adjusted for inflation to 2023. (A median means that half of a given population – for example, Hispanic women – earned more than the stated wage, and half earned less.)

Breadwinners refer to those living with a spouse or partner, both ages 25 to 64, who make over 60% of their and their partner’s combined, positive income from all sources. Those in egalitarian relationships make 40% to 60% of the combined income. For those who make less than 40% of the combined income, their spouse or partner is the breadwinner . This analysis was conducted among both opposite-sex and same-sex couples.

Half of Latinas say the situation of Hispanic women in the United States is better now than it was 10 years ago, and a similar share say the situation will improve in the next 10 years.

Still, 39% of Latinas say that the situation has stayed the same, and 34% say it will not change in the next 10 years. Two-thirds (66%) say the gender pay gap – the fact that women earn less money, on average, than men – is a big problem for Hispanic women today, according to new analysis of Pew Research Center’s National Survey of Latinos.

At 22.2 million, Latinas account for 17% of all adult women in the U.S. today. Their population grew by 5.6 million from 2010 to 2022, the largest numeric increase of any major female racial or ethnic group. 1

Latinas’ mixed assessments reflect their group’s gains in education and at work over the last two decades, but also stalled progress in closing wage gaps with other groups.

• Hispanic women are more likely to have a bachelor’s degree today (23% in 2023) than they were in 2013 (16%). More Hispanic women than ever are also completing graduate degrees .
• Hispanic women have increased their labor force participation rate by 4 percentage points, from 65% in 2013 to 69% in 2023.
• The median hourly wage of Hispanic women has increased by 17% in the last decade. In 2023, their median hourly wage was $19.23, up from $16.47 in 2013 (in 2023 dollars).

Despite this progress, Hispanic women’s pay gaps with their peers haven’t significantly improved in recent years:

• The gender pay gap among Hispanics persists with no significant change. In 2023, Hispanic women earned 85 cents (at the median) for every dollar earned by Hispanic men, compared with 89 cents per dollar in 2013 (and 87 cents per dollar in 2003).
• Hispanic women continue to lag non-Hispanic women in earnings , with no significant improvement in the past decade. In 2023, the median Hispanic woman made 77 cents for each dollar earned by the median non-Hispanic woman, compared with 75 cents per dollar in 2013.
• The pay gap between Hispanic women and White men has changed only slightly . In 2023, Hispanic women earned 62 cents of every dollar earned by non-Hispanic White men, up from 59 cents per dollar in 2013.

In addition, Hispanic women lag Hispanic men and non-Hispanic women in labor force participation, and they lag non-Hispanic women in educational attainment. Read more in Chapter 2 .

Among Latinas who are employed, about half (49%) say their current job is best described as “just a job to get them by.” Fewer see their job as a career (30%) or a steppingstone to a career (14%).

Pew Research Center’s bilingual 2023 National Survey of Latinos – conducted Nov. 6-19, 2023, among 5,078 Hispanic adults, including 2,600 Hispanic women – explores what it’s like to be a Latina in the U.S. today. This report uses findings from our 2023 survey as well as demographic and economic data from the Current Population Survey.

The following chapters take a closer look at:

• How Latinas view the progress and future situation of Hispanic women in the U.S.
• What government data tells us about Latinas’ progress in the labor market, earnings and educational attainment
• How Latinas’ educational and economic outcomes vary

For additional survey findings on what it means to be a Latina in the U.S. today and the daily pressures they face, read our report “A Majority of Latinas Feel Pressure To Support Their Families or To Succeed at Work.”

• Latinas’ population size and growth rate from 2010 to 2022 were calculated using the 2010 and 2022 American Community Surveys, accessed through IPUMS. The rest of the demographic analysis in this post uses data from the Current Population Survey. ↩

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