key assignment outline

The Writing Process

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• Step 2: Plan and organize

Sample Detailed Outline

"Organize. Organize. Organize." —U.S. Vice President and Nobel Peace Prize-winner Al Gore

Below is an example of a detailed outline. (It is for a research paper, but the principles and structure apply to any paper.) Notice the hierarchical use of the roman numeral system . Such a hierarchy is key to organizing your thinking and your argument and keeping track of the relationships between your ideas.

Introduction

quote from movie like Independence Day to get readers’ attention SOURCE: IMDB.com

world preparing to welcome with festivities and open arms the aliens coming to Earth from Andromeda galaxy

Thesis (complete sentence!): Although the aliens seem friendly and say they come in peace, Earth’s number one priority should be to build a defense shield before they arrive.

On March 15, 2016, we discovered not alone in universe: irregular but repeating signal discovered from nearby Andromeda. SOURCE: NYTimes , 3/16/16

Different scientists have decoded the message differently

Commonly accepted interpretation friendly:

“Greetings, people of Earth. We have detected and watched your reports (e.g., The Big Bang Theory ) documenting typical life on Earth. We are currently on our way to Earth to begin our friendship and will arrive in Earth year 2020. Prepare yourselves for a glorious future [unclear signals].” (SOURCE: Michaels, “Aliens Are Our Friends,” People )

still parts of the message undecoded (SOURCE?

all scientists agree: Aliens arriving in 2020 (Source: Fredericks, Wall Street Journal )

Argument: there are signs that message is a warning and that aliens are planning to attack

Prof. Alan Guthman, Harvard Center for Astrophysics, makes case (SOURCE: Guthman, “We Do Not Come in Peace”)

With only one message to work with, we have little clue of tone of message

If we interpret three different patterns in signal differently, tone much different: “Attention, Earthlings. We have observed your unusual lives. We are coming to Earth to…[unclear]. Prepare yourselves for life under our control.”

With all the videos we broadcast into space, an alien race would assume that we are hostile and act accordingly

Logic: Even if these aliens are friendly, it is better to be safe than sorry and protect ourselves

FIND: Estimates of the number of intelligent races in the nearby universe and the probability that at least one of them is hostile and technologically advanced

Argument: Estimates show that workable shield surrounding Earth can be constructed by 2020

If nations of Earth collaborate, we can build shield that will block incoming ships and weapons fire (SOURCE. Teller, “Shielding the Earth,” Physics Rev. Letters )

Will cost huge amounts of $$, but:

if spread out among many countries, affordable FIND. Estimates of costs

We can’t afford NOT to build it

Argument: Building shield will both stimulate global economy and result in very useful new technologies

FIND! Evidence on how previous projects—moon landing, the International Space Station, emergency stimulus packages—created

jobs –find stats!

new products & companies

FIND! I don’t have concrete evidence for this, but I remember hearing how the moon landing and international space station resulted in the creation of new, useful technologies

Counterargument: If we build shield and they detect it, it could signal that we are hostile and provoke the aliens to attack

Missile defense shields on Earth have often provoked international tensions. SOURCE: M. Pritchard, “If You Build It, They Will Attack.” ( Boston Globe )

FIND source that shows that

such tensions do not necessarily lead to attack and

any intelligent race will understand need for others to be prepared to defend themselves.

Counterargument: We are probably not able to build shield that would work against such a technologically advanced race

non-sequitor. fact that it may not work does not mean that it won’t and that we should not try to protect ourselves.

Conclusion.

We have no way of knowing the intensions of a group we have never met on the basis of one message.

The only sensible approach is to try to defend ourselves, especially when there will be benefits for trying such as jobs and new technologies.

• As I learned in Las Vegas, “Never risk what you cannot afford to lose.” Can we afford to risk our children’s lives?

Click here to create a detailed outline from your freewrite/brainstorm using GoogleDocs.

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Creating a Working Outline

An outline is a systematic way of organizing your ideas for your paper. Any list can be an informal outline and may work for your purposes. Sometimes you may want to use a formal outline to manage your information as your research expands. This can help you organize your information as you draft your paper.

Many writers organize their work more quickly and easily when they first make an outline of the material they wish to cover. Since you already know your main points, the writing goes much faster. Also, outlining helps to discover if you have enough supporting reasons on the topic or evidence to prove a point, so you don’t waste time writing full paragraphs on a topic about which you have little to say.

The organizing principle of your outline will depend on your topic, the argument you intend to make, and the expectations of your audience. There are as many types of outlines as there are writers! Some people work better with longer outlines of complete sentences; others find that simple keywords do the trick. Whether you are developing a topic outline or a sentence outline, keep the following points in mind: 

• Work from your thesis statement. Everything in your essay needs to connect to your thesis, which is the main idea of the essay, so drafting a tentative one first can help unify your points as you start outlining. In fact, it's wise to put it at the top of your outline for reference. However, you will often find that your points change as you start to outline. Just make sure to adjust your thesis to fit with the direction of the rest of your essay. See Thesis Statements for tips on drafting one.
• Most word processing programs will automatically fill in the numbers and letters when they recognize that you are creating an outline.
• Start with broader topics by adding in major points. These can eventually turn into the topic sentences of each paragraph. 
• Then work toward the specifics with supporting details and evidence. Make sure to put the citations for any evidence from sources in the outline too. This will save you a lot of time later and helps to avoid accidentally plagiarizing.  
• Lastly, it may be helpful to include analysis in your outline as well. This means following the evidence with explanations of why it is important or useful to your point. 

You can easily build on your outline to the point where you have full paragraphs. Just remember to take out the outline formatting (numbers and indentation) before submitting a full draft of the essay. 

Sample Outline

An outline of a writing project can serve as a reliable road map to your project’s destination. By outlining your key points, you can ensure that your most important ideas do not get left behind. The following outline structure can be helpful as you develop your individual outlining style. This is a general outline structure. Some types of writing or assignments may require different sections and/or organizations, so check your assignment directions carefully. 

A. Introduction

1. Hook or attention grabber  

2. Introduce Area/Persons of Focus 

3. Provide context, background information, and/or key terms 

4. Thesis statement 

B. Background (optional depending on the type of paper)  

1. Historical Overview

2. Link between history and current events

3. Gaps in the current materials

C. Major Point I: _____________________  

1. Minor point related to Major Point I 

 a. Evidence (Name your sources in your outline!)  b. Analysis of evidence 

2. Minor point II related to Major Point I

 a. Evidence  b. Analysis of evidence

D. Major Point II: ____________________

1. Minor point related to Major Point II 

 a. Evidence   b. Analysis of evidence 

2. Minor point related to Major Point II 

E—G. Other Major Points, following the structure of C and D.

H. Conclusion

1. Restatement of thesis and summary of main points 

2. Connect back to the audience by explaining why they should care 

3. Next steps in the research and literature conversation 

4. Limitations in the research 

5. Final note like a suggestion or prediction 

Outlining is not the only prewriting activity you can try. See the KU Writing Center writing guide on  Prewriting Strategies  for more ideas.  

(Updated July 2022)  

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8.2 Outlining

Learning objectives.

• Identify the steps in constructing an outline.
• Construct a topic outline and a sentence outline.

Your prewriting activities and readings have helped you gather information for your assignment. The more you sort through the pieces of information you found, the more you will begin to see the connections between them. Patterns and gaps may begin to stand out. But only when you start to organize your ideas will you be able to translate your raw insights into a form that will communicate meaning to your audience.

Longer papers require more reading and planning than shorter papers do. Most writers discover that the more they know about a topic, the more they can write about it with intelligence and interest.

Organizing Ideas

When you write, you need to organize your ideas in an order that makes sense. The writing you complete in all your courses exposes how analytically and critically your mind works. In some courses, the only direct contact you may have with your instructor is through the assignments you write for the course. You can make a good impression by spending time ordering your ideas.

Order refers to your choice of what to present first, second, third, and so on in your writing. The order you pick closely relates to your purpose for writing that particular assignment. For example, when telling a story, it may be important to first describe the background for the action. Or you may need to first describe a 3-D movie projector or a television studio to help readers visualize the setting and scene. You may want to group your support effectively to convince readers that your point of view on an issue is well reasoned and worthy of belief.

In longer pieces of writing, you may organize different parts in different ways so that your purpose stands out clearly and all parts of the paper work together to consistently develop your main point.

Methods of Organizing Writing

The three common methods of organizing writing are chronological order , spatial order , and order of importance . You will learn more about these in Chapter 9 “Writing Essays: From Start to Finish” ; however, you need to keep these methods of organization in mind as you plan how to arrange the information you have gathered in an outline. An outline is a written plan that serves as a skeleton for the paragraphs you write. Later, when you draft paragraphs in the next stage of the writing process, you will add support to create “flesh” and “muscle” for your assignment.

When you write, your goal is not only to complete an assignment but also to write for a specific purpose—perhaps to inform, to explain, to persuade, or for a combination of these purposes. Your purpose for writing should always be in the back of your mind, because it will help you decide which pieces of information belong together and how you will order them. In other words, choose the order that will most effectively fit your purpose and support your main point.

Table 8.1 “Order versus Purpose” shows the connection between order and purpose.

Table 8.1 Order versus Purpose

Writing a Thesis Statement

One legitimate question readers always ask about a piece of writing is “What is the big idea?” (You may even ask this question when you are the reader, critically reading an assignment or another document.) Every nonfiction writing task—from the short essay to the ten-page term paper to the lengthy senior thesis—needs a big idea, or a controlling idea, as the spine for the work. The controlling idea is the main idea that you want to present and develop.

For a longer piece of writing, the main idea should be broader than the main idea for a shorter piece of writing. Be sure to frame a main idea that is appropriate for the length of the assignment. Ask yourself, “How many pages will it take for me to explain and explore this main idea in detail?” Be reasonable with your estimate. Then expand or trim it to fit the required length.

The big idea, or controlling idea, you want to present in an essay is expressed in a thesis statement . A thesis statement is often one sentence long, and it states your point of view. The thesis statement is not the topic of the piece of writing but rather what you have to say about that topic and what is important to tell readers.

Table 8.2 “Topics and Thesis Statements” compares topics and thesis statements.

Table 8.2 Topics and Thesis Statements

The first thesis statement you write will be a preliminary thesis statement, or a working thesis statement . You will need it when you begin to outline your assignment as a way to organize it. As you continue to develop the arrangement, you can limit your working thesis statement if it is too broad or expand it if it proves too narrow for what you want to say.

Using the topic you selected in Section 8.1 “Apply Prewriting Models” , develop a working thesis statement that states your controlling idea for the piece of writing you are doing. On a sheet of paper, write your working thesis statement.

You will make several attempts before you devise a working thesis statement that you think is effective. Each draft of the thesis statement will bring you closer to the wording that expresses your meaning exactly.

Writing an Outline

For an essay question on a test or a brief oral presentation in class, all you may need to prepare is a short, informal outline in which you jot down key ideas in the order you will present them. This kind of outline reminds you to stay focused in a stressful situation and to include all the good ideas that help you explain or prove your point.

For a longer assignment, like an essay or a research paper, many college instructors require students to submit a formal outline before writing a major paper as a way to be sure you are on the right track and are working in an organized manner. A formal outline is a detailed guide that shows how all your supporting ideas relate to each other. It helps you distinguish between ideas that are of equal importance and ones that are of lesser importance. You build your paper based on the framework created by the outline.

Instructors may also require you to submit an outline with your final draft to check the direction of the assignment and the logic of your final draft. If you are required to submit an outline with the final draft of a paper, remember to revise the outline to reflect any changes you made while writing the paper.

There are two types of formal outlines: the topic outline and the sentence outline. You format both types of formal outlines in the same way.

• Place your introduction and thesis statement at the beginning, under roman numeral I.
• Use roman numerals (II, III, IV, V, etc.) to identify main points that develop the thesis statement.
• Use capital letters (A, B, C, D, etc.) to divide your main points into parts.
• Use arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc.) if you need to subdivide any As, Bs, or Cs into smaller parts.
• End with the final roman numeral expressing your idea for your conclusion.

Here is what the skeleton of a traditional formal outline looks like. The indention helps clarify how the ideas are related.

Introduction

Thesis statement

Main point 1 → becomes the topic sentence of body paragraph 1

Main point 2 → becomes the topic sentence of body paragraph 2

Main point 3 → becomes the topic sentence of body paragraph 3

In an outline, any supporting detail can be developed with subpoints. For simplicity, the model shows them only under the first main point.

Formal outlines are often quite rigid in their organization. As many instructors will specify, you cannot subdivide one point if it is only one part. For example, for every roman numeral I, there must be a For every A, there must be a B. For every arabic numeral 1, there must be a 2. See for yourself on the sample outlines that follow.

Constructing Topic Outlines

A topic outline is the same as a sentence outline except you use words or phrases instead of complete sentences. Words and phrases keep the outline short and easier to comprehend. All the headings, however, must be written in parallel structure. (For more information on parallel structure, see Chapter 7 “Refining Your Writing: How Do I Improve My Writing Technique?” .)

Here is the topic outline that Mariah constructed for the essay she is developing. Her purpose is to inform, and her audience is a general audience of her fellow college students. Notice how Mariah begins with her thesis statement. She then arranges her main points and supporting details in outline form using short phrases in parallel grammatical structure.

Writing an Effective Topic Outline

This checklist can help you write an effective topic outline for your assignment. It will also help you discover where you may need to do additional reading or prewriting.

• Do I have a controlling idea that guides the development of the entire piece of writing?
• Do I have three or more main points that I want to make in this piece of writing? Does each main point connect to my controlling idea?
• Is my outline in the best order—chronological order, spatial order, or order of importance—for me to present my main points? Will this order help me get my main point across?
• Do I have supporting details that will help me inform, explain, or prove my main points?
• Do I need to add more support? If so, where?
• Do I need to make any adjustments in my working thesis statement before I consider it the final version?

Writing at Work

Word processing programs generally have an automatic numbering feature that can be used to prepare outlines. This feature automatically sets indents and lets you use the tab key to arrange information just as you would in an outline. Although in business this style might be acceptable, in college your instructor might have different requirements. Teach yourself how to customize the levels of outline numbering in your word-processing program to fit your instructor’s preferences.

Using the working thesis statement you wrote in Note 8.32 “Exercise 1” and the reading you did in Section 8.1 “Apply Prewriting Models” , construct a topic outline for your essay. Be sure to observe correct outline form, including correct indentions and the use of Roman and arabic numerals and capital letters.

Collaboration

Please share with a classmate and compare your outline. Point out areas of interest from their outline and what you would like to learn more about.

Constructing Sentence Outlines

A sentence outline is the same as a topic outline except you use complete sentences instead of words or phrases. Complete sentences create clarity and can advance you one step closer to a draft in the writing process.

Here is the sentence outline that Mariah constructed for the essay she is developing.

The information compiled under each roman numeral will become a paragraph in your final paper. In the previous example, the outline follows the standard five-paragraph essay arrangement, but longer essays will require more paragraphs and thus more roman numerals. If you think that a paragraph might become too long or stringy, add an additional paragraph to your outline, renumbering the main points appropriately.

PowerPoint presentations, used both in schools and in the workplace, are organized in a way very similar to formal outlines. PowerPoint presentations often contain information in the form of talking points that the presenter develops with more details and examples than are contained on the PowerPoint slide.

Expand the topic outline you prepared in Note 8.41 “Exercise 2” to make it a sentence outline. In this outline, be sure to include multiple supporting points for your main topic even if your topic outline does not contain them. Be sure to observe correct outline form, including correct indentions and the use of Roman and arabic numerals and capital letters.

Key Takeaways

• Writers must put their ideas in order so the assignment makes sense. The most common orders are chronological order, spatial order, and order of importance.
• After gathering and evaluating the information you found for your essay, the next step is to write a working, or preliminary, thesis statement.
• The working thesis statement expresses the main idea that you want to develop in the entire piece of writing. It can be modified as you continue the writing process.
• Effective writers prepare a formal outline to organize their main ideas and supporting details in the order they will be presented.
• A topic outline uses words and phrases to express the ideas.
• A sentence outline uses complete sentences to express the ideas.
• The writer’s thesis statement begins the outline, and the outline ends with suggestions for the concluding paragraph.

Writing for Success Copyright © 2015 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Writing a Paper: Outlining

Outlining strategies.

Outlining your first draft by listing each paragraph's topic sentence can be an easy way to ensure that each of your paragraphs is serving a specific purpose in your paper.  You may find opportunities to combine or eliminate potential paragraphs when outlining—first drafts often contain repetitive ideas or sections that stall, rather than advance, the paper's central argument .

Additionally, if you are having trouble revising a paper, making an outline of each paragraph and its topic sentence after you have written your paper can be an effective way of identifying a paper's strengths and weaknesses.

Example Outline

The following outline is for a 5-7 page paper discussing the link between educational attainment and health. Review the other sections of this page for more detailed information about each component of this outline!

I. Introduction

A. Current Problem: Educational attainment rates are decreasing in the United States while healthcare costs are increasing. B. Population/Area of Focus: Unskilled or low-skilled adult workers C. Key Terms:   healthy, well-educated   Thesis Statement: Because of their income deficit (cite sources) and general susceptibility to depression (cite sources), students who drop out of high school before graduation maintain a higher risk for physical and mental health problems later in life.

II. Background

A. Historical Employment Overview: Unskilled laborers in the past were frequently unionized and adequately compensated for their work (cite sources). B. Historical Healthcare Overview: Unskilled laborers in the past were often provided adequate healthcare and benefits (cite sources). C. Current Link between Education and Employment Type: Increasingly, uneducated workers work in unskilled or low-skilled jobs (cite sources). D. Gaps in the Research: Little information exists exploring the health implications of the current conditions in low-skilled jobs.

III. Major Point 1:  Conditions of employment affect workers' physical health. 

A. Minor Point 1: Unskilled work environments are correlated highly with worker injury (cite sources). B. Minor Point 2: Unskilled work environments rarely provide healthcare or adequate injury recovery time (cite sources).

IV. Major Point 2: Conditions of employment affect workers' mental health

A. Minor Point 1: Employment in a low-skilled position is highly correlated with dangerous levels of stress (cite sources). B. Minor Point 2: Stress is highly correlated with mental health issues (cite sources).

V. Major Point 3: Physical  health and mental health correlate directly with one another.

A. Minor Point 1: Mental health problems and physical health problems are highly correlated (cite sources). B. Minor Point 2: Stress manifests itself in physical form (cite sources)

VI. Major Point 4: People with more financial worries have more stress and worse physical health.

A. Minor Point 1: Many high-school dropouts face financial problems (cite sources). B. Minor Point 2: Financial problems are often correlated with unhealthy lifestyle choices such unhealthy food choices, overconsumption/abuse of alcohol, chain smoking, abusive relationships, etc. (cite sources).

VII. Conclusion

A. Restatement of Thesis:  Students who drop out of high school are at a higher risk for both mental and physical health problems throughout their lives. B. Next Steps:  Society needs educational advocates; educators need to be aware of this situation and strive for student retention in order to promote healthy lifestyles and warn students of the risks associated with dropping out of school.

Introduction/Context

Your introduction provides context to your readers to prepare them for your paper's argument or purpose.  An introduction should begin with discussion of your specific topic (not a broad background overview) and provide just enough context (definitions of key terms, for example) to prepare your readers for your thesis or purpose statement.

Sample Introduction/Context: If the topic of your paper is the link between educational attainment and health, your introduction might do the following: (a) establish the population you are discussing, (b) define key terms such as healthy and well-educated , or (c) justify the discussion of this topic by pointing out a connection to a current problem that your paper will help address.

Thesis/Purpose Statement

A thesis or purpose statement should come at the end of your introduction and state clearly and concisely what the purpose or central argument of your paper is. The introduction prepares your reader for this statement, and the rest of the paper follows in support of it.

Sample Thesis Statement: Because of their income deficit (Smith, 2010) and general susceptibility to depression (Jones, 2011), students who drop out of high school before graduation maintain a higher risk for physical and mental health problems later in life.

After the initial introduction, background on your topic often follows. This paragraph or section might include a literature review surveying the current state of knowledge on your topic or simply a historical overview of relevant information. The purpose of this section is to justify your own project or paper by pointing out a gap in the current research which your work will address.

Sample Background: A background section on a paper on education and health might include an overview of recent research in this area, such as research on depression or on decreasing high school graduation rates.

Major & Minor Points

Major points are the building blocks of your paper. Major points build on each other, moving the paper forward and toward its conclusion. Each major point should be a clear claim that relates to the central argument of your paper.

Sample Major Point: Employment and physical health may be a good first major point for this sample paper.  Here, a student might discuss how dropping out of high school often leads to fewer employment opportunities, and those employment opportunities that are available tend to be correlated with poor work environments and low pay.

Minor points are subtopics within your major points. Minor points develop the nuances of your major points but may not be significant enough to warrant extended attention on their own. These may come in the form of statistics, examples from your sources, or supporting ideas.

Sample Minor Point: A sample minor point of the previous major point (employment and physical health) might address worker injury or the frequent lack of health insurance benefits offered by low-paying employers.

The rest of the body of your paper will be made up of more major and minor points. Each major point should advance the paper's central argument, often building on the previous points, until you have provided enough evidence and analysis to justify your paper's conclusion.

More Major and Minor Points: In this paper, more major points might include mental health of high school dropouts, healthcare access for dropouts, and correlation between mental and physical health. Minor topics could include specific work environments, job satisfaction in various fields, and correlation between depression and chronic illness.

Your conclusion both restates your paper's major claim and ties that claim into a larger discussion. Rather than simply reiterating each major and minor point, quickly revisit your thesis statement and focus on ending the paper by tying your thesis into current research in your field, next steps for other researchers, your broader studies, or other future implications.

Sample Conclusion: For this paper, a conclusion might restate the central argument (the link between lack of education and health issues) and go on to connect that discussion to a larger discussion of the U.S. healthcare or education systems.

Outlining Video

Note that this video was created while APA 6 was the style guide edition in use. There may be some examples of writing that have not been updated to APA 7 guidelines.

• Prewriting Demonstrations: Outlining (video transcript)

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Creating an Outline

What is an outline.

Creating an outline is a good step to take while writing your paper. It allows you to brainstorm new ideas and make sure your paper will be organized , focused, and supported . Many writers find it easier to write from an outline instead of starting from a blank page.

When should I write an outline?

Writing an outline can take place at any time during the writing process. Although it is most commonly used before beginning to write or doing research, this process can also take place during or after writing your paper to make sure your points are organized and make sense.

How do I write an outline?

Identify your topic or thesis statement .

Decide what points you would like to discuss during your paper.

Put your points in logical, numerical order so that each point connects back to your main point.

Write possible transitions between paragraphs.

Remember that your outline should serve as a rough idea of how your paper will develop; it does not have to be very formal or exact.

Sample outline

This is a rough idea of the format an outline can have:

Secondary or supporting idea to main idea I

Secondary idea to B

Secondary idea to 2

Secondary or supporting idea to main idea II

You can use any form of this example to write your outline. Everyone organizes differently, so it is important to do what works best for you. If you have any questions, feel free to come to the Writing Center and work with a tutor on creating your outline.

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6 Outlining and Annotation

Just as there are different types of essays, there are different outline structures appropriate to different fields and different types of essay assignments. You’ll want to consult with your instructor about any specific organizational requirements, but the following will provide you with some basic examples of outline structures for research papers in several different fields. Pre-draft and Post Draft outlines.

Pre-Draft Outlines

Traditional outlining.

In many of your courses, you’ll be asked to write a traditional, thesis-based research essay. In this structure, you provide a thesis, usually at the end of your introduction, body paragraphs that support your thesis with research, and a conclusion to emphasize the key points of your research paper. You’ll likely encounter this type of assignment in classes in the humanities, but you may also be asked to write a traditional research paper in business classes and some introductory courses in the sciences and social sciences.

In the sample on this page, you’ll see a basic structure that can be modified to fit the length of your assignment. It’s important to note, in shorter research essays, each point of your outline might correspond to a single paragraph, but in longer research papers, you might develop each supporting point over several paragraphs.

Traditional Outline

• background, context for topic
• transition to thesis
• thesis statement
• Supporting Point 2
• Supporting Point 3
• Supporting Point 4
• review central ideas presented in the body and make connections to the thesis
• transition to closing thoughts
• closing thoughts

Traditional Outline Example

IMRAD Outlining

In many of your courses in the sciences and social sciences, such as sociology, psychology, and biology, you may be required to write a research paper using the IMRAD format.  IMRAD  stands for Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion. In this format, you present your research and discuss your methods for gathering research. Each section of the IMRAD structure can take several paragraphs to develop.

This structure is also sometimes referred to as the APA format, but be sure not to confuse this with the APA format for documentation of your research.

IMRAD Outline

• provide research question
• explain the significance
• review of background or known information on your topic
• describe your methods for gathering information
• explain your sources of information, both primary and secondary
• describe what you found out from your research.
• develop each point thoroughly, as this is the main section of your research paper
• explain the significance of your findings
• describe how they support your thesis
• discuss the limitations of your research

NOTE: APA does not recommend or require any particular outline for your papers. If you’ve seen sample papers following APA format, you may have seen the IMRAD format used, but this is not an official APA requirement. Your assignment  should always dictate outline structure, not a formatting style.

So you might have an assignment that requires APA format for the documentation but a very different organizational pattern. In fact, you may use the traditional outline for some projects written in APA format.

See It in Practice

In this videocast, you’ll see how our student writer has organized all of her research into a traditional outline.

Writing an Effective Outline

This checklist can help you write an effective outline for your assignment. It will also help you discover where you may need to do additional reading or prewriting.

• Do I have a controlling idea that guides the development of the entire piece of writing?
• Do I have three or more main points that I want to make in this piece of writing? Does each main point connect to my controlling idea?
• Is my outline in the best order—chronological order, spatial order, or order of importance—for me to present my main points? Will this order help me get my main point across?
• Do I have supporting details that will help me inform, explain, or prove my main points?
• Do I need to add more support? If so, where?
• Do I need to make any adjustments to my working thesis statement before I consider it the final version?

Key Takeaways

• Writers must put their ideas in order so the assignment makes sense. The most common orders are chronological order, spatial order, and order of importance.
• After gathering and evaluating the information you found for your essay, the next step is to write a working, or preliminary, thesis statement.
• The working thesis statement expresses the main idea that you want to develop in the entire piece of writing. It can be modified as you continue the writing process.
• Effective writers prepare a formal outline to organize their main ideas and supporting details in the order they will be presented.
• A topic outline uses words and phrases to express ideas.
• A sentence outline uses complete sentences to express ideas.
• The writer’s thesis statement begins the outline and the outline ends with suggestions for the concluding paragraph.

Outline Time?

When it is time for you to write your outline, if you are unsure about the structural requirements for your assignment, be sure to ask your professor.

In your outline, you should aim for a level of detail at least similar to what you see in the models, though more detail may be necessary, depending upon the length of your paper. A clear outline gives you a good plan for your paper and will help you determine whether you have a strong research focus before you begin drafting the paper.

It’s always a good idea to get feedback on your outline before heading into the drafting and integrating stage of your writing process. Share either a formal or informal

Post Draft Outline

A big huzzah–the rough drafts are done, which is a major hurdle.  I know there’s still a lot to do, but I think the hardest part’s out of the way.

Now, it’s time to turn away from the raw content creation of writing a draft and towards the fine-tuning, that transforms into polishing and shaping an effective essay.

Like a pre-draft outline, a post-draft outline is a useful tool for assessing the organization of your paper. After you’re done with a rough draft, creating a post-draft outline can help you see how your paper flows from beginning to end.

Annotations

Annotating  a text means that you actively engage with it by taking notes as you read, usually by marking the text in some way (underlining, highlighting, using symbols such as asterisks) as well as by writing down brief summaries, thoughts, or questions in the margins of the page.  If you are working with a textbook and prefer not to write in it, annotations can be made on sticky notes or on a separate sheet of paper.  Regardless of what method you choose, annotating not only directs your focus, but it also helps you retain that information.  Furthermore, annotating helps you to recall where important points are in the text if you must return to it for a writing assignment or class discussion.

Annotations should not consist of JUST symbols, highlighting, or underlining. Successful and thorough annotations should combine those visual elements with notes in the margin and written summaries; otherwise, you may not remember why you highlighted that word or sentence in the first place.

How to Annotate:

• Underline, highlight, or mark sections of the text that seem important, interesting, or confusing.
• Be selective about which sections to mark; if you end up highlighting most of a page or even most of a paragraph, nothing will stand out, and you will have defeated the purpose of annotating.
• Use symbols to represent your thoughts.
• Asterisks or stars might go next to an important sentence or idea.
• Question marks might indicate a point or section that you find confusing or questionable in some way.
• Exclamation marks might go next to a point that you find surprising.
• Abbreviations can represent your thoughts in the same way symbols can
• For example, you may write “Def.” or “Bkgnd” in the margins to label a section that provides definition or background info for an idea or concept.
• Think of typical terms that you would use to summarize or describe sections or ideas in a text, and come up with abbreviations that make sense to you.
• Write down questions that you have as you read.
• Identify transitional phrases or words that connect ideas or sections of the text.
• Mark words that are unfamiliar to you or keep a running list of those words in your notebook.
• Mark key terms or main ideas in topic sentences.
• Identify key concepts pertaining to the course discipline (i.e.–look for literary devices, such as irony, climax, or metaphor, when reading a short story in an English class).
• Identify the thesis statement in the text (if it is explicitly stated).

Example of how to annotate a Journal Article:

Links to sample annotated texts  –  Journal article  (https://tinyurl.com/ybfz7uke) ·  Book chapter excerpt  (https://tinyurl.com/yd7pj379)

Basics of Annotating a Text

For three different but equally helpful videos on how to read actively and annotate a text, click on one of the links below:

“ How to Annotate ” (https://youtu.be/muZcJXlfCWs,  transcript  here )

“ 5 Active Reading Strategies ” (https://youtu.be/JL0pqJeE4_w, transcript  here )

“ 10 Active Reading Strategies ” (https://youtu.be/5j8H3F8EMNI, transcript  here )

ATTRIBUTIONS

• Content Adapted from Excelsior Online Writing Lab (OWL). (2020).  Excelsior College. Retrieved from https://owl.excelsior.edu/ licensed under a  Creative Commons Attribution-4.0 International License .
• Content Adapted from Composition II. Authored by : Alexis McMillan-Clifton.  Provided by : Tacoma Community College.  Located at :  http://www.tacomacc.edu . L icensed under a  Creative Commons Attribution-4.0 International License .
• Reverse Outline is an unedited video from The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. This work is licensed under a  Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 4.0 License .  The video can be found on their page https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/reverse-outline/
• Content included from Let’s Get Writing ; Chapter 1 – Critical Reading  by Elizabeth Browning is licensed under a  Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License

English 101: Journey Into Open Copyright © 2021 by Christine Jones is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Designing Writing Assignments

Designing Writing Assignments designing-assignments

As you think about creating writing assignments, use these five principles:

• Tie the writing task to specific pedagogical goals.
• Note rhetorical aspects of the task, i.e., audience, purpose, writing situation.
• Make all elements of the task clear.
• Include grading criteria on the assignment sheet.
• Break down the task into manageable steps.

You'll find discussions of these principles in the following sections of this guide.

Writing Should Meet Teaching Goals

Working backwards from goals, guidelines for writing assignments, resource: checksheets, resources: sample assignments.

• Citation Information

To guarantee that writing tasks tie directly to the teaching goals for your class, ask yourself questions such as the following:

• What specific course objectives will the writing assignment meet?
• Will informal or formal writing better meet my teaching goals?
• Will students be writing to learn course material, to master writing conventions in this discipline, or both?
• Does the assignment make sense?

Although it might seem awkward at first, working backwards from what you hope the final papers will look like often produces the best assignment sheets. We recommend jotting down several points that will help you with this step in writing your assignments:

• Why should students write in your class? State your goals for the final product as clearly and concretely as possible.
• Determine what writing products will meet these goals and fit your teaching style/preferences.
• Note specific skills that will contribute to the final product.
• Sequence activities (reading, researching, writing) to build toward the final product.

Successful writing assignments depend on preparation, careful and thorough instructions, and on explicit criteria for evaluation. Although your experience with a given assignment will suggest ways of improving a specific paper in your class, the following guidelines should help you anticipate many potential problems and considerably reduce your grading time.

• Explain the purpose of the writing assignment.
• Make the format of the writing assignment fit the purpose (format: research paper, position paper, brief or abstract, lab report, problem-solving paper, etc.).

II. The assignment

• Provide complete written instructions.
• Provide format models where possible.
• Discuss sample strong, average, and weak papers.

III. Revision of written drafts

Where appropriate, peer group workshops on rough drafts of papers may improve the overall quality of papers. For example, have students critique each others' papers one week before the due date for format, organization, or mechanics. For these workshops, outline specific and limited tasks on a checksheet. These workshops also give you an opportunity to make sure that all the students are progressing satisfactorily on the project.

IV. Evaluation

On a grading sheet, indicate the percentage of the grade devoted to content and the percentage devoted to writing skills (expression, punctuation, spelling, mechanics). The grading sheet should indicate the important content features as well as the writing skills you consider significant.

Visitors to this site are welcome to download and print these guidelines

Checksheet 1: (thanks to Kate Kiefer and Donna Lecourt)

• written out the assignment so that students can take away a copy of the precise task?
• made clear which course goals this writing task helps students meet?
• specified the audience and purpose of the assignment?
• outlined clearly all required sub-parts of the assignment (if any)?
• included my grading criteria on the assignment sheet?
• pointed students toward appropriate prewriting activities or sources of information?
• specified the format of the final paper (including documentation, headings or sections, page layout)?
• given students models or appropriate samples?
• set a schedule that will encourage students to review each other's drafts and revise their papers?

Checksheet 2: (thanks to Jean Wyrick)

• Is the assignment written clearly on the board or on a handout?
• Do the instructions explain the purpose(s) of the assignment?
• Does the assignment fit the purpose?
• Is the assignment stated in precise language that cannot be misunderstood?
• If choices are possible, are these options clearly marked?
• Are there instructions for the appropriate format? (examples: length? typed? cover sheet? type of paper?)
• Are there any special instructions, such as use of a particular citation format or kinds of headings? If so, are these clearly stated?
• Is the due date clearly visible? (Are late assignments accepted? If so, any penalty?)
• Are any potential problems anticipated and explained?
• Are the grading criteria spelled out as specifically as possible? How much does content count? Organization? Writing skills? One grade or separate grades on form and content? Etc.
• Does the grading criteria section specifically indicate which writing skills the teacher considers important as well as the various aspects of content?
• What part of the course grade is this assignment?
• Does the assignment include use of models (strong, average, weak) or samples outlines?

Sample Full-Semester Assignment from Ag Econ 4XX

Good analytical writing is a rigorous and difficult task. It involves a process of editing and rewriting, and it is common to do a half dozen or more drafts. Because of the difficulty of analytical writing and the need for drafting, we will be completing the assignment in four stages. A draft of each of the sections described below is due when we finish the class unit related to that topic (see due dates on syllabus). I will read the drafts of each section and provide comments; these drafts will not be graded but failure to pass in a complete version of a section will result in a deduction in your final paper grade. Because of the time both you and I are investing in the project, it will constitute one-half of your semester grade.

Content, Concepts and Substance

Papers will focus on the peoples and policies related to population, food, and the environment of your chosen country. As well as exploring each of these subsets, papers need to highlight the interrelations among them. These interrelations should form part of your revision focus for the final draft. Important concepts relevant to the papers will be covered in class; therefore, your research should be focused on the collection of information on your chosen country or region to substantiate your themes. Specifically, the paper needs to address the following questions.

• Population - Developing countries have undergone large changes in population. Explain the dynamic nature of this continuing change in your country or region and the forces underlying the changes. Better papers will go beyond description and analyze the situation at hand. That is, go behind the numbers to explain what is happening in your country with respect to the underlying population dynamics: structure of growth, population momentum, rural/urban migration, age structure of population, unanticipated populations shocks, etc. DUE: WEEK 4.
• Food - What is the nature of food consumption in your country or region? Is the average daily consumption below recommended levels? Is food consumption increasing with economic growth? What is the income elasticity of demand? Use Engel's law to discuss this behavior. Is production able to stay abreast with demand given these trends? What is the nature of agricultural production: traditional agriculture or green revolution technology? Is the trend in food production towards self-sufficiency? If not, can comparative advantage explain this? Does the country import or export food? Is the politico-economic regime supportive of a progressive agricultural sector? DUE: WEEK 8.
• Environment - This is the third issue to be covered in class. It is crucial to show in your paper the environmental impact of agricultural production techniques as well as any direct impacts from population changes. This is especially true in countries that have evolved from traditional agriculture to green revolution techniques in the wake of population pressures. While there are private benefits to increased production, the use of petroleum-based inputs leads to environmental and human health related social costs which are exacerbated by poorly defined property rights. Use the concepts of technological externalities, assimilative capacity, property rights, etc. to explain the nature of this situation in your country or region. What other environmental problems are evident? Discuss the problems and methods for economically measuring environmental degradation. DUE: WEEK 12.
• Final Draft - The final draft of the project should consider the economic situation of agriculture in your specified country or region from the three perspectives outlined above. Key to such an analysis are the interrelationships of the three perspectives. How does each factor contribute to an overall analysis of the successes and problems in agricultural policy and production of your chosen country or region? The paper may conclude with recommendations, but, at the very least, it should provide a clear summary statement about the challenges facing your country or region. DUE: WEEK15.

Landscape Architecture 3XX: Design Critique

Critical yet often overlooked components of the landscape architect's professional skills are the ability to critically evaluate existing designs and the ability to eloquently express him/herself in writing. To develop your skills at these fundamental components, you are to professionally critique a built project with which you are personally and directly familiar. The critique is intended for the "informed public" as might be expected to be read in such features in The New York Times or Columbus Monthly ; therefore, it should be insightful and professionally valid, yet also entertaining and eloquent. It should reflect a sophisticated knowledge of the subject without being burdened with professional jargon.

As in most critiques or reviews, you are attempting not only to identify the project's good and bad features but also to interpret the project's significance and meaning. As such, the critique should have a clear "point of view" or thesis that is then supported by evidence (your description of the place) that persuades the reader that your thesis is valid. Note, however, that your primary goal is not to force the reader to agree with your point of view but rather to present a valid discussion that enriches and broadens the reader's understanding of the project.

To assist in the development of the best possible paper, you are to submit a typed draft by 1:00 pm, Monday, February 10th. The drafts will be reviewed as a set and will then serve as a basis of an in-class writing improvement seminar on Friday, February 14th. The seminar will focus on problems identified in the set of drafts, so individual papers will not have been commented on or marked. You may also submit a typed draft of your paper to the course instructor for review and comment at any time prior to the final submission.

Final papers are due at 2:00 pm, Friday, February 23rd.

Animal/Dairy/Poultry Science 2XX: Comparative Animal Nutrition

Purpose: Students should be able to integrate lecture and laboratory material, relate class material to industry situations, and improve their problem-solving abilities.

Assignment 1: Weekly laboratory reports (50 points)

For the first laboratory, students will be expected to provide depth and breadth of knowledge, creativity, and proper writing format in a one-page, typed, double-spaced report. Thus, conciseness will be stressed. Five points total will be possible for the first draft, another five points possible will be given to a student peer-reviewer of the draft, and five final points will be available for a second draft. This assignment, in its entirety, will be due before the first midterm (class 20). Any major writing flaws will be addressed early so that students can grasp concepts stressed by the instructors without major impact on their grades. Additional objectives are to provide students with skills in critically reviewing papers and to acquaint writers and reviewers of the instructors' expectations for assignments 2 and 3, which are weighted much more heavily.

Students will submit seven one-page handwritten reports from each week's previous laboratory. These reports will cover laboratory classes 2-9; note that one report can be dropped and week 10 has no laboratory. Reports will be graded (5 points each) by the instructors for integration of relevant lecture material or prior experience with the current laboratory.

Assignment 2: Group problem-solving approach to a nutritional problem in the animal industry (50 points)

Students will be divided into groups of four. Several problems will be offered by the instructors, but a group can choose an alternative, approved topic. Students should propose a solution to the problem. Because most real-life problems are solved by groups of employees and (or) consultants, this exercise should provide students an opportunity to practice skills they will need after graduation. Groups will divide the assignment as they see fit. However, 25 points will be based on an individual's separate assignment (1-2 typed pages), and 25 points will be based on the group's total document. Thus, it is assumed that papers will be peer-reviewed. The audience intended will be marketing directors, who will need suitable background, illustrations, etc., to help their salespersons sell more products. This assignment will be started in about the second week of class and will be due by class 28.

Assignment 3: Students will develop a topic of their own choosing (approved by instructors) to be written for two audiences (100 points).

The first assignment (25 points) will be written in "common language," e.g., to farmers or salespersons. High clarity of presentation will be expected. It also will be graded for content to assure that the student has developed the topic adequately. This assignment will be due by class 38.

Concomitant with this assignment will be a first draft of a scientific term paper on the same subject. Ten scientific articles and five typed, double-spaced pages are minimum requirements. Basic knowledge of scientific principles will be incorporated into this term paper written to an audience of alumni of this course working in a nutrition-related field. This draft (25 points) will be due by class 38. It will be reviewed by a peer who will receive up to 25 points for his/her critique. It will be returned to the student and instructor by class 43. The final draft, worth an additional 25 points, will be due before class 50 and will be returned to the student during the final exam period.

Integration Papers - HD 3XX

Two papers will be assigned for the semester, each to be no more than three typewritten pages in length. Each paper will be worth 50 points.

Purpose:   The purpose of this assignment is to aid the student in learning skills necessary in forming policy-making decisions and to encourage the student to consider the integral relationship between theory, research, and social policy.

Format:   The student may choose any issue of interest that is appropriate to the socialization focus of the course, but the issue must be clearly stated and the student is advised to carefully limit the scope of the issue question.

There are three sections to the paper:

First:   One page will summarize two conflicting theoretical approaches to the chosen issue. Summarize only what the selected theories may or would say about the particular question you've posed; do not try to summarize the entire theory. Make clear to a reader in what way the two theories disagree or contrast. Your text should provide you with the basic information to do this section.

Second:   On the second page, summarize (abstract) one relevant piece of current research. The research article must be chosen from a professional journal (not a secondary source) written within the last five years. The article should be abstracted and then the student should clearly show how the research relates to the theoretical position(s) stated earlier, in particular, and to the socialization issue chosen in general. Be sure the subjects used, methodology, and assumptions can be reasonably extended to your concern.

Third:   On the third page, the student will present a policy guideline (for example, the Colorado courts should be required to include, on the child's behalf, a child development specialist's testimony at all custody hearings) that can be supported by the information gained and presented in the first two pages. My advice is that you picture a specific audience and the final purpose or use of such a policy guideline. For example, perhaps as a child development specialist you have been requested to present an informed opinion to a federal or state committee whose charge is to develop a particular type of human development program or service. Be specific about your hypothetical situation and this will help you write a realistic policy guideline.

Sample papers will be available in the department reading room.

SP3XX Short Essay Grading Criteria

A (90-100): Thesis is clearly presented in first paragraph. Every subsequent paragraph contributes significantly to the development of the thesis. Final paragraph "pulls together" the body of the essay and demonstrates how the essay as a whole has supported the thesis. In terms of both style and content, the essay is a pleasure to read; ideas are brought forth with clarity and follow each other logically and effortlessly. Essay is virtually free of misspellings, sentence fragments, fused sentences, comma splices, semicolon errors, wrong word choices, and paragraphing errors.

B (80-89): Thesis is clearly presented in first paragraph. Every subsequent paragraph contributes significantly to the development of the thesis. Final paragraph "pulls together" the body of the essay and demonstrates how the essay as a whole has supported the thesis. In terms of style and content, the essay is still clear and progresses logically, but the essay is somewhat weaker due to awkward word choice, sentence structure, or organization. Essay may have a few (approximately 3) instances of misspellings, sentence fragments, fused sentences, comma splices, semicolon errors, wrong word choices, and paragraphing errors.

C (70-79): There is a thesis, but the reader may have to hunt for it a bit. All the paragraphs contribute to the thesis, but the organization of these paragraphs is less than clear. Final paragraph simply summarizes essay without successfully integrating the ideas presented into a unified support for thesis. In terms of style and content, the reader is able to discern the intent of the essay and the support for the thesis, but some amount of mental gymnastics and "reading between the lines" is necessary; the essay is not easy to read, but it still has said some important things. Essay may have instances (approximately 6) of misspellings, sentence fragments, fused sentences, comma splices, semicolon errors, wrong word choices, and paragraphing errors.

D (60-69): Thesis is not clear. Individual paragraphs may have interesting insights, but the paragraphs do not work together well in support of the thesis. In terms of style and content, the essay is difficult to read and to understand, but the reader can see there was a (less than successful) effort to engage a meaningful subject. Essay may have several instances (approximately 6) of misspellings, sentence fragments, fused sentences, comma splices, semicolon errors, wrong word choices, and paragraphing errors.

Teacher Comments

Patrick Fitzhorn, Mechanical Engineering: My expectations for freshman are relatively high. I'm jaded with the seniors, who keep disappointing me. Often, we don't agree on the grading criteria.

There's three parts to our writing in engineering. The first part, is the assignment itself.

The four types: lab reports, technical papers, design reports, and proposals. The other part is expectations in terms of a growth of writing style at each level in our curriculum and an understanding of that from students so they understand that high school writing is not acceptable as a senior in college. Third, is how we transform our expectations into justifiable grades that have real feedback for the students.

To the freshman, I might give a page to a page and one half to here's how I want the design report. To the seniors it was three pages long. We try to capture how our expectations change from freshman to senior. I bet the structure is almost identical...

We always give them pretty rigorous outlines. Often times, the way students write is to take the outline we give them and students write that chunk. Virtually every writing assignment we give, we provide a writing outline of the writing style we want. These patterns are then used in industry. One organization style works for each of the writing styles. Between faculty, some minute details may change with organization, but there is a standard for writers to follow.

Interviewer: How do students determine purpose

Ken Reardon, Chemical Engineerin: Students usually respond to an assignment. That tells them what the purpose is. . . . I think it's something they infer from the assignment sheet.

Interviewer What types of purposes are there?

Ken Reardon: Persuading is the case with proposals. And informing with progress and the final results. Informing is to just "Here are the results of analysis; here's the answer to the question." It's presenting information. Persuasion is analyzing some information and coming to a conclusion. More of the writing I've seen engineers do is a soft version of persuasion, where they're not trying to sell. "Here's my analysis, here's how I interpreted those results and so here's what I think is worthwhile." Justifying.

Interviewer: Why do students need to be aware of this concept?

Ken Reardon: It helps to tell the reader what they're reading. Without it, readers don't know how to read.

Kiefer, Kate. (1997). Designing Writing Assignments. Writing@CSU . Colorado State University. https://writing.colostate.edu/teaching/guide.cfm?guideid=101

Key Components of Assignment Prompts

• May include general information about the assignment (e.g. Project 1; Minor Assignment 2, etc.) 
• May include a more specific description of the project or assignment (e.g., Argument Paper; Social Media PSA, etc.)

Purpose & rationale  

• The assignment should develop students’ understanding of the most important concepts, content, and methods of the course, and be directly related to the course goals. If the course carries Hub areas, consider explaining how the assignment connects to specific aspect of a Hub area. 
• Provide a clear rationale, so students know how completing the assignment will benefit their learning in the course.

Assignment steps  

• You may want to scaffold the steps of the assignment for students. This is especially helpful if you have an assignment that spans multiple weeks or is more complicated (e.g., If you are asking students to complete an assignment that involves an outline of ideas, formal proposal, and multiple drafts, make sure you are clearly providing instructions, expectations and deadlines for each step).

Target audience  

• Students should understand the audience(s) for their work. In some cases, the audience is the instructor; in other cases, the instructor will be grading an assignment, but the students are asked to imagine an alternative, perhaps non-academic audience. In experiential learning or project-based learning, students might be addressing a real-world audience or client. Regardless, students should be able to demonstrate their understanding of single or multiple audiences and adjust their work accordingly. Assignment prompts play a key role in helping students imagine audience. 

Assignment rubric & grading

• Breaking down your grading criteria helps students understand your expectations for each segment of the assignment, and prevents unnecessary confusion. The length and breakdown of your rubric may depend on your discipline, modality and components of your assignment. 
• Clarify the scope and weight of the assignment (e.g., 20% of the final grade).

Submission guidelines & due dates

• Clarify where and how students will be submitting their assignments. If submissions are electronic, ensure requirements for file types, file size, etc. are clear. 
• Include the due dates and times for the assignment. 

Assignment tools and resources

• Provide a list of tools and resources students need to complete this assignment. This may be anything from particular software, hardware, books, articles, etc. 
• You may want to list where and how students can access these resources (e.g., computer lab; library; link to software download; etc). 
• Offer resources for additional assistance. This may include your availability to meet with students or campus resources. 
• Specify how students can contact you if they need more time for completing the assignment.

Looking for more templates ?

The Transparency in Learning and Teaching project provides a series of research-based templates for assignment prompts.

You may also be interested in:

Clarity of assignment prompts: considering multimodality, teaching bu hub courses in the summer, syllabus templates for hub courses and cocurriculars, ai in the classroom, udl principles for course communications, ctl guide to the individual in community hub area.

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How to Write an Outline in APA Format

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Amanda Tust is a fact-checker, researcher, and writer with a Master of Science in Journalism from Northwestern University's Medill School of Journalism.

• Before Starting Your Outline
• How to Create an Outline

Writing a psychology paper can feel like an overwhelming task. From picking a topic to finding sources to cite, each step in the process comes with its own challenges. Luckily, there are strategies to make writing your paper easier—one of which is creating an outline using APA format .

Here we share what APA format entails and the basics of this writing style. Then we get into how to create a research paper outline using APA guidelines, giving you a strong foundation to start crafting your content.

At a Glance

APA format is the standard writing style used for psychology research papers. Creating an outline using APA format can help you develop and organize your paper's structure, also keeping you on task as you sit down to write the content.

APA Format Basics

Formatting dictates how papers are styled, which includes their organizational structure, page layout, and how information is presented. APA format is the official style of the American Psychological Association (APA).

Learning the basics of APA format is necessary for writing effective psychology papers, whether for your school courses or if you're working in the field and want your research published in a professional journal. Here are some general APA rules to keep in mind when creating both your outline and the paper itself.

Font and Spacing

According to APA style, research papers are to be written in a legible and widely available font. Traditionally, Times New Roman is used with a 12-point font size. However, other serif and sans serif fonts like Arial or Georgia in 11-point font sizes are also acceptable.

APA format also dictates that the research paper be double-spaced. Each page has 1-inch margins on all sides (top, bottom, left, and right), and the page number is to be placed in the upper right corner of each page.

Both your psychology research paper and outline should include three key sections:

• Introduction : Highlights the main points and presents your hypothesis
• Body : Details the ideas and research that support your hypothesis
• Conclusion : Briefly reiterates your main points and clarifies support for your position

Headings and Subheadings

APA format provides specific guidelines for using headings and subheadings. They are:

• Main headings : Use Roman numerals (I, II, III, IV)
• Subheadings: Use capital letters (A, B, C, D)

If you need further subheadings within the initial subheadings, start with Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3), then lowercase letters (a, b, c), then Arabic numerals inside parentheses [(1), (2), (3)]

Before Starting Your APA Format Outline

While APA format does not provide specific rules for creating an outline, you can still develop a strong roadmap for your paper using general APA style guidance. Prior to drafting your psychology research paper outline using APA writing style, taking a few important steps can help set you up for greater success.

Review Your Instructor's Requirements

Look over the instructions for your research paper. Your instructor may have provided some type of guidance or stated what they want. They may have even provided specific requirements for what to include in your outline or how it needs to be structured and formatted.

Some instructors require research paper outlines to use decimal format. This structure uses Arabic decimals instead of Roman numerals or letters. In this case, the main headings in an outline would be 1.0, 1.2, and 1.3, while the subheadings would be 1.2.1, 1.2.2, 1.2.3, and so on.

Consider Your Preferences

After reviewing your instructor's requirements, consider your own preferences for organizing your outline. Think about what makes the most sense for you, as well as what type of outline would be most helpful when you begin writing your research paper.

For example, you could choose to format your headings and subheadings as full sentences, or you might decide that you prefer shorter headings that summarize the content. You can also use different approaches to organizing the lettering and numbering in your outline's subheadings.

Whether you are creating your outline according to your instructor's guidelines or following your own organizational preferences, the most important thing is that you are consistent.

Formatting Tips

When getting ready to start your research paper outline using APA format, it's also helpful to consider how you will format it. Here are a few tips to help:

• Your outline should begin on a new page.
• Before you start writing the outline, check that your word processor does not automatically insert unwanted text or notations (such as letters, numbers, or bullet points) as you type. If it does, turn off auto-formatting.
• If your instructor requires you to specify your hypothesis in your outline, review your assignment instructions to find out where this should be placed. They may want it presented at the top of your outline, for example, or included as a subheading.

How to Create a Research Paper Outline Using APA

Understanding APA format basics can make writing psychology research papers much easier. While APA format does not provide specific rules for creating an outline, you can still develop a strong roadmap for your paper using general APA style guidance, your instructor's requirements, and your own personal organizational preferences.

Typically you won't need to turn your outline in with your final paper. But that doesn't mean you should skip creating one. A strong paper starts with a solid outline. Developing this outline can help you organize your writing and ensure that you effectively communicate your paper's main points and arguments. Here's how to create a research outline using APA format.

Start Your Research

While it may seem like you should create an outline before starting your research, the opposite is actually true. The information you find when researching your psychology research topic will start to reveal the information you'll want to include in your paper—and in your outline.

As you research, consider the main arguments you intend to make in your paper. Look for facts that support your hypothesis, keeping track of where you find these facts so you can cite them when writing your paper. The more organized you are when creating your outline, the easier it becomes to draft the paper itself.

If you are required to turn in your outline before you begin working on your paper, keep in mind that you may need to include a list of references that you plan to use.

Draft Your Outline Using APA Format

Once you have your initial research complete, you have enough information to create an outline. Start with the main headings (which are noted using Roman numerals I, II, III, etc.). Here's an example of the main headings you may use if you were writing an APA format outline for a research paper in support of using cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) for anxiety :

• Introduction
• What CBT Is
• How CBT Helps Ease Anxiety
• Research Supporting CBT for Anxiety
• Potential Drawbacks of CBT for Anxiety and How to Overcome Them

Under each main heading, list your main points or key ideas using subheadings (as noted with A, B, C, etc.). Sticking with the same example, subheadings under "What CBT Is" may include:

• Basic CBT Principles
• How CBT Works
• Conditions CBT Has Been Found to Help Treat

You may also decide to include additional subheadings under your initial subheadings to add more information or clarify important points relevant to your hypothesis. Examples of additional subheadings (which are noted with 1, 2, 3, etc.) that could be included under "Basic CBT Principles" include:

• Is Goal-Oriented
• Focuses on Problem-Solving
• Includes Self-Monitoring

Begin Writing Your Research Paper

The reason this step is included when drafting your research paper outline using APA format is that you'll often find that your outline changes as you begin to dive deeper into your proposed topic. New ideas may emerge or you may decide to narrow your topic further, even sometimes changing your hypothesis altogether.

All of these factors can impact what you write about, ultimately changing your outline. When writing your paper, there are a few important points to keep in mind:

• Follow the structure that your instructor specifies.
• Present your strongest points first.
• Support your arguments with research and examples.
• Organize your ideas logically and in order of strength.
• Keep track of your sources.
• Present and debate possible counterarguments, and provide evidence that counters opposing arguments.

Update Your Final Outline

The final version of your outline should reflect your completed draft. Not only does updating your outline at this point help ensure that you've covered the topics you want in your paper, but it also gives you another opportunity to verify that your paper follows a logical sequence.

When reading through your APA-formatted outline, consider whether it flows naturally from one topic to the next. You wouldn't talk about how CBT works before discussing what CBT is, for example. Taking this final step can give you a more solid outline, and a more solid research paper.

American Psychological Association. About APA Style .

Purdue University Online Writing Lab. Types of outlines and samples .

Mississippi College. Writing Center: Outlines .

American Psychological Association. APA style: Style and Grammar Guidelines .

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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How to write the best college assignments.

By Lois Weldon

When it comes to writing assignments, it is difficult to find a conceptualized guide with clear and simple tips that are easy to follow. That’s exactly what this guide will provide: few simple tips on how to write great assignments, right when you need them. Some of these points will probably be familiar to you, but there is no harm in being reminded of the most important things before you start writing the assignments, which are usually determining on your credits.

The most important aspects: Outline and Introduction

Preparation is the key to success, especially when it comes to academic assignments. It is recommended to always write an outline before you start writing the actual assignment. The outline should include the main points of discussion, which will keep you focused throughout the work and will make your key points clearly defined. Outlining the assignment will save you a lot of time because it will organize your thoughts and make your literature searches much easier. The outline will also help you to create different sections and divide up the word count between them, which will make the assignment more organized.

The introduction is the next important part you should focus on. This is the part that defines the quality of your assignment in the eyes of the reader. The introduction must include a brief background on the main points of discussion, the purpose of developing such work and clear indications on how the assignment is being organized. Keep this part brief, within one or two paragraphs.

This is an example of including the above mentioned points into the introduction of an assignment that elaborates the topic of obesity reaching proportions:

Background : The twenty first century is characterized by many public health challenges, among which obesity takes a major part. The increasing prevalence of obesity is creating an alarming situation in both developed and developing regions of the world.

Structure and aim : This assignment will elaborate and discuss the specific pattern of obesity epidemic development, as well as its epidemiology. Debt, trade and globalization will also be analyzed as factors that led to escalation of the problem. Moreover, the assignment will discuss the governmental interventions that make efforts to address this issue.

Practical tips on assignment writing

Here are some practical tips that will keep your work focused and effective:

–         Critical thinking – Academic writing has to be characterized by critical thinking, not only to provide the work with the needed level, but also because it takes part in the final mark.

–         Continuity of ideas – When you get to the middle of assignment, things can get confusing. You have to make sure that the ideas are flowing continuously within and between paragraphs, so the reader will be enabled to follow the argument easily. Dividing the work in different paragraphs is very important for this purpose.

–         Usage of ‘you’ and ‘I’ – According to the academic writing standards, the assignments should be written in an impersonal language, which means that the usage of ‘you’ and ‘I’ should be avoided. The only acceptable way of building your arguments is by using opinions and evidence from authoritative sources.

–         Referencing – this part of the assignment is extremely important and it takes a big part in the final mark. Make sure to use either Vancouver or Harvard referencing systems, and use the same system in the bibliography and while citing work of other sources within the text.  

–         Usage of examples – A clear understanding on your assignment’s topic should be provided by comparing different sources and identifying their strengths and weaknesses in an objective manner. This is the part where you should show how the knowledge can be applied into practice.

–         Numbering and bullets – Instead of using numbering and bullets, the academic writing style prefers the usage of paragraphs.

–         Including figures and tables – The figures and tables are an effective way of conveying information to the reader in a clear manner, without disturbing the word count. Each figure and table should have clear headings and you should make sure to mention their sources in the bibliography.

–         Word count – the word count of your assignment mustn’t be far above or far below the required word count. The outline will provide you with help in this aspect, so make sure to plan the work in order to keep it within the boundaries.

The importance of an effective conclusion

The conclusion of your assignment is your ultimate chance to provide powerful arguments that will impress the reader. The conclusion in academic writing is usually expressed through three main parts:

–         Stating the context and aim of the assignment

–         Summarizing the main points briefly

–         Providing final comments with consideration of the future (discussing clear examples of things that can be done in order to improve the situation concerning your topic of discussion).

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Lois Weldon is writer at  Uk.bestdissertation.com . Lives happily at London with her husband and lovely daughter. Adores writing tips for students. Passionate about Star Wars and yoga.

7 comments on “How To Write The Best College Assignments”

Extremely useful tip for students wanting to score well on their assignments. I concur with the writer that writing an outline before ACTUALLY starting to write assignments is extremely important. I have observed students who start off quite well but they tend to lose focus in between which causes them to lose marks. So an outline helps them to maintain the theme focused.

Hello Great information…. write assignments

Well elabrated

Thanks for the information. This site has amazing articles. Looking forward to continuing on this site.

This article is certainly going to help student . Well written.

Really good, thanks

Practical tips on assignment writing, the’re fantastic. Thank you!

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How to Write a Project Outline

By Lulu Richter | August 23, 2022

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An effective project outline sets your project up for success. In this article, you’ll learn the essential components of project outlines and how project managers use them to guide teams. Plus, get expert tips and free, downloadable templates. 

Included on this page, you’ll find a list of key outline components , a step-by-step guide to writing project outlines , a customizable example template , and more.

What Is a Project Outline?

A project outline is a foundational document in project management. Project managers create the outline to formally define the project. A project outline includes project goals, objectives, necessary resources, and timeline. Once approved, it becomes the blueprint for future documents. 

Like a project overview , the project outline is a central part of project planning. It connects the project’s goals and objectives to larger business goals. The designated project leader writes this approximately two-page document as a high-level overview of the project vision and the work necessary to accomplish it. The project overview is also called a project charter or project definition document (PDD) . 

Eric Verzuh, President and Founder of The Versatile Company, stresses the importance of a project outline: “Writing the outline is arguably the most important thing you do on a project. It’s probably the first time someone has put the project down in writing. It takes all the gray out or at least figures out what the project actually is.”

“It’s the starting point for one of the top five project success factors: agreement on the goal,” Verzuh continues. “It answers, ‘Why are we doing this, what do we mean when we do this, and what do we expect when we’re done?’ This is the key moment to resolve any disagreements rather than spend money and make mistakes.”

In addition to agreeing on a goal, the project outline should address each of the top five project success factors noted in Verzuh’s book, The Fast Forward MBA in Project Management . 

Here are the success factors Verzuh describes and how the outline accomplishes each:  

An assigned project owner (typically the project manager or project sponsor ) formally defines the project during the project initiation phase . This phase is the first of five in the project management lifecycle , in which the project owner completes the outline and presents it to management for approval. 

Once approved, the outline becomes the basis for the next phase’s project planning documents . Throughout the project, the team frequently references the outline to ensure that their actions align with the initial goals. 

It is important to note that the project outline is not to be confused with a project proposal , which is a business case for why the project is necessary. An outline communicates how the work will be done, whereas a proposal communicates why.

Who Should Create a Project Outline?

A project sponsor or project manager should create the project outline. The person responsible for leading the project is also responsible for the outline, regardless of their title. This project owner involves stakeholders and team members to assemble the document. 

Joe Heagney, President of QMA International, LLC and author of Fundamentals of Project Management , points out that "the information populating the project outline/charter is often provided by the project sponsor or another senior person within the organization, but the project manager should try to get involved as soon as possible. Remember, it is your project." 

If you are assigned as the project owner, it is crucial for you to write an outline, even if it is not required. Verzuh shares, “You may not always be asked to write one, but you always should if you’re leading a project. It shows that you understand what you’re being asked to do and is best practice for clarifying the assignment.” 

As the sponsor or manager assembles the document, they’ll involve project members as needed. These may include team members, clients, or stakeholders. The outline then helps to create a shared understanding between all project contributors and decreases miscommunication during stakeholder management activities.

Project Outline Components

The components of a project outline inform the reader of key project information. This information includes project scope, background, timeline, team members, resource requirements, and more. These items provide context and clarify any ambiguities prior to project execution.

Here are the components of a project outline: 

• General Information: This section includes basic information, such as the project name, project sponsor, project manager, and creation date. 
• Project Summary: The project summary is a concise overview of the project that briefs the reader on the project’s context. 
• Background: This includes all pertinent information supporting each project activity. Background information can be a separate section or be used throughout the document to help the reader understand why you included certain factors in the outline. 
• Project Scope: A project scope is a detailed list of what the project entails and the methods needed to deliver the work. The scope also outlines the project boundaries or what it does not include.  
• Objectives: Objectives are measurable statements specifying how the project will meet its goals and how the team will know the goals have been met. 
• Constraints and Assumptions: Constraints are any known project limitations. These might relate to budget, quality, or other factors. Assumptions , on the other hand, are factors believed to be true by the team.
• Key Stakeholders: Include a detailed list of the internal and external stakeholders involved in the project, as well as their roles and responsibilities. 
• Key Team Members: Include a list of team members, each of their roles, and their responsibilities. 
• Deliverables: Include deliverables , or a brief description of the project’s inputs, outputs, and ancillary results, such as reports.  
• Project Timeline: The project timeline should include the start date, end date, and significant milestones. 
• Resource Requirements: Include any resource requirements , or a list of the activities and components necessary to complete the deliverables. 
• Comments: This section includes any project notes or action items that will help the team understand the document or clarify details about the project. 
• Budget: This final section is optional. Include initial budget information if it is available.

Verzuh also recommends including potential risks, even at a basic level: “Risk is always worth pointing out. Significant risks are always worthwhile because it tends to influence a lot of individual things and the overall project.”

Writing a solid project outline takes thought, communication, and planning. As you write it, your primary activity will be to collect and assemble information that defines the project. Make time to gather feedback and revise the document before submitting it. 

Before you get started, create a timeline and completion checklist to keep yourself on track. While the time it takes to write the outline varies per project, plan enough time to collect information, populate the document, and review it before the submission date. 

You can use an existing project outline template to get started or create your own from scratch. Follow the steps in the order we’ve listed below, or do them in the order that makes the most sense for your project. For any step, be sure to get feedback and contributions from team members. 

Here is a step-by-step guide to writing your project outline:

• Add Basic Information: Start by filling in the project title, basic information, author, and version date at the top. 
• Identify Key Stakeholders and Team Members: Determine and recruit the best possible members for the team, and record their names, roles, and responsibilities. You may need to ask for recommendations from trusted colleagues. List all team members, sponsors, stakeholders, clients, and customers who will at some point be affected by the project. Confirm with each team member that they understand their role. For team members and stakeholders, Verzuh shares that it’s helpful to include information about the “time team members will spend (for example, if they’re on the project part-time) and, in addition to key stakeholders, helpful information such as who’s paying and who’s the executive sponsor, specific clients, or internal customers.” 
• Summarize the Project: Write a brief overview that helps the reader understand the project and how it creates business value. The summary can be as short as two or three sentences.  Verzuh reminds us that “projects are meant to deliver business value. The PM’s job is to keep an eye on business value and keep all stakeholders moving toward business value. The project summary is important because it creates the context.” 
• Articulate Project Goals: Take time to specify the aims of the project. What does it need to deliver? Why does it need to deliver it? How will this project achieve that goal? Write the goal succinctly, and include any background rationale for the project decisions. Keep the goal at a high level, and make sure it connects to the overall business goals. Example: Increase our social media presence in order to triple inbound website traffic within the next fiscal year.
• Example 1: We will launch four campaigns per quarter for each existing social media channel, increasing impressions and views by a factor of 10.
• Example 2: Our engagement will increase an average of 80 percent per quarter, per channel, tracked by click rate and number of user comments. 
• Example 3: We will drive campaign messaging based on user feedback collected from the previous quarter’s campaign in order to increase site retention by 25 percent each quarter and decrease bounce rate by 20 percent. Pro Tip: Verzuh says, “Think of the project summary and project objectives as the North Star to return to and ask, ‘Are we still on track with these?’”
• Define the Scope and Deliverables: According to Verzuh, “Scope and deliverables go hand in hand. The scope is written as a verb. The deliverable is the noun that results.” Clarify what scope of work is within the project boundaries and what is outside. It is especially important to detail what is out of scope. 
• List Required Resources: Provide a broad overview of any required resources, including people, facilities, costs, equipment, time, or information. You don’t need to get too detailed during this step. Once the project is approved, you’ll expand on your initial estimation. Cite any supporting background information, such as historical data or comparisons to previous projects, as evidence. 
• What if we don’t get it done by the decided date?
• Will that be a problem if we go past the date? Is there a penalty for missing it?
• Is there a business reason for having it done by that time?
• How does it sync up with your purpose statement? 
• Identify Project Constraints and Assumptions: Consider all constraints within which the project needs to be accomplished. Use the six constraints as you consider what factors might impact your project. 

• Next, list the assumptions, or what your team believes to be true. For example, what do you expect to rely on or hold to be true about time, staff, resources, costs, or equipment? In this section, also consider and include any significant risks that will impact or interfere with the project’s success.
• Note the Costs: You do not need a detailed budget, but it is helpful to include costs. Verzuh suggests writing “something basic so that it’s acknowledged, such as ‘We expect to spend X amount on personnel.’” 
• Get Feedback: If you haven’t already, ask team members and stakeholders to review the document or pertinent sections. Be receptive to their perspective, and be open to making changes. 
• Review and Revise: Read through the document, and modify any language that is unclear. Make final revisions based on your review and the feedback from the previous step. Take your revisions back to team members to get input on the adjustments. Repeat until you have crafted a high-quality document. 
• Present the Outline: If you are required to present the outline, enter the meeting prepared with a presentation deck. Practice discussing the project outline with colleagues. Anticipate any questions that might occur during the presentation.

Project Outline Sample Template

Download a Sample Project Outline Template for Microsoft Word | Adobe PDF | Google Docs

Download a Blank Project Outline Template for Microsoft Word | Adobe PDF | Google Docs

Use this project outline sample template to help you articulate your project goals and align your team to them. Download the one-page sample template to see an example of how to write a high-level project overview, project summary, objectives, scope, and key deliverables. Then use the blank template to create your own project outline.

Tips for Writing a Project Outline

We’ve rounded up expert tips to help you write a great project outline. Use these tips to keep your document focused and effective. A successful outline will help align stakeholders and team members to the project goals. 

Here are our top tips for writing a project outline: 

• Use a Template: Start with a template. You can create your own or use a pre-existing project outline template . 
• Stay Organized: Keep the document well-structured. 
• Don’t Rush: Set aside enough time to create a quality outline. 
• Identify Conflicts: Act as a detective who is finding out where stakeholders disagree. Verzuh says, “We always know there's a disagreement; we don’t know what it is until we discover it. This is a great time to discover those problems.”
• Get Feedback: Be open to feedback, and be ready for revisions. 
• Be Persuasive: Write for the reader with the goal of getting everyone on board. Keep in mind that the outline could be the first critical gate of the project, as the project's approval most likely relies on the document. Verzuh says, “Devise your project outline to address the key things that need to be said about the project. Particularly for internal work, this could be the basis for deciding whether to move forward on a project.” 
• Remember Your Audience: Read all completed sections with your audience in mind. Make sure the content clearly answers what each group or person needs to know. View the process as a means to shed light on the project. Heagney says, “The process of creating the outline is one of clarification. The project manager must engage with stakeholders, identify their wants and needs, then begin constructing requirements.”
• Edit and Revise: Cross-check your work by having team members from multiple areas review it. By doing so, they might discover information gaps or sections that are unclear. 
• Keep It Simple: Simple is best. After reading your outline, flag sections that didn’t make sense and rewrite them. If you don’t easily understand it, your reader won’t either. Use formatting, such as bullets, to your advantage. 
• Use Quantifiable Data: When writing requirements, Heagney recommends making sure they “are measurable and verifiable.”
• Acknowledge Constraints: Be realistic when determining the triple constraint (scope, schedule, and cost). Verzuh recommends asking yourself, “Are there any threats within the project environment that would prevent you from meeting the schedule, goals, or project objectives, or cause it to be much more expensive than anticipated?”
• Acknowledge Risks: Don’t make decisions based on the perfect execution of the project. Assume that at least 20 percent of the project will encounter challenges.

Benefits of Writing a Project Outline

The benefits of writing a project outline make it worth taking the time to create one. Doing so supports your project’s success, avoids costly miscommunication, and empowers your team. Ultimately, it eases your job as a project manager.  

Here are the benefits of writing a project outline: 

• Better Team Alignment: By clearly stating goals and objectives, the outline aligns all team members to the project goals. 
• Clearer Communication: Establish unambiguous communication from the outset with a project outline.
• Clearer Roles: The project outline clarifies roles and responsibilities from the start.
• Fewer Disagreements: By aligning team members from the outset, project outlines help resolve disagreements before they become costly. 
• Improved Stakeholder Relations: Keeping stakeholders apprised of project goals means you are better able to manage stakeholder expectations and relations.
• Improved Time Management: Help the team manage time by including a timeline and schedule in your outline.
• More Helpful Milestones: Create success points within the project with milestones.
• Optimized Workflow: By clarifying team roles and responsibilities in the project outline, you help foster efficient workflows.
• Reduced Scope Creep: Defining your project’s scope in the outline helps avoid or mitigate scope creep .

Additionally, Verzuh notes that creating a project outline “builds your own expert authority, demonstrates you’re the person who’s competent and organized to lead the project, establishes the document as an authority over stakeholders as a touchpoint to remind them of the agreement, and serves as the first project success factor.”

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